The capital of europe

The Capital of Europe Recent Titles in Perspectives on the Twentieth Century Minority Protection in Post-Apartheid South Africa: Human Rights, Minority Rights, and Self-Determination Kristin Henrard Depression to Cold War: A History of America from Herbert Hoover to Ronald Reagan Joseph M Siracusa and David G Coleman Making the World Like Us: Education, Cultural Expansion, and the American Century Liping Bu Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century Richard Jensen, Jon Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, editors From Adversaries to Partners? Chinese and Russian Military Cooperation after the Cold War Ming-Yen Tsa The German Question Since 1919: An Introduction with Key Documents Stefan Wolff Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World William E Watson American Soldiers Overseas: The Global Military Presence Anni P Baker A Call to Arms: Propaganda, Public Opinion, and Newspapers in the Great War Troy R.E Paddock, editor The Capital of Europe Architecture and Urban Planning for the European Union Carola Hein Perspectives on the Twentieth Century Edward R Beauchamp, Series Adviser mm O Westpport Connecticut London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hein, Carola The capital of Europe : architecture and urban planning for the European Union / by Carola Hein p cm — (Perspectives on the twentieth century, ISSN 1538-9626) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-275-97874-5 (alk paper) City planning—Europe—History—20th century European Union—Capital and capitol Architecture and state—Europe—History—20th century Public buildings—European Union countries I Title II Series NA9053.C3H45 2004 711'.4'09409045—dc22 2004014664 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available Copyright © 2004 by Carola Hein All rights reserved No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004014664 ISBN: 0-275-97874-5 ISSN: 1538-9626 First published in 2004 Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc www.praeger.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984) 10 Maps designed and created by Matthew Abbott Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright materials in this book, but in some instances this has proven impossible The author and publisher will be glad to receive information leading to more complete acknowledgments in subsequent printings of the book and in the meantime extend their apologies for any omissions For Caya, Aliya, and Patrick, Wuppi, and Walter with love This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface and Acknowledgments Ch INTRODUCTION: EUROPEAN IDENTITIES AND THE CAPITAL CITY QUESTION PART I: Ch IMAGINING BUILT EUROPE Ch Ch ix 15 ENVISIONING THE CENTER: WORLD CITIES AND INTERNA BUILDINGS AS PRECURSORS TO THE EUROPEAN CAPITAL DEBATE URBAN VISIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS FOR A UNITED EUROPE 1945-1968 39 BUILDING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES FROM WITHIN: COMPETITIONS FOR A CAPITAL IN 1952 AND 1958 PART II: BUILDING EUROPE'S IMAGE 67 93 95 Ch STRASBOURG: PARLIAMENTARY CAPITAL OF EUROPE Ch LUXEMBOURG: JUDICIAL CAPITAL OF EUROPE 113 Ch BRUSSELS: EXECUTIVE CAPITAL OF EUROPE 135 Ch CONCLUSION: RETHINKING CAPITALS AND EUROPE 161 Appendix I: GLOSSARY OF EUROPEAN ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS 173 173 viii Appendix II: Appendix III: Appendix IV: Contents SELECTED BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 181 TIME LINE: BUILDING FOR EUROPE SINCE THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY 193 ABBREVIATIONS OF MAJOR PUBLIC ARCHIVAL REFERENCES 215 Notes 217 Select Bibliography 279 Index 301 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I first visited Brussels, one of the three current European capital cities, in the early 1980s, I was fascinated by its recent and large-scale transformation Brussels, although spared by two world wars, resembled German or Japanese cities rebuilt after World War II Distinguished works of architecture had disappeared and huge holes opened in the urban tissue Mere bits of traditional neighborhoods remained amid urban highways and nondescript office buildings The contrast between corporate and vernacular architecture, modern infrastructure and small-scale housing areas, and corporate and political actors and very active citizen groups, compelled me to investigate the transformation of Brussels as a capital city and center for the European Union (EU) An internship with the citizen group Atelier de Recherche et dfAction Urbaines (ARAU) in 1984 provided me with my first inside experience of city The group's focus on aesthetics as well as social issues, and its understanding of the city as a site for democratic debate rather than simply as a tool for economic and political activity, corresponded to my personal interests A one-year stay in 1986-87 at La Cambre—the architecture school in Brussels that was a famed center for citizen activism from the late 1960s through the late 1970s—ended with my diploma thesis on the implantation of the European communities in Brussels (1987) This investigation argued that the idea of a capital of Europe shaped urban planning in postwar Brussels It also raised further questions, such as: Did visions for a new capital of Europe exist? Why has the European Union not created the majestic spaces of Europe's national capitals? Further, why did it allow urban destruction in its name? Why have the citizens of Europe (beyond Brussels) not challenged the faceless corporate architecture and haphazard planning that ignores European ideals? Moreover, given Brussels' experience, one must ask how has the presence of the institutions serving the EU and its predecessor organizations influenced the other two European 302 Austria, 22, 26, 46, 88, 165, 174, 211 Avenue John F Kennedy (Luxembourg) 127, 130, 213 Bach, Claude, 59 Baker, Herbert, 25 Baldauf, Kurt, 50, 52, 181, 185 Balkan, 26, 88 Barcelona, 167 Basel, 18 Bdtiment Tour (Tower Building, called Alcide de Gasperi since 1998) (Luxembourg), 119, 121 Baudrillard, Jean, 159 Bauer, Christian, xi, 126, 127, 128, 208, 210 BBPR (Ludovico Barbiano di Belgiojoso, Enrico Peressutti, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers), 89 Beaudouin, Eugene, 34, 59, 99, 182, 199 Beaux-Arts See Ecole des BeauxArts Bech, Joseph, 113 Beckers, Steven, 156 Belgian Office of Overseas Social Security, 140 Belgium, x, 5, 11, 18, 20, 23, 28, 29, 36, 40, 44, 48, 67, 69, 70-73, 78, 80, 84, 112, 122, 133, 135, 136, 138, 140-143, 145, 148-153, 156-158, 163, 164, 173, 184, 199, 200, 205 Belgrade, 178, 186 Bennett, Edward H., 24, 194 Berlage, Hendrik Petrus, 22, 194, 195 Berlaymont building (Brussels), 121, 140, 142-145, 144, 154, 155, 156, 184, 201, 202, 210, 213 Berlaymont monastery (Brussels), 140, 201 Berlin, 8, 9, 19, 26, 47, 53, 75, Index 129, 164, 186, 188, 189, 209; capital city competition 1957-58, x, 91, 187, 201 Bern, 9, 20, 24, 122 Bernard, Henry, xi, 103, 104, 105, 106, 181, 202, 204, 206, 207, 209 Bevin, Ernest, 95 Bilbao, 165, 167, 177 Bofill, Ricardo, 128, 129, 211, 213 Bohm, Gottfried, 129, 210 Bologna, 18 Bonn, 9, 13, 41, 73, 85, 199 Boston, 31 Bourbon plateau (Luxembourg), 114 Bourg Blanc, 41-43, 42, 68 BRAL See Brusselse Raad voor het Leefmilieu Brasilia, 7, 55, 85, 200 Brazil, 34, 200 Breuer, Marcel, 34, 35, 122, 191, 199, 201 British Commonwealth, 26 Broggi, Carlo, 29, 197 Brosk, Rudiger, 110 Brussels, ix-xi, 1, 7, 8, 11-13, 2024, 28, 29, 36, 37, 43, 66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 78, 80-86, 82, 83, 88, 90, 99-102, 105, 107, 108, 121-123, 135, 136, 138-159, 139, 141, 144, 146, 147, 149, 150, 152, 154, 162-165, 167, 170, 173-176, 178, 183, 184, 191, 193, 195-198, 200-212, 215 Brusselse Raad voor het Leefmilieu (BRAL) (Brussels), 147, 205 Buildings Agency (Regie des Bdtiments) (Belgium), 155, 156 Bulgaria, 212 Burnham, Daniel H., 24, 194 Calsat, Henri-Jean, 78, 79, 101, 102, 181, 182, 190, 202 Camelot, Robert, xi, 59, 85, 86, 182, 183, 190 Index Campanella, Tommaso, 18 Canada, 7, 35, 164 Canberra, 7, 25, 56, 85, 195 Capital cities See Capital of Europe; National capital city/cities Capital of Europe, ix, x, xi, 1, 2, 611, 13, 40, 43, 44, 47, 53-55, 58, 72, 84, 86, 89, 95, 100, 113, 126, 135, 141, 162, 167, 169 Carlu, Jacques, 36 Carnegie, Andrew, 22 Carton, Gerard, 59 CDG-partners, 151 Centre Borschette (Brussels), 148, 207 Centre National des Industries et Techniques (CNIT), 59, 85, 182, 183, 201 Centre Pompidou (Paris), 105, 106, 206 CERAU (Centre d'etude et de recherche d'architecture et d'urbanisme), 152, 153 Cergy Pontoise, 24 Chabert, Jos, 151 Champs-Elysees, 64 Chandigarrh, 7, 199 Chantilly, 86 Charlemagne building (Brussels), 142, 144, 203 Chaussee d'Etterbeek (Brussels), 145, 147 Chicago, 24, 25, 31, 193, 194 China, 30, 185 Chirac, Jacques, 110 Churchill, Winston, 31, 197 CIAM (Congres Intemationaux dArchitecture Moderne), 44, 46, 187 Cite Rotterdam (Strasbourg), 99, 199 Citizen group(s), ix, 148, 149, 153 Citizen initiatives, 152, 158, 163 City Beautiful, 24, 25, 195 City Nord (Hamburg), 46, 118, 130 303 CNIT See Centre National des Industries et Techniques Colboc, Henri, 48, 49, 50, 182, 183 Cold War, 1, 164 Cologne, 95, 114, 178, 188, 189 Commission of Euratom, 173, 200 Commission of the EC, 12, 105, 121, 135, 142-144, 148, 203, 208, 210 Commission of the EEC, 173, 174, 200 Commission of the EU, 5, 12, 155157, 178, 215 Committee of experts, 34, 69, 73, 80, 88, 90, 96, 103, 106, 116, 117, 138, 184, 186 Committee of the Regions (CoR), 176 Communaute Urbaine de Strasbourg (CUS) (Strasbourg), 101, 105, 203 Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO), 177 Competition(s) (architectural and urban), x, xi, 8, 20, 22, 25, 28, 29, 32, 35, 37, 45-53, 57, 58, 64, 66-70, 73, 80, 88, 91, 99, 103, 106-109, 111, 116, 117, 120, 122, 126, 127, 129, 138, 148, 149, 156, 163, 165, 171, 181-190, 194-196, 199-201, 203-206, 209212 Congress of Vienna (1814-15), 135 Constance, 18 Constantinople, 26, 27 Conzemius, Jean-Paul, xi, 122 Coop Himmelb(l)au, 165 Cooremans, Lucien, 84, 141 Copenhagen, 165, 177 Cordonnier, Louis, 22, 23, 194, 195 Corniglion-Molinier, General, 84 Costa, Lucio, 34 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Count Richard, 26, 27, 85, 196, 201 Coulon, Rene Andre, 42, 80, 81, 183 304 Council of Euratom, 138, 141, 173, 174, 200 Council of Europe, 5, 6, 11, 39, 41, 44, 46, 70, 72, 78, 95, 96, 98101, 103, 106, 108, 111, 181, 198, 202, 204, 215 See also House of Europe; Palace of Europe Council of the EC, 53, 73, 79, 80, 90, 104, 105, 121, 142-145, 144, 147152, 147, 149, 150, 162, 174, 203-208 Council of the EEC, 138, 141, 173, 174, 200 Council of the European Union (CEU), 7, 12, 13, 127, 152, 163, 167, 170, 174, 176, 191, 211 See also Justus Lipsius building Court of Justice (ECSC), 6, 40 See also European Court of Justice Crete, 27 Crivelli, Andre J., 80, 81, 183 Culot, Maurice, 147, 150, 206 CUS See Communaute Urbaine de Strasbourg Cyprus, 27, 174, 212 Czech Republic, 174, 212 Dalidet, Pierre, xi, 49, 50, 183 Danzig, 18 Dassault, Marcel, 84 De Bazel, K.P.C, 21, 22, 24, 49, 194 De Bethune, Maximilien (Duke de Sully), 18 De Gaulle, Charles, 60, 84, 90, 100 De Keyser, Philippe, 147 De Mailly, Jean, 59, 85, 86, 182, 183 Dehousse, Fernand, 71 Delanty, Gerard, 171 Denmark, 6, 47, 165, 174, 205 Departement de I'Oise, 73, 84, 8587, 90, 91, 181, 201 Department of Bridges and Streets Index (Administration des Ponts et Chaussees) (Luxembourg), 117 Deutsches Architektur Museum (DAM), 165 Dickens, Charles, Dikansky, Georges, xi, 88 Dikansky, Michel, 88 Docker, Richard, 51, 185 Dollfus, Daniel, 53 Dubois, Pierre, 18 Diirer, Albrecht, 19 East Germany, 209 Eastern Europe, 1, 26, 27, 43, 73 Ecole des Beaux-Arts (Paris), x, 24, 41, 48, 57-60, 63, 64, 79, 80, 86, 121, 181-183, 185, 187-190 EC See European Communities ECSC See European Coal and Steel Community EEC See European Economic Community Eijkman, Pieter Hendrick, 21 Elsasser, Martin, 165 Embury, Aymar II, 31, 32, 198 ENERGIE-CITES, 168 England, 18, 25, 98 See also Great Britain ESDP See European Spatial Development Perspective Espace Bruxelles-Europe (EBE), 152, 153, 208, 209 Estonia, 174, 212 Etterbeek (Brussels), 83, 158 EU See European Union Euratom See European Atomic Energy Community Euro, 2, 3, 6, 175 EUR0CITIES, 168 Eurocorps, 112 Eurojust, 178 Europe, ix-xi, 1-3, 3, 5, 6, 8-13, 17-19, 21, 25-27, 31, 36, 37, 39- Index 41, 43-51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 61, 63, 64, 66-79, 74, 75, 76, 77, 81, 85, 87-91, 95, 96, 98-103, 105, 106, 108, 111-113, 116, 123, 128, 129, 131, 136, 142, 144, 151, 155, 156, 158, 159, 161-168, 166, 170, 172, 173, 176-179, 181, 185, 187-189, 191, 193, 198, 201, 202, 204-207, 210-213, 215 European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products (EMEA), 165, 177 European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA), 165, 177 European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), 6, 7, 11, 12, 36, 39, 43, 67, 72, 78, 81, 99, 100, 122, 135, 138, 140, 142, 162, 173, 174, 178, 184, 200, 201, 203 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), 178 European Capital (or City) of Culture, 10, 129, 211, 212 European Central Bank (ECB), 165, 175 European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), 176 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 5-7, 11, 35, 39, 40, 4249, 51, 60, 67-72, 78-80, 88, 98101, 108, 113, 114, 116, 122, 123, 130, 135, 136, 138, 140, 142, 154, 162, 173, 174, 176, 178, 183, 199-201, 203 European Commission See Commission of Euratom; Commission of the EC; Commission of the EEC; Commission of the EU; High Authority European Commission building (Brussels) See Berlaymont building 305 European Communities (EC), 6, 12, 53, 67, 68, 103-105, 109, 121123, 131, 135, 136, 142-144, 151, 162, 163, 173, 174, 176, 179, 203, 205-210, 215 European communities (ECSC, CEE, and Euratom), ix, 5, 7, 11, 37, 39, 40, 41, 57, 58, 60, 63, 66-68, 70, 73, 74, 84-86, 89, 91, 99101, 122, 131, 135, 140-142, 162, 163, 167, 174, 175 European Communities Personnel Selection Office (EPSO), 176 European Council, 157, 169, 175, 178, 212 European Court of Auditors (ECA), 133, 175, 178 European Court of Human Rights, 101, 106, 108, 112, 181, 203, 209, 211 European Court of Justice (ECJ), 6, 12, 40, 71, 72, 104, 119, 121, 122, 127, 130, 131, 173-175, 178, 188, 200, 201, 205, 206, 209-211, 213 European Defense Community (EDC), 6, 35, 44, 47, 200 European district, 11-13, 42, 4446, 48-57, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 64, 68, 69, 71, 78-90, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 97, 99-101, 104, 105, 110, 113, 115, 117-119, 119, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128131, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 137, 140, 145, 148, 150, 151, 154-158, 154, 162, 164, 171, 181-188, 190, 197, 200, 202, 205, 207, 209, 212 See also Capital of Europe European Economic Community (EEC), 6, 7, 11, 12, 36, 39, 43, 53, 67, 72, 78, 81, 89, 99, 100, 121, 122, 135, 138, 140, 142, 306 162, 173, 174, 178, 184, 200, 201, 203 European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), 176 European Environment Agency (EEA), 165, 176 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 178 European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (EUROFOUND), 176 European identity, xi, 2, 3, 7, 10, 122, 163, 165, 167, 171 European and international federations, 17 European Investment Bank (EIB), 12, 119, 121, 122, 133, 175, 201, 204, 205, 207 European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), 178 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), 177 European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC), 165, 177 European Ombudsman (EO), 175 European Pantheon, 58-60, 59, 201 European Parliament (EP), 7, 12, 40, 72, 78, 80, 84, 90, 95, 96, 99101, 103-105, 107, 108, 111, 112, 123, 124, 126, 135, 138, 141, 143, 148, 151-154, 156, 162-164, 169, 170, 173-176, 184, 206-211, 215 European Parliament building (Brussels), 143, 152-154, 154, 170, 208, 209, 211 European Parliament building (Luxembourg), 106, 116, 123, 124, 126, 205, 206 European Parliament building (Strasbourg), 7, 95, 107-109, 163, 170, 207, 209, 210, 212 Index European Parliament office building (Brussels) See Altiero Spinelli building European Parliamentary Assembly, 5, 12, 40, 43, 45, 90, 95, 99-101, 103, 138, 141, 154, 173-175, 182, 199, 202 European Political Community (EPC), 6, 44, 200 European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP), 168 European Special Council of Ministers, 5, 6, 40, 43, 173, 199 European Training Foundation (ETF), 165, 177 European Translation Center for Bodies of the European Union (EDT), 133 European unification, x, xi, 3, 5, 10-12, 17-20, 26, 27, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 53, 61, 63, 68, 72, 73, 88, 91, 133, 154, 161-163, 167, 168, 170, 193 European Union (EU), ix, xi, 1-3, 5-7, 9-13, 17, 26, 48, 67, 105, 108, 113, 121, 126, 133, 138, 155, 157-159, 161-165, 167-171, 173-178, 191, 210-212 European University Institute (EUI), 179 Europeanization, 1, 11, 47, 53, 105, 133, 158, 163, 200 Expo '58, 81, 138, 142, 183, 201 See also World's fair(s) Federal Republic of Gemany, 5, 9, 199, 209 See also Germany; West Germany Feien, Wilhelm, 46 Ferris, Hugh, 31, 198 Filarete (Averlino, Antonio), 19 Finland, 165, 174, 211 Flegenheimer, Julien, 28, 29, 197 Flemish Community, 136 Flemish Region, 136 Index Florence, 8, 178 Fondation Roi Baudouin (Brussels), 158 Fonds Quartier Europeen (Brussels), 158 Fonds d'Urbanisation et dAmenagement du Plateau de Kirchberg (Luxembourg) See also Urbanization Fund, 118-122, 126-130, 202, 204, 210 Fontaine, Jean-Paul, 102 Fort Thiingen (Luxembourg), 126, 128, 213 Foster, Norman, 156 France, 5, 6, 9, 11, 13, 18-20, 22, 26, 33-35, 39-41, 43-45, 47, 48, 54, 58, 65-70, 72, 78, 84, 87, 88, 91, 96, 98-101, 103-106, 113, 118, 122, 133, 135, 138, 145, 153, 162-164, 173, 181-183, 188191, 194, 199, 207; government, 9, 13, 33-35, 41, 43, 69, 70, 79, 84, 87, 98-101, 103-106, 153, 162, 164 Frangois et Fils construction company, 140, 142, 201 Frankfurt am Main, 46, 127, 165, 175, 210 Frejus, 24, 90 Freudenstadt, 19 Frey, Charles, 70, 98 Fritsch, Paul, 126, 208 Fronts de Neudorf (Strasbourg), 108 Gare du Nord (Paris), 60, 86 Gare Saint-Lazare (Paris), 86 Geneva, 13, 20, 22, 27-30, 30, 196, 197 Geneva Convention (1864), 20 George V, 25 Germany, x, 1, 5, 9, 11, 26, 27, 30, 40, 41, 43-45, 47, 48, 53, 54, 6770, 74, 84, 96, 108, 111-114, 116-118, 122, 127, 133, 135, 138, 307 164, 165, 167, 173, 181, 185, 186, 188, 189, 197, 199, 209, 210 Gilson, Jean, 140, 184 Glasgow, 167 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, 113, 114 See also Luxembourg Grands projets (Paris), 9, 105, 108, 164, 209 Graz, 167 Great Britain, 26, 53, 86 Greece, 2, 165, 174, 206 Gregotti, Vittorio, 171 Griffin, Walter Burley, 25, 195 Gropius, Walter, 34 Groupe Alpha, 82, 83, 139, 140, 145, 146, 148, 184, 198, 204 Group Planning, 151, 184 Groupe Equerre, 71 Gruen, Victor, 57 Habermas, Jiirgen, Hadid, Zaha, 111 Hague, The, 9, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 40, 54, 69, 71, 72, 75, 178, 193, 194, 195, 199, 201, 215 Hamburg, x, 26, 46, 60, 118, 130 Hanover, 60, 111 Hapsburgs, 18 Harrison, Wallace K., 31, 32, 198 Haussmann, Baron George Eugene, 9, 64 Headquarters city/cities, ix, xi, 1, 2, 9-13, 18, 41, 43, 50, 51, 6971, 79, 87-89, 91, 95, 99, 106, 112, 116, 133, 135, 138, 140, 152, 161-164, 167-169, 171, 182, 184, 191, 210 See also Host city/cities Hebebrand, Werner, 46 Hebrard, Ernest, 24, 25, 27, 29, 79, 194, 195 Hemicycle, 107, 108, 119, 124, 152-155, 205-212 Henard, Eugene, 24, 64 308 Henry IV (of France), 18 Herriot, Edouard, 27 Heysel (Brussels), 36, 81, 84 High Authority (ECSC), 5, 40, 43, 173, 174, 199 High-speed rail, 86, 108, 111, 129 Historical Archives of the European Union (HAEC), 178 Hitler, Adolf, 8, 116, 189 Hoffmann, Josef, 21 Hoffmann, Klaus, xi, 21, 50-51, 52, 181, 185 Hollander, Reiner Kay, 47 Horta, Victor, 144, 203 Host city/cities, 7, 9, 10, 12, 33, 36, 37, 72, 73, 113, 116, 162 See also Headquarters city/cities House of Europe (Strasbourg), 64, 65, 98-101, 112, 188, 199, 200 See also Palace of Europe Hugo, Victor, 19 Humpert, Klaus, 110 Hungary, 26, 174, 186, 212 Iceland, 46, 177 Ideal cities, 18, 19, 21, 41 IEB See Inter-Environnement Bruxelles III River, 105, 108 Inter-Environnement Bruxelles (IEB), 147-150, 149, 150, 204, 205, 207 International collaboration/cooperation, 10, 17, 19, 20, 26-28, 31, 37, 197 International Congress Center (ICC) (Brussels), 107 International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (predecessor of UNESCO), 33 International organizations, 11, 17, 19-23, 25, 26, 29, 31-33, 37, 83, 140, 147, 157, 198 International Peace Bureau, 20 Ireland, 165, 174, 205 Index Italy, 5, 8, 11, 18, 26, 27, 30, 34, 40, 67, 68, 73, 74, 84, 87-89, 91, 154, 167, 173, 194, 199 Ixelles (Bruxelles), 83, 148, 151, 158, 208 Jamagne, Frangois, 122 Japan, ix, x, 27, 30, 63 Jenks, C Wilfred, 31 Jerusalem, 18 Joly, Robert, 127, 208 Jones, Paul, 171 Josaphat station (Brussels), 150, 207 Jourdan, Jochem, 127, 128, 210 Justus Lipsius building (Brussels), 143-145, 149-152, 152, 206, 211 Jux, Egon, 117 Kahane, Daniel, xi, 64, 65, 185, 204 Karlsruhe, 8, 9, 185, 186 Kehl, 70, 96, 108-111, 110, 212 Kiem (Luxembourg), 116, 121, 123 Kilpper, Gerhart, xi, 50-51, 52, 181, 185 Kirchberg, 13, 79-81, 81, 113, 114, 116-133, 118, 119, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 156, 162, 164, 183, 186, 188, 200, 202-210, 213 Klein, Erwin, 50, 52, 181, 185 Konig, Kaspar, 127, 128, 210 Koolhaas, Rem, 129 Krause, Karl Christian Friedrich, 19 Krier, Leon, xii, 124-126, 125, 128, 150, 163, 206 Krier, Rob, 124 Kriiger, Rudolf, xii, 49, 50, 51, 185, 186 L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui (magazine), 61-63, 87, 91, 190 La Cambre (Brussels), ix, x, 147, 148, 184, 206 Index La Defense (Paris), 34, 35, 59, 61, 85, 120, 130, 182-184, 190, 201 La Fontaine, Henri, 23, 194 Lake Europa, 53-57, 55, 56, 68, 201, 202, 204 Lallemand, Pierre, 156 Lasdun, Denys, 122, 205, 207 Latvia, 174, 212 Latz, Peter, 127, 128, 210 Lausanne, Le Cceur, Claude, xii, 64 Le Corbusier, 7, 29, 30, 33, 34, 44, 45, 61, 64, 101, 188, 196, 199, 203 Le Gales, Patrick, 167 Le Grand Liege (group), 70 Le Maresquier, Noel, 64 League of Nations, 5, 20, 23, 26-33, 29, 37, 40, 43, 44, 48, 189, 195198; building, 28-30, 32, 33, 196, 197 Lefevre, Camille, 29, 197 Leipzig, 114, 188 Lemaresquier, Atelier, 58 Leopold I, 136 Leopold II, 8, 136, 140 Lery, Pierre, xii, 86, 87 Les Halles (Paris), 64, 66 Liechtenstein, 177 Liege, 40, 69-71, 138, 184, 199 Lille, 129, 167, 181 Lisbon, 177, 178 Lithuania, 174, 212 Lods, Marcel, 34, 182 Loir-et-Cher, 53 London, 8, 9, 31, 33, 85, 86, 99, 142, 165, 167, 177, 198 Longuet, Michel, xii, 65 Lorraine, 44, 186 Louis XIV, 95, 113 Louise Weiss building (Strasbourg), 163 See also European Parliament building (Strasbourg) Louvre (Paris), 64, 65, 85 309 Luja, Henri, xii, 80, 117-121, 118, 186 Lutyens, Edwin, 25, 195 Luxembourg, x, xi, 1, 5, 7, 11-13, 37, 40, 43, 44, 47, 48, 54, 66, 67, 69, 71-75, 78-81, 81, 84, 90, 91, 99-101, 104, 106, 112-133, 115, 118, 119, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 138, 145, 156, 162-165, 167, 173-175, 177, 183, 186, 188-190, 193, 194, 197, 199208, 210, 211, 213, 215 Luxembourg station (Brussels), 145, 146, 148, 152-154, 154, 205 Maastricht Treaty (1992), 6, 12, 105, 163, 174, 176, 210 Madrid, 8, 75 Maelbeek Valley (Brussels), 145 Malta, 27, 174, 212 Manhattan, 32, 33, 198, 200 Markelius, Sven, 34 Marne-la-Vallee, 66 Marseille, 45, 183 Marshall Plan, 5, 39, 42, 43, 198, 200 Massa, Marco, 110 May, Ernst, 46 Mayence, 95 Maymont, Paul, xii, 63, 64, 204 Medecin, Jean, 84 Mediterranean Sea, 27, 56, 88 Megastructures, x, 123 Meier, Richard, 129, 210 Melbourne, Menard, Andre, xii, 59 Menil, Serge, 61, 200 Menkes, Edouard, 49, 51, 186, 187 Merger treaty of 1965 (1967) transforming the European communities into the EC, 6, 41, 122, 131, 135, 142, 173-175 Metz, 68, 127 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 45 310 Milan, 73, 88-90, 111, 194, 201 Miller, James Marshall, xii, 54-57, 55, 56, 66, 187, 201, 202, 204 Ministry of Public Works (Belgium), 140, 184 Ministry of Public Works (Luxembourg), 118, 119, 122 Minkus, Jiirgen, 129, 210 Mitterrand, Frangois, 9, 106 Modernism, 44, 49, 51 Monnet, Bertrand, 96, 98, 100, 101, 187, 199, 202, 203 Monnet, Jean, 39, 40, 54, 72, 207 Monnet Plan (1947), 39 Mont Blanc Tunnel, 90 Montesson (Paris), 63, 85, 182, 183 Montreal, Monza, 73, 88, 89, 201 More, Thomas, 18 Morin, Edgar, Mosel River, 56 Moser, Werner, 46 Mount Scharrach, 79 Mueller, Bernhard, 127, 128, 210 Multiple Europes, Mumford, Lewis, 31 Mundaneum, 28, 29, 196 Nairobi, 13 National capital city/cities, ix-xi, 1, 7-10, 20, 21, 24, 25, 37, 69, 78, 88, 89, 95, 104, 106, 136, 164, 169, 170 NATO See North Atlantic Treaty Organization Naumann, Friedrich, 26, 195 Nazis, 27, 41, 44, 70, 96, 114, 116, 181, 186, 188, 197 Neighborhood(s), ix, 24, 46, 48, 49, 54, 55, 60, 86, 101, 114, 116, 117, 123, 125, 126, 128, 140, 142, 143, 149, 153, 158, 190, 193 Nenot, Henri-Paul, 28, 29, 197 Index Nervi, Pier Luigi, 34, 35, 46, 59, 89, 191, 199, 201 Netherlands, 5, 9, 11, 20, 40, 47, 48, 67, 69, 70, 73, 84, 199; Dutch government, 22, 71, 72, 80 Neues Bauen, 48, 51 New Delhi, 25, 195 New town(s), 24, 58, 63, 86, 105, 130, 183, 184, 191 New York, 13, 31, 33, 54, 55, 60, 187, 197, 198 Nice, 73-76, 76, 84, 87, 88, 90, 201 Nice Treaty (2001), 157, 212 Nicholas II, 20 North Africa, 60, 63, 75 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 17, 31, 35, 36, 63, 84, 103, 157, 162, 198, 200, 203, 204, 215 Norway, 177 Niirnberg, 18 Oberhausbergen, 78, 79, 101, 202 OEEC See Organization for European Economic Cooperation Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and Designs) (0HIM), 177 Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (00PEC), 133, 176 OmbudsPLANMediateur, 157 Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), Organization for International Cooperation (predecessor of UNESCO), 23, 196 Otlet, Paul, 23, 24, 28-30, 194, 196 Ottawa, 7, 56 Oud, J.J.R, 46 Paczowski, Bohdan, xii, 127, 206, 209, 210 Palace of Europe (Strasbourg), 103, Index 105, 123, 162, 181, 204, 206, 207 See also Council of Europe; House of Europe Palace of Justice (Brussels), 21 Palais de Chaillot (Paris), 35, 36 Palatinates, Panerai, Philippe, 110 Paneuropa, 26, 27, 85, 196 Pantheon of Mankind, 22, 195 Parallel Paris See Paris Parallele Pare de I'Orangerie (Strasbourg), 103 Pare des Princes [sports complex] (Paris), 123 Pare du Cinquantenaire (Brussels), 140, 141 Pare Leopold (Brussels), 145, 146, 153 Parent, Claude, xii, 62 Paris, x, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 19, 24, 3337, 35, 36, 39-43, 49, 55, 57-66, 61, 62, 64, 65, 73-75, 78, 8488, 86, 90, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106, 108, 111, 120, 123, 126, 130, 164, 165, 167, 173, 175, 178, 181-191, 193, 199-204, 206, 209, 210, 213, 215 Paris, Jean Camille, 96 Paris Parallele (parallel Paris), 62, 63, 66, 190, 202 Paris Treaty (1951), 5, 173 Parliamentary Assembly See European Parliamentary Assembly (ECSC) Parliamentary Commissions building (Brussels), 152 Parma, 178 Participatory democracy, Paul-Henri Spaak building (Brussels), 153, 154 See also European Parliament building (Brussels) Peace conferences, 20-22, 26, 37, 66 Peace movement, 3, 17, 23 Peace Palace (The Hague), 20-23, 23, 28, 32, 33, 48, 194, 195 311 Peccoux, Jean, 86, 87 Pei, Ieoh Ming, 128, 213 Permanent Court of Arbitration, 2022, 31, 37, 193 Perrault, Dominique, 127, 211, 213 Pescadere, Georges-Henri, xii, 41-43, 42, 54, 188, 189, 197 Pesch, Fernand, 126, 207 Petit and Grand Palais (Paris), 24 Petrusse Valley (Luxembourg), 114 Peyron, Amedeo, 89 Pflimlin, Pierre, xii, 78, 100, 101, 111, 182 Philadelphia, 31 Piano, Renzo, 129, 206 Pingusson, Georges-Henri, 44 Place de Fontenoy (Paris), 33, 34, 199 Place de I'Europe (Luxembourg), 128, 129, 211 Place du Luxembourg, 154, 155 Place Jourdan (Brussels), 148 Place Lenotre (Strasbourg), 96 Plan Alpha (Brussels), 145, 146 Plan dAmenagement et dVrganisation de la Region Parisienne (PADOG), 61, 62, 202 Plan de Secteur (Brussels), 148, 157, 206 Plan Regional d'Amenagement du Sol (PRAS) (Brussels), 157, 212 Plan Regional de Developpement (PRD) (Brussels), 157, 211 Podiebrad, George, 18 Polak, Andre, 140, 148 Polak, Jean, xii, 140, 148 Poland, 174, 212 POLIS, 168 Polycentricity, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 19, 69, 104, 161, 164, 168, 169, 171, 172 Pompidou, Georges, 103 Pont Adolphe (Luxembourg), 114, 117, 194 312 Pont Grande-Duchesse Charlotte (Luxembourg) 121, 126, 203 Ponti, Gio, 89 Portugal, 165, 174, 207 Portzamparc, Christian de, 128-130, 129, 130, 213 Pottier, Henri, xii, 86, 87 Prague, 26, 111 Prix de Rome, 21, 24, 36, 58, 64, 66, 103, 127, 181-183, 185, 189191, 201, 204 Projet General d'Amenagement (PGA) (Luxembourg), 127, 208 Prussia, 113 Quartier Leopold (Brussels), 136, 138, 140-145, 148, 151, 152, 154-156, 158, 159, 196, 198, 201, 203, 205, 206, 212 Quartier Nord (Brussels), 153 Raffestin, Claude, 169 Randet, Pierre, xii Rapoport, Amos, 169, 170 Renner, Otto, xii, 45, 46, 70, 71, 188 Residence Palace (Brussels), 140, 141, 145 Rey, Jean, 71 Rhine River, 60, 95, 96, 99, 101, 111, 112, 209, 212, 213 Rich, Paul, 26 Rio de Janeiro, Ritter, Hubert, 114, 118, 186, 188, 197 Robert, Jeanine, 88 Robert Schuman building (Luxembourg), 119, 123, 130, 205 Robertsau, 78 Robertson, Howard, 34, 199 Rogers, Ernesto, 34 Rogers, Richard, 104, 106, 107, 112, 206, 209, 211 Index Roissy-Charles de Gaulle (airport), 86 Romania, 212 Rome, 2, 8, 13, 24, 46, 59, 75, 185, 190, 191 Rome Treaty (1958), 6, 39, 72, 88, 173, 176, 200 Rond-point de la Defense (Paris), 35 Rond-point de la Loi (Brussels), 140, 141, 143 See also Rondpoint Schuman Rond-point Schuman (Brussels), 145, 151, 152 See also Rondpoint de la Loi Roosevelt, Franklin D., 31, 197 Rotival, Maurice, 60, 61, 63, 189, 197, 202 Rotterdam, 46, 60, 99 Roux, Marcel, 44, 45 Rue Belliard (Brussels), 145, 148, 151, 152, 184, 205, 206 Rue de la Loi (Brussels), 140-145, 141, 144, 148, 205, 208 Rue de Rivoli (Paris), 126 Rue du Luxembourg (Brussels), 153, 154, 155 Russia, 26 Saar River, 56 Saarbriicken, 44-53, 50, 51, 52, 69-71, 74, 116, 181, 183, 185188, 197, 199, 200, 215 Saarinen, Eero, 34, 199 Saarland, 40, 43-51, 53, 68-70, 72, 186, 195, 197, 200, 215 Saarlouis (Sarrelouis), 49, 51, 181, 185, 187 Saintenoy, Gustave, 155 San Francisco, 31, 197 Sao Paolo, Sarrelouis (Saarlouis), 49, 51, 181, 185, 187 Index Sauer, Frangois, xii, 105, 106, 207 Scandinavia, 26, 75 Schema Directeur d'Amenagement et d'Urbanisme (SDAU), 102, 205 Schema directeur d'amenagement et d'urbanisme de la region de Paris (SDAURP), 63, 203 Schinz, Alfred, 47 Schoonbrodt, Rene, xii, 147 Schreiner, Karl-Oswald, 41-43, 42, 54, 188, 189, 197 Schroder, Gerhard, 110 Schumacher, Fritz, 114 Schuman, Robert, 39, 78, 123, 141, 205 Schuman Plan (1950), 39, 199 Seine River, 63-66, 183, 190 Sejourne, Paul, 114, 194 Senlis, 86 SERS See Societe d'Amenagement et d'Equipement de la Region de Strasbourg SEURA, 110 Sforza, Francesco, 19 SHAPE See Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Powers in Europe Shore, Cris, Simon, Gustav, 114 Simonet, Henri, 148 Single capital/headquarters/site, 6, 7, 11, 12, 18, 19, 26, 28, 40, 53, 67-69, 71-73, 78-80, 90, 91, 100, 113, 131, 138, 152, 169, 202 Single European Act (1986), 12, 163, 168, 175, 208 Sive, Andre, 45 Skidmore, Louis, 31, 32, 198 Skopje, 178 Slovak Republic, 174, 212 Slovenia, 174, 212 Societe d'Amenagement et d'Equipement de la Region de Strasbourg (SERS), 107 313 Societe Frangaise des Urbanistes (SFU), 24, 190 Sophia-Antipolis, 88 Soviet Union, 26, 27, 39, 187 Spain, 18, 88, 113, 135, 165, 174, 178, 207 Special Council of Ministers (ECSC), 5, 6, 40, 43, 45, 138, 141, 173 Spira, 95 St Petersburg, Stadler, Klaus, 110 Stadtlandschaft, x, 48-50, 95, 157 Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat), 133 STEG, 110 Stein, Clarence S., 54, 187, 196 St.-Germain-Montesson, 85, 182, 183, 191 Stoll, Erich, 49-51, 51, 186 Stoskopf, Gustave, xii, 78, 79, 101, 182, 189, 190 Strasbourg, x, xi, 1, 7, 11-13, 37, 43, 48, 66, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 78, 79, 84, 87, 90, 95-112, 97, 98, 102, 104, 107, 109, 110, 116, 123, 126, 138, 153, 156, 162-165, 170, 173-75, 181, 182, 188-190, 193, 197-201, 203, 204, 206, 207, 209-213, 215 Stresa, 73, 75, 77, 88, 89, 201 Stiibben, Joseph, 114, 120, 193 Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Powers in Europe (SHAPE), 36, 184 Sweden, 6, 34, 174, 211 Switzerland, 9, 20, 28, 29, 46, 122, 164, 169 Sydney, Symbolism of Europe, xi, 3, 106, 122, 170 Taillibert, Roger, xii, 123, 124, 126, 206 Tange, Kenzo, 63, 201 314 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 56 Tessier, Jean, 86, 87 Thessaloniki, 167, 178 Thiele, Klaus Jakob, 47 Thionville, 68 Thyes, Felix, 126, 208 Tokyo, x, 29, 63, 201 Toronto, Transnational (collaboration), 6, 11, 40, 43, 47, 53, 68, 69, 86, 108, 109, 111, 164, 168, 210, 212, 213 Trautmann, Catherine, 105, 106, 111, 209 Treaty creating the European Communities (EC) (1965 applied 1967), 121 See also Merger treaty of 1965 Treaty of London (1867), 114 Treaty on European Union, See also Maastricht Treaty (1992) Trier, 181, 185 Tunis, 75, 190 Turin, 8, 40, 73, 74, 88-90, 165, 177, 201, 215 Turkey, 18, 46, 182 UIA See Union des Associations Internationales UN See United Nations UNESCO See United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Union des Associations Internationales (UIA), 23, 194 United Europe, 5, 10, 11, 13, 27, 39, 53, 54, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63, 66, 68, 95, 106, 122, 165, 196 See also European unification United Kingdom, 6, 18, 25, 26, 35, 86, 95, 98, 164, 165, 174, 205 United Nations (UN), 5, 13, 17, 23, 31-33, 55, 162, 196-198, 200 Index United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 23, 31, 33-35, 35, 55, 59, 63, 84, 162, 191, 196, 197, 199, 201 United States of America, xi, 5, 7, 9, 22, 24-28, 31, 33-35, 39, 42, 54, 56, 57, 60, 153, 182, 187, 189 Urban Planning Department (Luxembourg), 117, 119, 186 Urbanization Fund See Fonds d'Urbanisation et d'Amenagement du Plateau de Kirchberg Vago, Giusepe, 29, 197 Vago, Pierre, xii, 120, 121, 123, 127, 190, 197, 203, 204 Van Der Biest, Jacques, 147 Van der Goes van Naters, Marinus, 44 Van Driessche, Isabelle, xii, 126, 208 Van Traa, C, 57 Vanden Bossche, Marc, xii, 153 Vander Elst, Michel, 122 Vanderauwera, Alberto, xii, 184 Vauban, 95, 113 Verlorenkost plateau (Luxembourg), 117-119, 200 Versailles, 8, 43, 182, 185 Vienna, 18, 21, 26, 27, 72, 75, 165, 187, 196 Vittelozzi, Annibale, 46 Walloon Region, 136 Walter Hummelsheim, 73 Washington, D C, 8, 13, 35, 40, 54, 72, 85 Webb, Aston, 27 Weigel, Bernard, xii, 42 Weiss, Louise, 108 Wei£e Burg, 41-43, 42, 68 Weissenburg (Wissembourg), 40-42, 42, 66, 188, 189 Index Werner, Pierre, xii, 121 West Germany, 1, 5, 43, 47, 48, 53, 199 Westmark, 44, 186 Wissembourg (Weissenburg), 40-42, 42, 66, 188, 189 Wittig, Albrecht Egon, 47 World city/cities, 10, 11, 17, 19-32, 25, 30, 32, 37, 40, 41, 49, 57, 79, 194-196 World War I, ix, 5, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 186, 197 World War II, ix, 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 30, 31, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 48, 49, 58, 60, 70, 89, 96, 109, 114, 136, 143, 161, 162, 181, 182, 185-190, 197 315 World wars, ix, 5, 26, 114 World's fair(s), 8, 24, 29, 30, 31, 36, 57, 81, 85, 88, 138, 167, 182, 183, 184, 193, 194, 196, 197, 201 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 45 Wright, Henry, 54, 196 Zaventem Airport, 138 Zehrfuss, Bernard, xii, 34, 35, 59, 85, 86, 182, 183, 185, 190, 199, 201 Zimmer, Peter, 45 Zlonicky, Peter, 110 Zorgvliet Park (The Hague), 22, 195 Zublena, Aymeric, xii, 66, 191 Zurich, 9, 46 About the Author CAROLA HEIN is Assistant Professor at Bryn Mawr College in the Growth and Structure of Cities Program She was trained in Hamburg (Diplom-Ingenieurin) and Brussels (Architecte) and obtained her doctorate at the Hochschule fur bildende Kunste in Hamburg in 1995 on the topic of "Hauptstadt Europa." From 1995 to 1999 she was a Visiting Researcher at Tokyo Metropolitan University and Kogakuin University, researching the reconstruction of Japanese cities after World War II and the Western influence on Japanese urban planning She has published and lectured widely on topics of contemporary and historical architectural and urban planning in Europe and Japan, and coauthored the volume Hauptstadt Berlin and co-edited Rebuilding Urban after 1945 (2003) ... sense of European unity, most recently eastward, means for the creation of a capital of Europe in the future To learn more, I took up doctoral research on the issue of the capital city of Europe. .. into the capital of Europe Building Imagined Europe As they emerged during the 1950s, the organizations that would form the basis for the EU officially promoted the concept of a single capital. .. discussion about the European capital The strengthening of regional and European organizations during the past few years coincides with the growing popularity of the idea of Europe as an engine