The Environments of Architecture This well-illustrated work provides a much needed and topical philosophical introduction to the place of environmental design in architecture The Environments of Architecture sets out a range of considerations necessary to produce appropriate internal environments in the context of a wider discussion on the effect of building decisions on the broader environment The authors, from architecture and engineering, both academia and practice, provide a rounded and well-balanced introduction to this important topic Starting from a belief that the built environment can contribute more positively to the planet and the pleasure of places as well as answering the practical demands of comfort, they cover site planning, form, materials, construction and operation as well as looking at design on a city level Challenging the mechanical model of architecture that prevailed in the twentieth century, they explore analogies with biological models that might be more appropriate for the twenty-first Presenting a thoughtful and stimulating approach to the built environment, this book forms an excellent guide for practitioners, students and academics concerned with our built environment Randall Thomas is a consultant to Max Fordham LLP and teaches in the UK and France He is currently a Visiting Professor at the University of Cambridge, Professor of Sustainable Environmental Design at and a Course Organiser at the AA His previous books include Environmental Design, Photovoltaics and Architecture and Sustainable Urgan Design Trevor Garnham is an architect and Principal Lecturer at School of Architecture His previous books include Lines on the Landscape, Circles from the Sky; Monuments of Neolithic Orkney and three books on Arts and Crafts buildings He is a regular reviewer of contemporary buildings for architectural journals The Environments of Architecture Environmental design in context Randall Thomas (Consultant, Max Fordham LLP) and Trevor Garnham (, UK) First published 2007 by Taylor & Francis Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Taylor & Francis 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2007 Randall Thomas and Trevor Garnham All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true and accurate at the time of going to press However, neither the publisher nor the authors can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made In the case of drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment mentioned within this book, you are strongly advised to consult the manufacturer’s guidelines British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Thomas, Randall The environments of architecture : environmental design in context / Randall Thomas and Trevor Garnham p cm Includes bibliographical references and index Architecture–Environmental aspects I Garnham, Trevor II Title NA2542.35.T48 2007 720'.47–dc22 2007005319 ISBN10: 0-415-36088-9 (hbk) ISBN10: 0-415-36089-7 (pbk) ISBN10: 0-203-79940-2 (ebk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-36088-3 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-36089-0 (pbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-79940-6 (ebk) ISBN 0-203-79940-2 Master e-book IS Contents Illustration credits Preface Acknowledgements Note to readers Physics units, conversion factors and abbreviations Glossary vi viii x xi xii xiii Introduction Site and setting Building design 1: Smaller buildings and the creation of environments 33 Building design 2: The environments of larger buildings 61 Heating, cooling and power 95 Ventilation 113 Light and shade 131 Cities 159 Conclusion 195 Appendix A: Earth, sky and physics 197 Appendix B: A time line 210 Notes Bibliography Index 212 222 225 Illustration credits ASHRAE Publications 5.9 Mohammed Ageli 2.4 Tony Aldrich 3.17 Richard Bryant 3.18 David Bodenham A3b Mike Caldwell/Paul Vonberg 6.9 Peter Cook 6.11 Bill Dunster Architects 8.18 Kris Ellam 3.17, 4.10, 4.22 Max Fordham LLP 5.5, A4, A6, A7 Timothy Garnham 2.17, 3.7, 3.11, 3.14, 3.15, 4.7, 4.15, 4.24, 7.14, 8.17 Trevor Garnham 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.16, 2.18, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.13, 3.17, 4.1, 4.2, 4.9, 4.12, 4.14, 4.18, 4.19, 4.24, 6.5, 6.12, 7.6, 7.10, 7.12, 7.16, 7.17, 7.18, 7.19, 7.20, 8.4, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 8.14, 8.20, A3c Bedford-Lemire & Co Ltd 7.23 Heritage Services, Bath and North East Somerset Council 6.8 Ian Lawson/Max Fordham LLP 6.13 Lorna Lucas 2.10 Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Marion Boyars Publishers 5.11 MacCormac Jamieson Prichard 8.30 Jon Miller, Hedrich Blessing, Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois 5.12, A3e The National Gallery 7.4 Nature Publishing Group B1a Will Perkis 3.16, 7.15 Hareth Pochee/Max Fordham 8.27 Jo Reid and John Peck 6.7 Phil Sayer 8.18 Heini Schneebeli 4.16, 7.13 Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Records Office 5.4 Mark Skelly Cover page Timothy Soar 5.15 Anna Stanford 5.16 Oak Taylor-Smith/Max Fordham LLP 6.14, 8.31 Paul Smoothy A3a Anne Thomas 8.26 Randall Thomas 3.1, 7.24, 8.23, 8.29, A3f Illustration credits vii Bill Ungless 2.6 Bastian Valkenburg 4.11 Tim Wilcockson 2.15, 7.22 Frank Lloyd Wright 6.10 All line illustrations drawn by Trevor and Timothy Garnham Preface Although we had both been teaching independently at Kingston for some years, it was the appropriately named Contact Theatre that drew us together From this came a course we taught jointly and which culminates in this book Trevor’s review of the Contact1 led to a series of lively discussions We both had firm convictions (if not a messianic belief) that environmental considerations could lead to an architecture and urbanism of new forms and materials We were both deeply dissatisfied with how the environment was being treated We, as all card-carrying utopists, believed that it could be better in the future although we disagreed on whether it was (much) better in the past – and, one might ask, which past? We had a love of the natural world, of its beaches, deserts, mountains, forests, meadows and plants We believed that the built environment could contribute to the pleasure of places as well as answering the practical demands of comfort In spite of our varied academic and professional backgrounds, we shared elements of a common cultural background including the writings of C.P Snow,2 Sigfried Giedion, Reyner Banham, Seamus Heaney and many others Our views were often different, at times distressingly so This is perhaps unsurprising in encounters between English Romantics and American Pragmatists Despite our differences, we entered into a Faustian bargain (it wasn’t quite clear who played which role) to test our ideas and write this book What ideas? A plethora of ideas ranging from the influence of Heidegger, Kant’s idealism, the role of Bacon in the development of science, the origins of symmetry, the development of the grid, whether the Seven Dwarfs used as caryatids contributed to architecture, and several hundred more Clearly, though, a book of only 200 or so pages was going to require a full box of Occam’s razors.3 So we set out in pursuit of essential points What really mattered? And what book would we ourselves have wanted to start our introduction to architecture and environmental design with? Rather than another detailed design book – there are many of these and some will be referred to here – we felt that there was a place for a more philosophical introduction which would appeal to students of architecture and all those interested in the environment One of our aims is to draw upon our different background knowledge and ways of thinking in the humanities and sciences in the conviction that both are essential for an understanding of architecture and the creation of a sustainable and satisfying environment Art and science are both ‘the tools of life’ as Ortega y Gasset well said And we agreed that words were important tools We shunned Humpty Dumpty’s view that ‘When I use a word it means just what I choose it to mean ’ Words fix Preface ix things and they contain the memory of mankind’s thinking about the matter of the world A careful consideration of the meanings carried in words can be a useful aid to clear thinking about a subject Presenting a thoughtful, wide-ranging and stimulating approach to the built environment in a very broad context was our goal Our themes pop up and down throughout the chapters, sometimes winking, sometimes screaming The result is not a fully integrated, seamless work of complete resolution – architecture, buildings and cities should not strive for that, we believe, nor should books about them Our collective future is a debatable one and unresolved This book is for everyone who looks forward to a bit more poetry, architecture and a polar bear or two.4 Notes 219 11 Ibid., p 11 12 Ibid., pp 41–42 13 Ibid., p 43 Often credited with being the earliest planned cities, these are, most probably, those of the Harappan civilisation that arose beside the Ganges in India dating from about 1750 BC 14 Ibid 15 Encyclopaedia Britannica (2003), Chicago/London: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., vol 8, p 612 16 Giradet, The Gaia Atlas of Cities, op cit., p 117 17 Rykwert, op cit., p 134 18 Feng Shui is a system of geomancy which aims to ‘harness the natural elements in harmonious ways to create an auspicious environment’ (very similar to the approach of the current authors) ‘Each element corresponds to a cardinal direction in order of auspiciousness – they are south (fire), east (wood), west (gold) and north (water) while the centre is the earth’ The Forbidden City of Beijing was designed following such principles and the ‘city laid out according to the human body: its outer gates were meant to correspond to the head, feet and hands of the body while the maze-like series of internal courtyards housing the emperors represented the intestines’ (Greenberg, S (2005) Enter the Dragon, RA, Winter, p 56) 19 Redrawn from Spiller, J (1973) Paul Klee Notebooks, Vol 1, The Thinking Eye, London: Lund Humphries, p 12; Excerpt from pen-and-ink drawing: City of Cathedrals, 1927/08 20 Morris, op cit., p 99 21 Ibid 22 Carl, P (2000) ‘Urban density and block metabolism’, in Architecture, City, Environment, Proceedings of PLEA, Cambridge, p 343 23 Le Corbusier (1987) City of Tomorrow, London: Architectural Press, pp 5–12 24 Swenarton, M Site Planning and Rationality in the Modern Movement, AA Files (July 1983), pp 49–59 25 Short, A ‘Sustainable design in an urban context; three case studies’, in Thomas, R (2003) Sustainable Urban Design, op cit., p 157 26 The Modern Movement’s interest in sun, light and air arose in part from an interest in health In Aalto’s Paimo Sanatorium the treatment for tuberculosis was isolation from urban pollution in natural surroundings with optimum exposure to sun and fresh air Le Corbusier’s Radiant City extolled the virtues of sun, space and ‘greenery’ as a remedy to such problems 27 Redrawn from Le Corbusier’s City of Tomorrow, op cit 28 Steemers, K., Ramos, M and Sinou, M (2004) ‘Urban diversity’, in Steemers, K and Steane, M.A (eds) Environmental Diversity in Architecture, Spon Press 29 Collins, G.R and Collins, C.C (1986) Camillo Sitte: The Birth of Modern City Planning, New York: Rizzoli 30 Aurigemma, G (1979) Giovan Battista Nolli, Architectural Design, vol 49, nos 2–4, pp 27–29 31 Thomas, R op cit., pp 147–156 32 Ibid., pp 167–182 33 Ibid., pp 183–188 34 Rogers, op cit., pp 20–22 35 Carl, op cit., p 344 36 Ibid., p 345 37 London energy consumption (all users): 154,400 ϫ 106 kWh; land area: 1.75 ϫ 109 m2 Reference: Anon (2002) City Limits A resource flow and ecological footprint of Greater London Oxford: Best Foot Forward 38 To cite but one example of the dangers, part of the electricity supply for the city of New York comes from a nuclear power plant some 50 km north on the Hudson River Residents in an extensive area surrounding the plant have been given masks to wear on days of particular ‘terrorist alert’ to ‘protect’ them in the event of an attack on the plant 39 For a more detailed discussion of these considerations see R Thomas (ed.) Sustainable Urban Design 220 Notes 40 The reduction of (fossil-filled) energy use is one of the most urgent problems facing cities One of the more optimistic aspects of this is that it is also often the most economic way of reducing global warming And in addition there is evidence that it is a more economical proposal than the provision of nuclear power with its attendant dangers There is a view that it is cheaper, for example, to save energy than to run nuclear power stations (see Anon 2006) Cheaper to Save than to Run Nuclear Stations, Energy in Buildings and Industry, February, p For detailed information on the costs of running nuclear power plants see Thomas, S (2005) The Economics of Nuclear Power: Analysis of Recent Studies, July, PSIRU, University of Greenwich For data on the cost of energy-saving programmes, see www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/03–04/0304878.pdf 41 Anon (2004) Sustainable Urban Design and Climate, www.bam.gov.au/climate/environ/ design/design_a.shtml 27 October 42 The first use of any agricultural product should probably be a high-value product (food, paper, other manufactured goods) with the residue being used for energy, where appropriate, and minerals being returned to the land 43 The pipes shown date from the Soviet era and run from the coal-fired power station to all areas of the city; one is an ‘artery’ carrying water at 110ºC and the other is a ‘vein’ running at 90ºC The hot water is a by-product of electricity generation at the power station which is thus a major CHP (combined heat and power) plant The pipes which date from the Soviet era were run above ground to reduce costs and because of difficult ground conditions – the soil is both corrosive and can freeze down to 2.5 m in the coldest winters 44 ‘The ecological footprint of a region or community can be viewed as the bioproductive area (land and sea) that would be required to sustainably maintain a region or community’s current consumption, using prevailing technology.’ See note 37, p 45 It is a measure of the area required to produce the resources consumed and to absorb the wastes generated (Since it is based on prevailing technology, it has the limitation of being a constantly varying figure.) 45 Ibid 46 To give this a human dimension, in the 2004 Olympics in Athens in August the Marathon contestants including the acclaimed athlete Paula Radcliffe were running in 35ºC air temperature on tarmac at 49ºC (Guardian, 23 August, 2004, p 1) The potential for using these black and thus highly absorbent solar collectors known as roads remains to be realised 47 Bachelard, op cit 48 For but one example among many, in Freiburg, the tramlines have grass in between them The grass is part of a sustainable urban drainage system, makes the streets look better and reduces tram noise, providing residents with a quieter life (Anon (2005) Sustainability, Building, 18 November, pp 74–75) 49 Man’s inhumanity to man (woman and child) is epitomised by the type of housing that has not a single tree (as in the ‘homes’ for workers in the nineteenth century in some of the mill towns of Lancashire in the UK) In areas around the world at the moment other environments, where people will live without knowing pleasure, are being created 50 Schiff, S (2005) Dr Franklin Goes to France, London: Bloomsbury, p 45 51 The mass transport system may be supplied principally by renewable energy sources from outside the city Already one sees signs of this in London where all the electricity for London Underground’s offices and stations comes from renewable supplies (Anon (2006) Tube Reduces Energy Use, Metro, 16 January, p 52) 52 Anon (2003) An Energy Revolution Solution for Sustainable Urban Communities INREB Faraday Partnership International Design Ideas Competition, BRE, Garston The team consisted of Richard Partington Architects, MacCormac Jamieson Pritchard, Luke Engleback and Max Fordham LLP Appendix A: Earth, sky and physics Gribbin, J (1988) ‘The greenhouse effect’, New Scientist, 22 October; Inside Science, no 13 Anon (2005) ‘Oceans are hiding climate time bomb’, New Scientist, May, p 14 To put this in other contexts, the heat flux at the surface of the Earth derived from within the body of our planet is about 0.1 W/m2 (44 ϫ 1012 W divided by about 510 ϫ 1012 m2, from Fortey, R Notes 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 221 (2005) The Earth An Intimate History, London: Harper Perennial Compare this with the heat loss from a person of about 55 W/m2 in Figure 5.6 Ibid Slezec, A.-M., Janvier, P and Van Praet, M (eds) (1991) On a Marché Sur la Terre, Paris: Editions ICS/Museum Nationale d’Histoire Naturelle, p 216 Another example of a large-scale effect is the melting of the polar ice caps Polar ice reflects light and heat back into space As more of it melts, more of the sun’s energy is absorbed by the ocean with the potential effect of accelerating global warming Anon (2006) ‘Weather report’, New York Times, 29 January, p 33 The brown clouds of smog (black carbon, organic carbon, and other aerosols such as sulphates and nitrates) formed by wildfires and burning fossil fuels and biofuels over Asia (Aldhaus, P (2005) Nature China’s Burning Ambition, 435 (7046), pp 1152–1154) are an example of a less beautiful sky Black carbon, a by-product of coal-burning, absorbs solar radiation and in addition to reducing the light available results in a hotter atmosphere and cooler ground These clouds are ill omens for all of us and it is important that worldwide environmental strategies be developed with India and China Anon (2003) ‘How much, how hot?’ Guardian, 12 July, p 23 Anon (2003) ‘General situation’, The Times, 17 October Bunn, R (1998) ‘Ground coupling explained’, Building Services, December, pp 22–27 Long-tailed tits (one of the smallest of British birds) huddle together on long, cold winter nights and ‘form a single feathered clump with numerous protruding tails’ More than 60 wrens have been observed in Norfolk crowded into a nest box measuring 14ϫ11.5ϫ14.5cm See Cocker, M and Mabey, R (2005) Birds Brittanica, London: Chatto and Windus, pp 337 and 386 CIBSE Guide A3 Thermal and other properties of building structures, 1977 Anon (1969) ‘Condensation’, BRE Digest 110, Garston: Building Research Station www.monachos.grden/resources/thermo/conductivity.asp.21/12/04 Based on date in Monteith, J (1973) Principles of Environmental Physics, London: Edward Arnold Thomas, R (2006) Environmental Design, London: Spon Press Based on Schmitt, D et al (2003) ‘Experimental evidence concerning spear use in Neanderthals and early modern humans’, Journal of Archaeological Science, vol 30, no 1, pp 103–114 Ibid See reference in note 15, p 11 Moon, P (1940) ‘Proposed standard solar radiation curve for engineering use’, Journal of Franklin Institute, November, p 604 Anon (1994) CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting, London: CIBSE Appendix B: a time line Stringer, C (2003) Nature, 12 June, pp 692–694 August, O and Hammond, N (2002) ‘Chinese dig up relics from “majestic” town of 6000 BC’, The Times, October, p 18 Williams, Z (2006) ‘Call that risky?’, Guardian Weekend, April 2006, p 34 Bibliography Bachelard, G., The Poetics of Space, Beacon Press, Boston, 1969 Banham, R., Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, Architectural Press, London, 1960 Banham, R., The Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment, Architectural Press, London, 1969 Battle, G and McCarthy, C., Sustainable Ecosystems and the Built Environment, Wiley-Academy, Chichester, 2001 Blackburn, S., The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994 Brace Taylor, B., Le Corbusier: The City of Refuge Paris, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1984 Brody, H., The Other Side of Eden, Faber & Faber, London, 2001 Brownlee, D.B and De Long, D.G., Louis I Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture, Rizzoli, New York, 1993 Campbell, J., ‘Bios and Mythos’, in The Flight of the Wild Gander, Harper Perennial, New York, 1990, pp 27–42 Craddock, N., Light in the Work of Sir John Soane, unpublished M.Phil., Cambridge University, 1995 Darvill, D and Thomas, J (eds), Neolithic Houses in North-west Europe and Beyond, Oxbow Books, Oxford, 1996 Dennis, M., Court and Garden: From the French Hôtel to the City of Modern Architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998 Drew, P., Leaves of Iron, The Law Book Co., Sydney, 1985 Dunn, M., ‘Japan’, in G Fahr-Becker (ed.), The Art of Asia, Köneman, Cologne, 1999 Eliade, M., The Sacred and the Profane, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York, 1959 Eliade, M., The Myth of the Eternal Return, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1971 Elvin, M., The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2004 Ewart Evans, G., Ask the Fellows who Cut the Hay, Faber & Faber, London, 1956 Farmer, J., ‘Battered bunkers’, Architectural Review, vol 181 (January 1987), pp 60–65 Fathy, H., Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986 Bibliography 223 Frampton, K., Studies in Tectonic Culture, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1995 Frankl, G., Archaeology of Mind, Open Gate Press, London, 1992 Garnham, T., Melsetter House, Phaidon, London, 1993 Garnham, T., Lines on the Landscape, Circles from the Sky, Tempus, Stroud, 2004 Giedion, S., Mechanisation Takes Command, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1948 Gould, S.J., Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History, Penguin, London, 1978 Hamblyn, R., The Invention of Clouds, Picador, London, 2002 Hawkes, D and Forster, W., Architecture, Engineering and Environment, Laurence King Publishing, London, 2002 Hawkes, J., Man and the Sun, The Cresset Press, London, 1962 Hawkes, J., Prehistory, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1963 Heaney, S., Finders Keepers: Selected Prose 1971–2001, Faber & Faber, London, 2002 Heidegger, M., ‘Building dwelling thinking’, in Poetry, Language, Thought, Harper & Row, New York, 1975 Heidegger, M., The Question Concerning Technology, Harper & Row, New York, 1977 Hix, J., The Glasshouse, Phaidon, London, 1996 Hodder, I., The Domestication of Europe, Blackwell, Oxford, 1990 Hopkinson, R.G., Petherbridge, P and Longmore, J., Daylighting, Heinemann, London, 1966 Hoskins, W.G., The Making of the English Landscape, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1971 Imbert, B., North Pole, South Pole: Journeys to the Ends of the Earth, Thames and Hudson, London, 1992 Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Architectural Press, London, 1946 Le Corbusier, Le Poème de l’Angle Droit, Le Corbusier Foundation, Paris, 1989 Le Corbusier, Precisions, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991 Lethaby, W., Philip Webb and his Work, Raven Oak Press, London, 1979 Liebel, B and Brodwick, J., ‘Choosing the right light’, ASHRAE, vol 47, no 12, 2005, pp 122–123 Lloyd, N., The History of the English House, Architectural Press, London, 1976 Lobell, J., Between Silence and Light, Shambala, Boulder, 1979 Marzluff, J.M and Angell, T., In the Company of Crows and Ravens, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2005 Mellart, J., Çatal Hu´´yu´´k, Thames and Hudson, London, 1967 Messham, S., Gas an Energy Industry, HMSO, London, 1976 Mithen, S., The Prehistory of Mind, Phoenix, London, 1998 Morse, E., Japanese Houses and their Surroundings, Dover, NY, 1961 Muir, E., An Autobiography, Canongate Press, Edinburgh, 1993 Norberg-Shultz, C., Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, Academy Editions, London, 1980 Oliver, P (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture, vol 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997 Oliver, P., Dwellings: The Vernacular House Worldwide, Phaidon, London, 2003 Pascal, A et al., ‘Molecular basis of photoprotection and control of photosynthetic light-harvesting’, Nature, vol 436 (July 2005), pp 134–137 224 Bibliography Rapoport, A., House Form and Culture, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1969 Redfield, R., The Primitive World and its Transformation, Penguin, London, 1968 Renfrew, C (ed.), The Prehistory of Orkney, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1990 Ruspoli, M., The Caves of Lascaux, Abrams, New York, 1987 Rykwert, J., On Adam’s House in Paradise: the Idea of the Primitive Hut in Architectural History, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1972 Schildt, G (ed.), Alvar Aalto in his own Words, Rizzoli, New York, 1998 Scully, V., The Shingle and the Stick Style, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1971 Sennett, R., The Conscience of the Eye: The Design and Social Life of Cities, Faber & Faber, London, 1990 Smith, P., Architecture in a Climate of Change, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2001 Snow, C.P., The Masters, Penguin, London, 1951 van Eyck, A., ‘The interior of time’, in G Baird and C Jencks (eds), Meaning in Architecture, The Cresset Press, London, 1960 Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, Dover, NY, 1960 von Stimson, O., The Gothic Cathedral, The Bollingen Foundation, Pantheon Books, New York, 1962 Wigglesworth, V.B., The Life of Insects, The New American Library, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, New York, 1966 Wojciechowska, P., Building with Earth, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 2001 Index Note: page numbers in italics denote illustrations separated from the textual reference Aalto, Alvar: clerestory windows 155; Finnish vernacular 43–4, 85; International Style 71; Karelian house 43–4; Paimio Sanitorium 55, 71, 72, 218n26; plywood 57, 85; Säynätsalo Town Hall 84–5; Villa Mairea 55, 56, 58, 85 absorption chiller units xii, 108 Acheulian hut 9–10, 19, 119, 209 acoustic protection 73, 126 adaptation: animals 9, 12, 96, 97, 99; buildings 3, 23–4, 71–2, 195–6; climate 12–13, 23–4; environment 95; humanity 9, 38; plants 12, 92, 95; vernacular buildings 88–9 aerogels, translucent 92 Ainu 16 air bricks 127 air ducts 121 air paths 77, 87, 115–16, 117 air tightness 46 air-conditioning: Carrier 122, 198; institutional buildings 79; Le Corbusier 70; Murcutt 58; natural 199; Royal Victoria Hospital 107; skyscrapers 68 air/light 3, 36, 159 Alberti, Leon Battista 186 Aldeburgh Festival Hall see Snape Maltings Alhambra 28, 29 aluminium 89 Amber Palace 107 Amundsen, Roald 11–12 Ando, Tadao 198 Angel Fields, Manchester 189–90, 193 animals: adaptation 9, 12, 96, 97, 99; cooling 12, 106; coverings 35; domestication 42; homeotherms/poikilotherms 95, 96, 97; see also specific animals aquifers 108, 112 Archigram 74 Arctic 11–12, 211[Preface]n4, 220n5 Aristotle 171, 193 art galleries 143, 144, 145, 155 Arts and Crafts 20–1, 50, 52, 53, 55, 61 Arup Associates 29, 79 Asplund, Erik Gunnar 150 Astana, Kazakhstan 182, 183, 219n43 Athens Olympics 219n46 atmosphere 197–8 atrium, glazed 119–20, 134, 144, 146–7 Babylon 161 Bachelard, Gaston 20, 39–40, 186 Bacon, Francis 22, 212n30 badgirs 79, 81, 82–3 Baghdad 117 Baillie Scott, Mackay Hugh 53 Baker, Josephine 170 Ball-Eastaway house, Glenorie 58 Bam 117 Banham, Rayner 2, 73, 76, 83 Barcelona 168 Barcelona Pavilion 38, 39 Barry, Charles 62, 121 Bath xii, 135, 186; Assembly Rooms 121 Bauhaus 55 Bedouin tents 11 BedZed housing 46, 78, 176–7, 178, 179, 186 beehive houses 38 Belfast 110, 187–8 Benenden School 79, 80 biodiversity 5, 25–6, 211[Chap 2]n1 biology: buildings 34–5, 43–4, 214n13; cities 184–5; engineering design 88; environment 113–14; heating systems 35; machine aesthetic 68–74, 120; origins of life 131, 216n3; sustainability 5; ventilation 113; vernacular buildings 195 biomes Bio-Regional 46, 78, 176–7 biosphere 61 birds 25–6, 35, 202, 220n10 226 Index Bishop, Elizabeth 20, 212n26 black redstart 25–6 Blake, William 151, 197 blinds 68 Bo01, Malmö 178–9 Botta, Mario 40 bour (bower) 46 Braxsted church 64 BRE Environmental Building 85–8, 202; cooling 107, 108; energy efficiency 105–6; Feilden Clegg Bradley 127; louvres 156; photovoltaic panels 87, 88 Bregenz Art Museum 153–4 brises-soleil 71, 75–6, 147 Brody, Hugh 11, 15 building materials 6, 61, 62, 88, 89, 90–1, 177–8; see also specific materials buildings 115–30; adaptation 3, 23–4, 71–2, 195–6; biology 34–5, 43–4, 214n13; as containers 38; environment 33, 62–8; habitat 26; human scale 48–9; microenvironment 74; morphology 6–7, 37, 133–4; natural forces 117; physical/ecological footprint 25–6, 184, 219n44; pleasure from 38; proactive 196; site 21; symbolism 18–19, 37; see also shelter; vernacular buildings Burlington, Richard Boyle, Lord 22 cacti 12 Cambridge 166 camels 9, 96, 97, 113, 114 Campbell, Colin 211 Campbell, Joseph 133 Camus, Albert 196 candles 135 carbon dioxide 6, 25, 90 carbon dioxide emissions: air-conditioning 33; design 1, 39, 74–5; electricity 68; energy reduction 36; fossil fuels 198, 215–16n18; London 81–2; ventilation 33 Carl, Peter 179 Carlyle, Thomas 91 Carrier, Willis Haviland 122, 198 Carroll, Lewis 187, 204n3 cars, electric 177 Çatal Hüyük 38, 161 cathedrals see Gothic cathedrals cave paintings 9, 103 central heating 117 Chance, Lucas 142 Chang’an 163, 165 Chetwood Associates 146, 147 Chiaroscuro House 140 Chifeng 211 chimneys 54, 77, 104 China, cities 160, 161, 163, 165 Chiswick House 22 CIAM: see Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne Cité de Refuge see Salvation Army hostel, Paris cities: energy demands 180–1; environmental factors 182, 188–9; history of form 161–70; human scale 189; morphology 6–7, 179–80, 187–8; natural energy 183, 185; and nature 179–80; organic growth 165–6; as organisms 160–1; parks 178–9; population growth 167–8; public space 166, 168; services 182, 183; solar energy 185; sustainability 160, 176, 178–9, 187; three-dimensions of 184–5; transport 171–2; water for landscaping 190–1; wind power 181, 191; zoning 171–2 cities, types: biological 184–5; Chinese 160, 161, 163, 165; Compact City 161; ecological 183–4; gridded 162–3; medieval European 163, 165–6; Victorian 167–8 city squares 168 civilisation 22, 95, 159 Clement XII, Pope 174 clerestory windows 65, 143, 155 Clifton-Taylor, Alec 19, 88 climate: adaptation 12–13, 23–4; change 61; culture 91; Europe 36; influences on 9, 198; site 11–14; United Kingdom 9, 23–4; vernacular building 12–13, 58 coal 104, 215–16n18 coal gas 135, 136 Coin Street, London 176, 177, 178, 179 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 20, 50 combined heat and power (CHP) xii, 109, 112, 177–8, 186, 192, 219n43 comfort factors 208 communities, succession 16 community heating schemes 186 Compact City 161 concrete 50 conduction 90, 97, 101–2, 180 Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) 169–70, 172, 173 Construction Industry Research Information Association 25–6 Contact Theatre 104, 116, 125–7, 196 Contemporary City plans 170 convection 97, 101–2, 104, 180 cooling 12, 82–3, 95, 106–9; see also night cooling cooling fins 97 coolth xii, 186 Coopers Road, London 186, 191–2, 193 Costozza villas 107 courtyards: Baghdad 117; Heelis 129, 167; Index lighting 136; Oxford Museum 62, 63; Paris 129; Roman 50, 163; Säynätsalo Town Hall 84–5; Seville 51; skyscraper ventilation shafts 67–8; strips of 190, 191; Ur 161–2; see also atrium Covent Garden 119–20, 135 Coventry University Library 79, 81 Critical Regionalism see Frampton, Kenneth Crystal Palace 144 culture 1–2; civilisation 95; climate 91; evolution 36–7; nature 41–4, 215n30; tradition 84; Williams 159 curtains 48 cyanobacteria 6, 198 darkness 131, 143, 149, 151; see also shadows Darwin, Charles 42, 91, 214–15n30 daylighting 154; Dutch painting 207–8; Heelis 127, 136, 156; louvres 147, 156; Melsetter House 138, 150; mood 136; reflecting 139; rooflights 92, 134, 143, 147; sustainable design 159; Wright 137–8 De Montfort University see Queens Building Deane and Woodward 62 Dennis, Michael 85, 160, 172 Descartes, René 44 desert 12 design: carbon dioxide emissions 1, 39, 74–5; energy 57–8; functionalism 91; physics dimetrodon 97, 101, 108, 210 diurnal rhythms 132, 133 Dogon people 41 dolphins 108 domes, Renaissance 155 domestic space 136–40 domino house 68, 70 draughts 46, 53–4, 119 drought 28 Dulwich Gallery 143, 145, 150 Dunster, Bill 46, 78, 176–7, 178 Dutch School of painting 136–7, 207–8 Earth: atmosphere of 5–6, 197–8; mantle 215n2 earth, thermal capacity 12–13 earth-bag buildings 89 Easter Island 42 ECD Architects 191–2 ecological factors 44, 182, 183–4 ecological footprint 184, 219n44 Edinburgh, Scottish Parliament 179–80 Edison, Thomas 66, 109 electricity 55, 66, 117, 136 electromagnetic spectrum 206 Eliade, Mircea 41, 42, 55, 88 227 enclosures 15–16 energy consumption: cities 180–1; efficiency 105–6; form 201–2; London 218n37; reduction 83, 154, 218–19n40; sustainability 1, 6, 7; ventilation 39 energy sources 5–6, 184; ambient 92–3; cheap 61, 74, 104; design 57–8; see also solar energy; wind energy engineering design 88, 89 Enlightenment 19–23 environment 1–2; adaptation 95; biology 113–14; buildings 33, 62–8; cities 182, 188–9; habitats 91; site 5, 24; sustainability 31, 89, 91–2 Europe: climate 36; medieval cities 163 Eurostar Terminal, St Pancras 34 evapotranspiration 114–15 evolution theory 36, 91, 1956 faỗade 48, 73, 189 fanlights 48 fans 116, 121 Faraday, Michael 66 farming 14–19, 38, 42 Farnsworth House 38, 40, 105, 106, 116, 204 Farsons’ Brewery, Malta 122 Fathy, Hassan 22 Feilden Clegg Bradley: BRE Environmental Building 85–8, 105–6, 107, 108, 127, 156, 202; Heelis National Trust offices 79, 80, 127, 128, 129, 130 fences/hedges 90 Feng Shui 165, 218n18 figure-ground plan 174–5 filtration, reed-beds 28 Findlay, Ushida 140 Finsbury Health Centre 151, 152 fire 9, 95, 103, 135 fireplace 45–6, 103–4, 105, 106 flooding 28 Florence, Uffizi Gallery 174 flying buttresses 65, 149 force 205 Fordham, Max 29 form: energy 201–2; function 6, 34, 38, 151 Fortey, R 215n2 fossil fuels 6, 61, 74, 109, 198, 215–16n18 fossils 91 foundations 28–9, 31 Frampton, Kenneth: Critical Regionalism 2, 59, 92, 154–5, 175 Franklin, Benjamin 104 fuel cells xii, 109 Fuller, R Buckminster 211[Chap 1]n4 functionalism 2–3, 151; CIAM 169–70; and form 6, 34, 38, 151; in future 91; inadequacies 70, 195 228 Index furniture design 57 Garnham, Timothy 93 geology 19, 91, 182 Georgian houses 48, 49, 140, 176 Germany 44–5, 135 Giedion, Sigfried 2, 22, 66 Girardet, Herbert 161 Glasgow School of Art 155 glass: heat 135; history of use 140, 142; lighting 156; vacuum glazing 92; walls 59, 68, 70–1, 73, 83, 104; windows 48–9, 134, 142; see also atrium, glazed; roofs, glazed; skylights glass blocks 151 glass box symbolism 57 glasshouses 62, 63, 144 global warming 24, 89, 105, 198 Gothic cathedrals 64–6, 91, 149, 150 Gothic Revival 62 Gould, Stephen Jay 64–5, 149 granite 91 Greek cities 162–3 green houses 44, 144 Greensted log wall church 45 grid systems, cities 162–3 Gropius, Walter 169–70 Gulf Stream 16, 198 habitat 3, 19, 26, 91, 155 Haddon Hall 46, 47 Halfpenny, William 48 half-timbering 42–3 halls, medieval 44–5 harling 53, 55 Haussmann, Georges 129, 167 Hawkes, Jacquetta 131 Heaney, Seamus 93–4, 212n26 hearths 119; see also fireplace heat transfer: buildings 102; conduction 90, 97, 101–2, 180; convection 97, 101–2, 104, 180; gain 77, 135; liquids 109; loss 97, 100, 102, 220n10; physiology 96–7, 98, 99; radiation 97, 101–2, 113–14; see also cooling; heating; thermal capacity heating systems 35, 95, 103–6, 104 hedges/fences 90 Heelis National Trust offices 128, 130; courtyards 129, 167; daylighting 127, 136, 156; glazed roof 134, 147, 156; photovoltaic panels 127; ventilation cowls 79, 80 Heidegger, Martin 20, 73 Henric Nicholas Farmhouse 26, 27 Hill, Geoffrey 93–4 Hill House 138–9 Hippodamus of Miletus 162 Hombre de Piedra St, Seville 51 Home Place 20–1, 50 Homo erectus 9, 38, 95, 195 Homo habilis Homo sapiens 38, 42, 195, 209, 210 honeybees 114 Hooch, Pieter de 136, 137, 207–8 Hopkins and Partners 79, 81 housing estates 170–1, 219n49 Howarth Tompkins 176, 177 Hughes, Ted 93–4 human scale 48–9, 187, 189 humanity: adaptation 38; body temperature 33–4; consciousness 131; heat loss 97, 100; memory 79, 103; nature 22–3; see also Homo sapiens hunter-gatherers 11, 14 hunting Hyderabad 117, 118 hydrogen economy 112, 216n29 ice-houses 13 igloos 11–12, 97, 98, 102–3, 204 Industrial Revolution 19, 20, 49, 62, 160 inglenook 53 insects 35 inside/outside blurred 11, 38, 54–5, 61, 70 insulation: camel 97; decorative 99, 100; igloos 11; skins for walls 92, 97, 104, 110, 119, 123; solar gain 46, 87; superinsulation 46 International Style 55, 57, 71 Inuit 11–12 Iran 13, 107 Iron Age huts 119 iron structures 62, 63, 66 irradiation 201 Italy 67, 166–7; see also Roman cities Izenour, Steven 74 James, Henry 53 Japan 36, 50, 90, 134–5, 165 Jeanneret, Pierre see Le Corbusier Jefferson, Thomas 107 Jesticoe and Whiles 119–20 Johnson, Philip 38 Joyce, James 171 Jurassic period 101 Kahn, Louis: Philips Exeter Academy library 152–3; Richard Memorial Laboratories 73–4, 81; ‘Silence and Light’ 152 Kant, William 22 Karelian house 43–4 kerosene 136 Kings Langley 106, 111–12 Faculty of Design 108 Index Kingston-upon-Thames 166 Kirbister Farm Museum 119, 120 Klee, Paul 165, 166 Koryaks 16 Kyoto 165 Kyoto Agreement 163 lamps 135, 143 landscape 14–19 land-use 19, 90 Langley, Batty 48 Larkin, Philip 93–4 Larkin Building 73–4, 122, 123 Lawrie Short House 58 layering of space 127, 186 Le Corbusier 1; brises-soleil 71, 75–6, 147; The City of Tomorrow 70–1, 168–9; Contemporary City plans 170; controlled respiration 122; domino house 68, 70; light and dark 131; machine-like vessels 72; Maison Cook 55, 56; Notre Dame du Haut 147–9; Petite Maison de Weekend 22–3; Le Poème de l’Angle Droit 131, 132; Precisions 147; Salvation Army hostel, Paris 70–1, 135, 147; Unité d’Habitation 75, 76, 131, 132, 174; Villa Savoye 21–2, 55, 56, 171; Villa Stein 55, 56, 57; la Ville Radieuse 170, 218n26 Leo X, Pope 87 Leonardo da Vinci 87 Lethaby, William 50, 52–4, 55, 138 light: air 3, 36, 159; capturing 138–9, 140, 157; darkness 131, 143, 149, 151; electromagnetic spectrum 206; mood 207; in parks 135; photosynthesis 5, 6, 95, 123; place 154–5; recommended levels 207; shade 22; symbolism 143, 149; ultraviolet/infrared 5, 134–6; visibility 152 lighting: artificial 66, 67–8, 135–6, 155; courtyards 136; electric 66; glass 156; International Style 57; natural/artificial blend 136, 156; orientation of buildings 149; Oxford Museum 64; psychological effects 135; see also daylighting lightwell 119 Linearbandkeramic (LBK) longhouses 15, 42 Lister County Courtroom, Solvesborg 150 Lloyd, Nathaniel 48 local materials 6, 61, 62 log cabins 42–3 London: carbon dioxide emissions 81–2; City of 166; Coin Street 176, 177, 178, 179; congestion charge area 189; Coopers Road 186, 191–2, 193; Covent Garden 119–20, 135; ecological footprint 184; energy consumption 218n37; Eurostar Terminal 34; light catchers 157; light in 229 parks 135; population 160; solar energy 180, 188; transport 219n51 longhouses (LBK) 15, 42 Los Angeles 104, 105 louvres 59, 147, 156 Lovelock, James 211[Chap 1]n4 Lubetkin, Berthold 151, 152 lungs 116, 124–5 machine aesthetic 68–74, 120 machine symbolism 21–2, 57 Mackintosh, Charles Rennie: Glasgow School of Art 155; Hill House 138–9 Magdalenian tepee 103, 119, 135 Maison Cook 55, 56 Malmö, Bo01 178–9 maltings 79; see also Snape Maltings Manchester, Angel Fields 189–90, 193 Marsh Arabs 14 Marvell, Andrew 193 Massagno house 40 material 90; see also building materials Matmata dwellngs 12–13, 14, 29, 107, 129 mechanisation 74–5, 83 medical reformers 122 Melsetter House 50, 52–4, 55, 116, 125; daylight 138, 150 memory: collective 79; cultural 103 Mesopotamia 161 meterological map 200 Meterological Office 26 micro-climate 84–5 micro-environment 74 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig: Farnsworth House 38, 40, 105, 106, 116, 204; heating systems 104; as influence 58, 69; ‘less is more’ 57; Seagram Building 68; skin and bones architecture 92 Miletus 162, 163 Millennium Centre, Dagenham 29, 30 mind–body dualism 44 Miralles, Enric 180 Modern Movement 61; abstractions 39; culture/tradition 84; glass box buildings 57; inside/outside 11, 38, 61; light/air 3, 159; machine-like buildings 57; psychological problems 159–60; ships/aeroplanes/cars 71–2; see also functionalism Mongols 11 Moon 135, 197 Moore, Charles 139 morphology: buildings 6–7, 37, 133–4; cities 6–7, 179–80, 187–8; sustainability 3, 68 Morris, William 52 mud bricks 38 Muir, Edwin Mumford, Lewis 18 230 Index Munich roofs 190 Murcutt, Glenn 26, 27, 28, 29, 58–9, 78 Muthesius, Hermann 53, 54, 55, 213n37 myths 9, 95, 131 Nancy 166, 167 Nara 165 natural selection 34, 42 nature: cities 179–80; civilisation 22; culture 41–4, 215n30; engineering 89; humanity 22–3; Romanticism 20; time 115 Neolithic period 15 Neues Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity) movement 169 New Scotland Yard 79 New York 160, 218n38 night and day 132, 133; see also diurnal rhythms night cooling 87, 127, 199 Nolli, Giovan Battista 174, 189 nomadic peoples 11–12 Norberg-Shultz, C 155, 171 Norman Shaw, Richard 79 Norwich Cathedral 64–5 Notre Dame Cathedral 35 Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp 147–9 Notre Dame du Raincy 150, 151 nuclear power stations 109, 218n38 oast houses 78 occupant satisfaction 72–3 ocean temperatures 198, 220n5 oil 104, 105, 210 open-plan houses 54–5 orientation of buildings 149, 169–70, 190–1 Orkney Isles 16–17, 53, 204, 213n5 Orwell, George 71 overcast skies 134–5 Oxford 166 Oxford Museum: adaptation 71–2; atrium 134, 146–7; chemistry labs 62, 63; Gothic cathedral form 66; lighting 64; proto-green 91 oxygen 35, 198 Ozenfant, Amédée ozone layer 131, 198 Paimio Sanitorium 55, 71, 72, 218n26 Palladio, Andrea 107 Pantheon 65, 140, 142 Paris: courtyard housing 129, 167; Haussmann 167; Hilton 214–15n30; human scale 187; Notre Dame Cathedral 35; Salvation Army Hostel 70–1, 135, 147; town-houses 172; transport/food 160 Parkmount housing scheme 109, 110 parks 135, 178–9, 190 parlour 46 Parma ham 113 passive down-draught cooling 82–3 Penoyre & Prasad 29, 77 Penshurt Place 46 Permian period 97 Perrault, Claude 215n3 Perret, Auguste 150, 151 Petite Maison de Weekend 22–3, 23 petroleum 104 Philips Exeter Academy library 152–3 photosynthesis 5, 6, 95, 123 photovoltaic panels: BRE Environmental Building 87, 88; cars, electric 177; Heelis 127; organic materials 90; Parkmount 109; tilting 144; walls/roofs 76, 92, 190 physics 7, 20, 195 physiology 34, 96–102 Piano, Renzo 74, 75 pine needle 115 pizza, frozen 101, 102 plan and elevation drawings 87 plants: adaptation 9, 12, 95; biodiversity 211[Chap 2]n1; evapotranspiration 50, 114–15; insulation 97; land-use 90; photosynthesis 5, 6, 95, 123; sustainable design 159; walls 26 Pleistocene era plywood 57, 85 Po Valley 113 poetry 20, 39–40, 93–4 polar bears 9, 97, 99, 211[Preface]n4 polar ice caps 220n5 Pompidou Centre 74, 75, 214n20 population growth 3, 160, 167–8 Portcullis House 79, 81 Portland stone 91 Positivism 61 power 109, 117, 201 Prairie houses 54–5, 104, 138 pressure 115–16, 205 Priene 162 Prior, Edward 20–1, 50 Proust, Marcel 122, 160, 196 psychological needs: Eliade 88; housing estates 170–1; Modern Movement 159–60; natural light 135; shelter 40, 41; Unité d’Habitation 76; warmth 90 Queens Building, De Montfort University 116, 122, 123–4 radiation 90, 97, 101–2, 113, 180; see also solar radiation radiators 104, 216n21 railway stations 91, 144 railways 160 Index rainwater: clouds 152; collection of 26, 27, 28, 59, 185–6; use of 7, 28 Raphael 87 Rapoport, Amos 18 rationalism, Cartesian 44 recycling 91, 177–8 Red House 52 Redfield, Robert 41 reeds 28, 88 Reform Club 62, 66, 67, 121, 122, 146 Renaissance 155, 166–7 Renewable Energy Systems 111–12 respiratory ventilation 113–14 Richard Memorial Laboratories 73–4, 81 Rinyo, Rousay 17–18, 37 roads as solar collectors 219n46 Rogers, Richard 74, 75, 161, 179, 180 Roman cities 163 Romanesque church 66 Romantic Movement 20, 50 Rome 164; houses 50, 51; Nolli plan 174–5, 189; Pantheon 65, 140, 142 rooflights 92, 134, 143, 147 roofs: glazed 62, 63, 66, 134, 147, 156; grassed 25–6, 28, 90, 189; Munich 190; sheep’s wool 203 Rossi, Aldo 172–3, 174, 175–6, 179, 187 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 159 Rowe, Colin 174 Royal Victoria Hospital 107 Rudofsky, Bernard 89 RuralZed 178 Ruskin, John 91 Sainsbury’s Supermarket, Greenwich 146, 147 St Benedict, Church of 26, 27 St Georges School, Wallasey 83–4 Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de 70, 120 Salvation Army hostel, Paris 70–1, 135, 147 San Gimigniano 123 sandstone 91 Saxon house 44–5 Sayer, Phil 178 Säynätsalo Town Hall 84–5 Schlieren photography xii, 101 School of Slavonic and East European Studies, UCL 81, 82 science 2, 19–23 science fiction 72 Scott, Robert 12 Scott-Brown, Denise 74 Scottish Parliament building 179–80 screens see sunscreens Seagram Building 68, 69, 72–3 Semper, Gottfried 11 Sennett, Richard 73 231 services for cities 182, 183, 219n43 settles 46 shading 22, 92; see also louvres; shutters; sunscreens Shakespeare, William 99, 198 Shanghai 161 sheep 90, 203 shelter: cardboard 204; Homo erectus 95; psychological needs 9–10, 38, 40, 41; slope of land 53; ventilation 118; vernacular buildings 76; Vitruvius 95 Shingle/Stick style 54 ships, sailing 71 Short and Associates: Contact Theatre 104, 116, 125–7, 196; Coventry University Library 79, 81; School of Slavonic and East European Studies 81, 82 Short Ford and Associates 122 shutters 48, 136 site 3, 5, 21; biodiversity 25; climate 11–14; environment 5, 24; foundations 28–9, 31 Sitte, Camillo 168, 171, 174 Skara Brae 16–17, 24, 53, 103, 119 skins for walls: active 68; glass 83; insulation 92, 97, 104, 110, 119, 123; intelligent 92 skylights: art galleries 143; Georgian houses 140; Oxford Museum 146–7; Soane 141, 142–3; Sutton Hoo Museum 143–4, 145 skyline 77, 79, 117, 118, 123 skyscrapers 67–8, 73, 104 slates 62 slope of land 26, 53 smog 220n6 smoke holes 119 Snape Maltings 29, 30, 31, 77, 79, 108 Snow, C.P 46, 211[Preface]n2 Soane, Sir John 140, 141, 142–3; Dulwich Gallery 145, 150 Soane Museum 140, 141, 142–3 social housing 38; see also housing estates solar 46 solar energy 5–6, 7; Belfast 110, 187–8; cities 185; collecting 92, 201–2, 219n46; London 180, 188; passive 83; water heating 104, 105, 112; see also photovoltaic panels solar gain, controlling 25, 46, 75, 76, 86–7, 147, 156, 159 solar houses 105 solar radiation 95, 197–8, 206 space: domestic 136–40; glasshouses 62, 63; green 185, 187; inside/outside blurred 11, 38, 61; layering 127, 186 space travel imagery 72 stained glass 149 steel 49, 66 stegosaurus 101 232 Index Stokesay Castle 45–6, 47 stone 88, 91 straw bales 44, 88, 203 strip windows 147, 148 Studio E Architects 111 Stukeley Street 120 suburbs 167–8 Sullivan, Louis 68, 73, 74 sun 36, 131, 152, 169–70; see also solar energy sun paths 8, 24–5, 53, 138, 163 sunken dwellings 12–13, 16; see also Skara Brae sunscreens 68, 76 surface area/volume 202, 220n10 sustainability: biology 5; cities 160, 176, 178–9, 187; energy consumption 1, 6, 7; environment 31, 89, 91–2; morphology 3, 68 sustainable architecture 34; design 57–8, 159; ecological crisis 44; environment 89; pleasure 38; surroundings 116–17; walls 68 Sutton Hoo Treasure Ship Museum 143–4, 145, 155 Sutton House 99, 100 Sydney 181, 182 symbiosis 161 symbolism: design 37, 50; light/dark 143, 149; machine 21–2, 57; Mumford 18–19 Tanizaki, Junichiro 135 Taoism 42 technology 2, 20, 23 temperature: air/ground 29, 88, 201; buildings 33–4; diurnal range 199; habitat 155; internal 66; map 199; oceans 198, 220n5; vernacular buildings 36, 77, 155 tepee 11, 103, 119, 135 termite mounds 114 thermal capacity 7, 12–13, 29 thermal conductivity 202, 203 thermal mass 75, 86–7, 124, 135, 202, 204 thermal resistivity 202, 203 Thomson, James 151 Thoreau, Henry David 40 tiles, clay 123 Till House, Wigglesworth 203 timber 26, 45, 65, 88, 90 timber-framing 42 time: energy 215–16n18; linear/cyclical 90; nature 115; poetry 93–4 time-line 209–10 tits, long-tailed 220n10 tool users 42 Townsend, Charles Harrison 143 tramlines, grassed 219n48 transport 62, 160, 171–2, 187, 219n51 Tudge, Colin 216n3 Tudor architecture 103–4 Tunisia 12–13, 14 turf roofs see roofs, grassed Turner, J.M.W 143 Uffizi Gallery 174 UK Building Regulations 46 Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles 75, 76, 131, 132, 174 United Kingdom: climate 9, 23–4; ground temperatures 29; overcast skies 134 Upper Paleolithic 16 Ur 161–2 urban planning see cities U-values 102, 202, 203 van Heyningen and Haward 79, 80, 143–4, 145 Vasari, Giorgio 174 ventilation: BRE Environmental Building 86–7; Contact Theatre 104, 116; cooling 102, 106–7, 108; energy consumption 39; mechanical 36, 116; natural 36, 39, 74–5, 79, 117, 127; night-time 87, 127, 199; Portcullis House 79, 81; pressure equalising 115–17; stack effect 116; sustainable design 159; thermal mass 124, 135; see also respiratory ventilation ventilation cowls 29, 78, 79, 80 ventilation shafts 67–8 Venturi, Robert 74 Vermeer, Jan 136, 207 vernacular buildings 1–2, 3, 50; adaptation 88–9; biology 195; climate 12–13, 58; Finnish 43–4, 85; local materials 61; shelter 76; slope of land 26; structure 44–5; sunken 12–13, 16; temperature 36, 77, 155 Verona 164 Victorian cities 167–8 Vienna 173–4 Villa Aldobrandini 22 Villa Lante 22 Villa Mairea 55, 56, 58, 85 Villa Rotunda 107 Villa Savoye 21–2, 55, 56 Villa Stein 55, 56, 57 la Ville Radieuse 170, 218n26 Viollet-Le-Duc, Eugène 196 Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus 42, 95 volume/surface area 36, 202, 220n10 Wainwright Building 68, 74 Waitrose 25–6 walls: glass 66, 68, 70–1, 73, 104; green 90; Index light 147; plant growth 26; straw bales 203; thick 53, 76; see also windows water balance 113–14 water butts 26, 27, 28 water cooling 108, 109 water for landscaping 190–1 watermills 28 Watt, James 216n21 Weald and Downland Museum 45, 48 weaving 11, 162, 213n5 Webb, Mike 74 Webb, Philip 50, 52 whale oil 104, 121, 136 whisky distilleries 78–9 Whitechapel Gallery 143–4 Wigglesworth/Till 203 Wiliam of Occam 211[Preface]n3 Williams, Raymond 159 wind catchers 13, 107, 113, 117, 118 wind energy 7, 26, 28, 53, 201–2 wind farms 181 wind towers 77, 117 233 wind turbines 26, 28, 92–3, 191 windows 48, 49–50; glass 134, 142; medieval 65; north-facing 150; solar gain 25 windows, types: casement 48; clerestory 65, 143, 155; hole-in-the-wall 133–4, 147; sash 48, 53, 116; strip 147, 148; see also rooflights Windsor Castle 28 Witte, Jan de 136 Wood, John the Elder xii, 121, 186 wood stoves 104 Wooley, Leonard 162 Wordsworth, William 20, 50 wrens 220n10 Wright, Frank Lloyd: central heating 117; daylighting 137–8; Larkin Building 73–4, 122; Prairie houses 54–5, 104, 138 yurts 118–19 Zumthor, Peter 26, 27, 153–4 ... plethora of ideas ranging from the influence of Heidegger, Kant’s idealism, the role of Bacon in the development of science, the origins of symmetry, the development of the grid, whether the Seven... and the warm interior 2.3 Section of an igloo of the type used by the Inuit of northern Canada (after Rapoport) years he had spent studying the Inuit way of life and methods of surviving in the. .. some of the earliest evidence of man-made things.7 The architect and theorist Gottfried Semper suggested that weaving was the first act of making and that the partition and the hearth were the