Oncology and palliative Passmedicine & Onexamination notes 2016

Cancer in the UK The most common causes of cancer in the UK are as follows* 1) Breast 2) Lung 3) Colorectal 4) Prostate 5) Bladder 6) Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 7) Melanoma 8) Stomach 9) Oesophagus 10) Pancreas *excludes non-melanoma skin cancer The most common causes of death from cancer in the UK are as follows: 1) Lung 2) Colorectal 3) Breast 4) Prostate 5) Pancreas 6) Oesophagus 7) Stomach 8) Bladder 9) Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10) Ovarian Tumour suppressor genes    Genes which normally control the cell cycle Loss of function results in an increased risk of cancer Both alleles must be mutated before cancer occurs Examples Gene Associated cancers p53 Common to many cancers, Li-Fraumeni syndrome APC Colorectal cancer BRCA1 Breast and ovarian cancer BRCA2 Breast and ovarian cancer NF1 Neurofibromatosis Rb Retinoblastoma WT1 Wilm's tumour Multiple tumor suppressor (MTS-1, p16) Melanoma Tumour suppressor genes - loss of function results in an increased risk of cancer Oncogenes - gain of function results in an increased risk of cancer P53:     p53 is a tumour suppressor gene located on chromosome 17p It is the most commonly mutated gene in breast, lung and colon cancer P53 is thought to play a crucial role in the cell cycle, preventing entry into the S phase until DNA has been checked and repaired It may also be a key regulator of apoptosis Li-Fraumeni syndrome:  a rare autosomal dominant disorder  characterised by the early onset of a variety of cancers such as sarcomas and breast cancer  It is caused by mutation in the p53 gene Tumour markers Tumour markers may be divided into: 1) 2) 3) 4) monoclonal antibodies against carbohydrate or glycoprotein tumour antigens tumour antigens enzymes (alkaline phosphatase, neurone specific enolase) hormones (e.g calcitonin, ADH) It should be noted that tumour markers usually have a low specificity (used for follow up not diagnosis) Monoclonal antibodies Tumour marker Association CA 125 Ovarian cancer CA 19-9 Pancreatic cancer CA 15-3 Breast cancer Tumour antigens       Tumour marker Association Prostate specific antigen (PSA) Prostatic carcinoma Alpha-feto protein (AFP)    Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) Colorectal cancer S-100   Melanoma, Schwannomas Bombesin    Small cell lung carcinoma, gastric cancer, neuroblastoma Hepatocellular carcinoma, Teratomas Nonseminoma testicular tumor Beta-HCG and AFP are used to monitor testicular cancer β-hCG concentrations may be elevated in seminomatous or nonseminomatous tumours, AFP is increased only with nonseminomatous tumours AFP by itself is useful in monitoring liver cancer CEA is used to monitor colorectal and breast cancers CA125 is most commonly used to monitor ovarian cancer but can also be raised in endometrial, lung, breast and gastrointestinal cancers Lung cancer Referral: The 2005 NICE cancer referral guidelines gave the following advice: A) Consider immediate referral for patients with: 1) signs of SVC obstruction (Swelling of the face/neck with fixed elevation of jugular venous pressure) 2) stridor B) Refer urgently patients with: 1) persistent haemoptysis (in smokers or ex-smokers aged 40 years and older) 2) a chest X-ray suggestive of lung cancer (Including pleural effusion and slowly resolving consolidation) 3) a normal chest X-ray where there is a high suspicion of lung cancer 4) a history of asbestos exposure and:  recent onset of chest pain,  shortness of breath or  unexplained systemic symptoms where a chest x-ray indicates pleural effusion, pleural mass or any suspicious lung pathology Refer urgently for chest x-ray for patients with any of the following: A) haemoptysis B) unexplained or persistent (longer than weeks): 1) chest and/or shoulder pain, 2) dyspnoea, 3) cough, 4) weight loss, 5) chest signs, 6) hoarseness, 7) finger clubbing, 8) cervical or supraclavicular lymphadenopathy, 9) features suggestive of metastasis from a lung cancer (For example, secondaries in the brain, bone, liver, skin) C) underlying chronic respiratory problems with unexplained changes in existing symptoms Lung cancer Types: 1) squamous: 35% 2) adenocarcinoma: 30% 3) small (oat) cell: - 15% 4) large cell: -10% 5) other c 5% Other tumours:  Bronchoalveolar cell carcinoma:  not related to smoking,  ++sputum,  Classically presents with progressive breathlessness and the production of large amounts of sputum (bronchorrhoea)  Almost a half of patients are diagnosed on routine CXR, usually demonstrating a peripheral lesion  Its name arises from its pattern of growth along the alveolar walls without actually destroying them  It is an adenocarcinoma  In those whose tumour is not resectable, prognosis is poor  bronchial adenoma:  mostly carcinoid Lung cancer risk factors: 1) Smoking: increases risk of lung ca by a factor of 10 Other factors: 2) asbestos - increases risk of lung ca by a factor of 3) arsenic 4) radon 5) nickel 6) chromate 7) aromatic hydrocarbon 8) cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis (IPF) Factors that are NOT related:  coal dust Smoking and asbestos are synergistic, i.e a smoker with asbestos exposure has a 10 * = 50 times increased risk Central lesions: small cell, squamous cell, Bronchial adenoma Peripheral lesion: bronchoalveolar cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma Non-small cell Lung cancer There are three main subtypes of non-small cell lung cancer: A) Squamous cell cancer (35%) 1) typically central (cavitating lung lesion ) 2) associated with parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) secretion → hypercalcaemia 3) hyperthyroidism due to ectopic TSH 4) strongly associated with finger clubbing 5) hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy (HPOA) B) Adenocarcinoma (30%) 1) most common type of lung cancer in non-smokers, although the majority of patients who develop lung adenocarcinoma are smokers 2) typically located on the lung periphery 3) gynecomastia C) Large cell lung carcinoma (10%) Management of Non-small cell Lung cancer: 1) only 20% suitable for surgery 2) Mediastinoscopy performed prior to surgery as CT does not always show mediastinal lymph node involvement 3) curative or palliative radiotherapy 4) poor response to chemotherapy Surgery contraindications: 1) assess general healt 2) stage IIIb or IV (i.e metastases present) 3) FEV1 < 1.5 litres is considered a general cut-off point* 4) malignant pleural effusion 5) tumour near hilum 6) vocal cord paralysis 7) SVC obstruction * However if FEV1 < 1.5 for lobectomy or < 2.0 for pneumonectomy then some authorities advocate further lung function tests as operations may still go ahead based on the results Small Cell Lung Cancer (15%) Features: 1) usually central 2) arise from APUD cells ( Amine Precursor Uptake Decarboxylase) 3) associated with ectopic ADH, ACTH secretion  ADH → hyponatraemia  ACTH → Cushing's syndrome  ACTH secretion can cause:  bilateral adrenal hyperplasia,  the high levels of cortisol can lead to hypokalaemic alkalosis 4) Lambert-Eaton syndrome: antibodies to voltage gated calcium channels causing myasthenic like syndrome *an acronym for  Amine - high amine content  Precursor Uptake - high uptake of amine precursors  Decarboxylase - high content of the enzyme decarboxylase Management: 1) usually metastatic disease by time of diagnosis 2) Patients with very early stage disease (T1-2a, N0, M0) are now considered for surgery NICE support this approach in their 2011 guidelines 3) however, most patients with limited disease receive a combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy 4) patients with more extensive disease are offered palliative chemotherapy CT scan showing small cell lung cancer with multiple pulmonary nodules and extensive mediastinal nodal metastases    The brain is a frequent site of first relapse in patients after complete therapeutic response Prophylactic cranial irradiation should therefore be considered for patients with SCLC who have a response to initial chemotherapy Prophylactic cranial irradiation based on randomised clinical trials largely applied to patients with limited-stage SCLC has demonstrated a decrease in the risk of intracranial relapse from 40% to 20% and improved long term survival by approximately 5% Lung carcinoid (1%) (Bronchial adenomas)  The vast majority of bronchial adenomas are carcinoid tumours, arise from the amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation (APUD) system, like small cell tumours  Lung carcinoid accounts 1% of lung tumours and for 10% of carcinoid tumours  The term bronchial adenoma is being phased out Features: 1) typical age = 40-50 years 2) smoking not risk factor 3) slow growing: e.g long history of cough, recurrent haemoptysis 4) often centrally located and not seen on CXR 5) 'cherry red ball' often seen on bronchoscopy 6) carcinoid syndrome itself is rare (associated with liver metastases) Management: 1) surgical resection 2) if no metastases then 90% survival at years Paraneoplastic features in Lung cancer A) Squamous cell:  parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTH-rp) secretion causing hypercalcaemia  hyperthyroidism due to ectopic TSH  hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy (HPOA)  clubbing B) Adenocarcinoma:  Gynaecomastia C) Small cell:  ADH  ACTH (Increased cortisol)- not typical, hypertension, hyperglycaemia, hypokalaemia, alkalosis and muscle weakness are more common than buffalo hump etc  Lambert-Eaton syndrome Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy is a proliferative periostisis involving that typically involves the long bones It is often painful Laryngeal cancer  Initial therapy for stages I and II is radiation therapy or surgery  External beam radiation is the curative and function sparing treatment for this patient who has stage I and II laryngeal cancer  In the setting of lymph node-positive or locally advanced disease, the benefit of concurrent chemoradiotherapy is recommended  Cetuximab is a monoclonal antibody and is effective when combined with radiation, it has been found to improve local control and overall survival rates The TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours (TNM) A cancer staging system that describes the extent of cancer in a patient's body  T describes the size of the tumor and whether it has invaded nearby tissue,  M describes distant metastasis (spread of cancer from one body part to another),  N describes regional lymph nodes that are involved Primary Tumor (T) TX   Primary tumor cannot be assessed, or tumor proven by the presence of malignant cells in sputum or bronchial washings but not visualized by imaging or bronchoscopy T0 No evidence of primary tumor Tis Carcinoma in situ T1   T1a Tumor cm or less in greatest dimension Tumor cm or less in greatest dimension, surrounded by lung or visceral pleura, without bronchoscopic evidence of invasion more proximal than the lobar bronchus (for example, not in the main bronchus) T1b Tumor more than cm but cm or less in greatest dimension T2 Tumor more than cm but cm or less or tumor with any of the following features (T2 tumors with these features are classified T2a if cm or less):  involves main bronchus, cm or more distal to the carina;  invades visceral pleura (PL1 or PL2);  associated with atelectasis or obstructive pneumonitis that extends to the hilar region but does not involve the entire lung T2a Tumor more than cm but cm or less in greatest dimension T2b Tumor more than cm but cm or less in greatest dimension T3 Tumor more than cm or one that directly invades any of the following:  parietal pleural (PL3),  chest wall (including superior sulcus tumors),  diaphragm, phrenic nerve,  mediastinal pleura, parietal pericardium; or 10  The conversion for oral morphine to subcutaneous diamorphine is one third So 20 mg MST bd is a total of 40 mg oral morphine in 24 hours and one third of this is 13.3 mg diamorphine This can be rounded to 15 mg Standard practice would be to follow the World Health Organization recommendations for the management of cancer pain, which suggest analgesia should be given:    By the mouth - that is, using the oral route for all drugs including morphine and other opioids unless patient is vomiting, semi-conscious, has dysphagia, etc By the clock - persistent pain requires preventative treatment and as needed (prn) analgesia only is not acceptable By the ladder - that is, the WHO analgesic ladder The WHO analgesic ladder is as follows:  Step  Non-opioid +/- adjuvants (e.g paracetamol/NSAIDs)  Step  Weak opioid + non-opioid +/- adjuvants (e.g co-codamol 30/500)  Step  Strong opioid + non-opioid +/- adjuvants (e.g morphine, fentanyl, oxycodone) Co-codamol (codeine 30 mg + paracetamol 500 mg) Oramorph® (Immediate release morphine sulphate solution) MST® (slow release morphine sulphate tablets) If midazolam is not successful in controlling seizures in an end of life situation subcutaneous phenobarbitol can be used but this should be on the advice of specialists only 40 NSAID in IHD ??          A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) would seem a good treatment for this gentleman's bone pain but the choice is a difficult one given his history of ischaemic heart disease Cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX2) selective inhibitors (for example, celecoxib and rofecoxib) are associated with an increased risk of thrombotic events (for example, myocardial infarction and stroke) and are rarely used in preference to non-selective agents COX2 selective inhibitors are, however, associated with a lower risk of serious upper GI side effects and can be a good choice for those with a high risk of ulceration or bleeding Some non-selective NSAIDs are also associated with an elevated thrombotic risk, including diclofenac 150 mg daily and ibuprofen 2.4 g daily, therefore these are also the incorrect choices in this case Naproxen (1 g daily) is associated with a lower thrombotic risk which makes it the correct answer in this case Low dose ibuprofen (1.2 g daily) would also be a relatively safe choice for this patient as it has not been linked to an increased risk of myocardial infarction Other considerations when prescribing NSAIDs are that they should be avoided in renal failure and used with caution in the elderly All NSAIDs are contraindicated in severe cardiac failure and in those patients with a history of hypersensitivity to aspirin They should be used with caution in those patients with coagulation defects and it is worth noting that long term use of NSAIDs can lead to impaired female fertility (reversible on withdrawal of the drug) 41 Palliation of breathlessness      Breathlessness is a significant problem in the palliative care setting and not just in patients with lung cancer Palliation of breathlessness involves use of opioids, other medications, physiotherapy and psychological support Opioids are very effective agents to reduce the sensation of breathlessness - they reduce inappropriate respiratory drive They rarely cause respiratory depression when used correctly Psychological support and physiotherapy are very useful adjuncts to medications However, these take time and if the patient is distressed, they are not helpful in the immediate cases (unless breathing techniques have been taught) Benzodiazpines are effective agents also, but usually second line after opioids Antiemetic    In choosing an appropriate antiemetic it is important to consider first the underlying mechanism behind the nausea Antiemetics each target slightly different receptors and have distinct modes of action making them applicable to certain clinical scenarios Metoclopramide is a prokinetic, targeting the dopamine and serotonin receptors It is useful in delayed gastric emptying and also post-chemotherapy  Haloperidol also hits the dopamine receptors and is most effective for toxin or metabolic induced nausea And opiate induced nausea  Levomepromazine is a very effective broad spectrum antiemetic as it antagonises the dopamine, serotonin, histamine and cholinergic receptors It can, however, cause severe postural hypotension and sedation and is often reserved for use in terminal care  Cyclizine would be the most appropriate first line agent in case of brain metastases It targets the dopamine and cholinergic receptors and is widely accepted as the best antiemetic for nausea associated with cerebral disease Dexamethasone may be an appropriate management option in brain metastases, however in acute management of vomiting cyclizine would be a more appropriate first treatment  42 lymphoedema associated with extensive pelvic disease     Lymphoedema is a collection of excessive interstitial fluid which, in cancer patients, tends to be due to blockage of the lymphatic system by malignancy or fibrosis Management tends to centre around manual lymphatic drainage, multilayer lymphoedema bandaging and skin care Exercise can play an important part in encouraging lymphatic drainage, although specialist physiotherapy is rarely appropriate Diuretics are unlikely to improve lymphoedema unless the swelling has significantly worsened following the prescription of a NSAID or corticosteroid, or if there is a cardiac or venous component Terminal agitation      Patients often display 'terminal agitation' towards the end of life and this can be caused by several different triggers One of these triggers is urinary retention which can even develop in patients who have not received any hydration for several days Assessment for catheterisation should be one of the first management steps in a newly agitated patient Once reversible causes for agitation have been excluded, medication can be a very important part of controlling this distressing symptom at the end of life Midazolam is the drug suggested by the Liverpool Care Pathway (LCP) and this is most commonly used at a starting dose of 2.5 - mg sc PRN Haloperidol can be very effective in controlling hallucinations and confusion although benzodiazepines are traditionally the first line for terminal agitation Hypercalcaemia     The most common life-threatening metabolic disorder associated with malignancy and should be treated as an oncological emergency 10% of cancer patients develop hypercalcaemia, most of whom have disseminated disease and 80% die within a year The cancers most frequently associated with hypercalcaemia are breast cancer, lung cancer, renal cell carcinoma and (most commonly) myeloma There are three main mechanisms by which malignancy leads to hypercalcaemia: 1) Osteolytic metastases with local release of cytokines (including osteoclast activating factors) 2) Tumour secretion of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) and 3) Tumour production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol) Treatment:  Intravenous fluid rehydration followed by administration of a bisphosphonate ( pamidronate)  Osteonecrosis of the jaw is a well-recognised complication of bisphosphonate therapy, particularly intravenous agents 43 Refeeding syndrome       Artificial feeding is now commonly encountered within the field of palliative medicine, particularly given the speciality's expansion into neurodegenerative conditions An awareness of refeeding syndrome is important as many of these patients will have experienced a period of reduced nutritional intake prior to PEG insertion, and will therefore be at risk Refeeding syndrome occurs as a result of shifts in fluid and electrolytes in malnourished patients receiving artificial nutrition (either enterally or parenterally) The resulting biochemical upset can lead to cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary oedema, seizures and death Patients are usually monitored with regular blood tests to check for the characteristic picture of refeeding syndrome: low potassium, magnesium and phosphate Sodium 136, potassium 2.5, magnesium 0.35, calcium 2.21, phosphate 0.25 is the correct answer as it shows the typical pattern of normal sodium and calcium with low potassium, magnesium and phosphate NICE guidelines on Nutrition support in adults (CG32) set out criteria for identifying patients at high risk of developing refeeding syndrome which included:  BMI < 16 kg/m2,  little or no nutritional intake for > 10 days and  Unintentional weight loss greater than 15% within the last three to six months The Mental Capacity Act 2005 clearly sets out four conditions that have to be in place in order for a person to retain capacity to make decisions: To understand the information relevant to the decision To retain that information To use or weigh that information as part of the process of making the decision, and To communicate his decision (whether by talking, using sign language or any other means) In this case it would be his inability to communicate his decision that might interfere with his capacity In such a case it is vitally important that all efforts are made to enable him to communicate, for example through drawing, typing, signing, etc, before the conclusion is reached that he lacks capacity: 'a person is not to be treated as unable to make a decision unless all practicable steps to help him to so have been taken without success' (MCA, 2005) Just because a patient is deaf does not mean that you cannot communicate information to them in an alternative way, therefore this would not necessarily interfere with his capacity 44 Patients are entitled to change their mind about things, their decisions not need to be reproducible over time, therefore his apparent change of attitude towards his illness does not interfere with his capacity Just because a patient makes a decision that does not agree with the advice of his doctor does not mean that he necessarily lacks capacity: 'a person is not to be treated as unable to make a decision merely because he makes an unwise decision' (MCA, 2005) The MMSE is made up of a series of questions aimed at assessing a person's cognitive ability, for example those with a score of 22 might be classed as having signs of early dementia Researchers have failed to demonstrate a reproducible link between MMSE score and presence (or not) of capacity Therefore the option above which refers to MMSE score is is incorrect Blood transfusion        In palliative medicine the decision to offer blood transfusion is taken very much on an individual patient basis, without the existence of 'cut off values' or strict guidelines The main reason for giving blood in the hospice setting is for symptom control.eg Disabling shortness of breath on minimal exertion These symptoms can range from fatigue, anorexia and dizziness to shortness of breath, headache and angina Patients often develop anaemia chronically and, despite having very low haemoglobin levels, are relatively asymptomatic In such cases transfusion is rarely given simply because a low haemoglobin is discovered The presence of postural hypotension may or may not be an indication for transfusion If the patient is complaining of dizziness or recurrent falls then this would more than likely become a case for transfusion, but if the patient remains asymptomatic then the discovery of a postural drop would not, in itself, trigger transfusion If a patient suffers a major bleed then it is unlikely that blood transfusion would be appropriate In the case of catastrophic haemorrhage the most important thing is to stay with the patient and not to leave them alone If possible, administration of drugs such as midazolam and diamorphine can help to reduce the patient's awareness of the situation Blood transfusion can play a very important role in symptom control and should not be discounted purely on the basis of a short prognosis Dexamethasone is notorious for causing compatibility problems and for this reason it is generally added last to syringe drivers in order to minimise the likelihood of precipitation 45 Dexamethasone has a long half life which means it can usually be administered s/c once a day to circumvent miscibility problems Cyclizine is the other medication that can cause precipitation, particularly when used with higher doses of diamorphine It is usually safer and more reliable either to use two separate syringe drivers or to choose an alternative antiemetic The combination of diamorphine, midazolam and levomepromazine is a common one, particularly since the advent of the Liverpool Care Pathway There are no known miscibility problems with this combination Mebeverine is a commonly used antispasmodic, however it is only available in oral preparations Hyoscine butylbromide (Buscopan) is an antispasmodic agent which can be given subcutaneously, which makes it an excellent choice of analgesic in bowel obstruction 46 Carcinoid syndrome  Carcinoid is a slow growing neuroendocrine tumour and symptoms of diarrhoea and flushes occur as a consequence of metastases to the liver and hence systemic release of vasoactive compounds such as 5-HT and bradykinin  The best treatment for symptoms of carcinoid is the somatostatin analogue, octreotide, which improves symptoms and prognosis in carcinoid syndrome  If resistance or failure of octreotide: hepatic artery embolisation  In this case the treatment for the diarrhoea will be through treating the underlying diagnosis, which is carcinoid Cyproheptadine is not a first line treatment for diarrhoea and in fact may cause diarrhoea as a side effect Carcinoid tumours Carcinoid syndrome:   usually occurs when metastases are present in the liver and release serotonin into the systemic circulation may also occur with lung carcinoid as mediators are not 'cleared' by the liver Features:        flushing (often earliest symptom) diarrhoea bronchospasm hypotension right heart valvular stenosis (left heart can be affected in bronchial carcinoid) other molecules such as ACTH and GHRH may also be secreted resulting in, for example, Cushing's syndrome pellagra can rarely develop as dietary tryptophan is diverted to serotonin by the tumour Investigation: 1) urinary 5-HIAA 2) plasma chromogranin A y Management:  somatostatin analogues e.g octreotide 47 Mycosis fungoides   Cutaneous T cell lymphoma The disease presents as a pruritic eczematous rash (the pre-malignant stage) and develops telangiectasias and areas of 'cigarette paper' atrophy  As malignancy develops, nodular lesions appear and proceed to become necrotic  Mycosis fungoides patch stage responds to NBUVB 48 GVHD     multi-system disease Organs usually involved in GVHD are skin, liver and gut The rash on the palms and soles is classical abnormal liver function tests (LFTs) There is also diarrhoea Transfusion associated GVHD        a rare but usually fatal complication seen post BMT It is due to donor lymphocytes in transfused cellular components, for example, blood, platelets These donor lymphocytes recognise the recipient as foreign, and as the recipient is immunocompromised due to the recent BMT they cannot set up a reaction to destroy these incoming lymphocytes In this case the recipient is the host and the incoming lymphocytes are the graft The lymphocytes cause acute BM failure, liver dysfunction and GI symptoms There is no cure, only preventative measures, in that all cellular blood components given to BMT recipients need to be irradiated, this limits the functional activity of the lymphocytes It usually occurs about 14 days after the affected transfusion Malignancy of unknown origin (MUO) NICE guidance on Metastatic malignant disease of unknown primary origin recommends that  If simple initial investigations fail to indicate a site for further investigation of a malignancy of unknown origin (MUO) then a CT chest, abdomen and pelvis should be attempted to elicit any suspicious areas which may be consistent with a primary malignancy  Tumour markers are only useful in monitoring of disease response to treatment and should be interpreted with caution when the diagnosis is not known - Typhlitis or neutropenic colitis is a rare but serious complication of profound neutropenia which requires intravenous antibiotics 49 Brain metastases  The incidence of brain metastases is currently increasing due to better control of systemic disease and longer survival  Brain metastases usually originate from tumours via neoplastic emboli and therefore most often affect the 'watershed areas' at the end of the arterial supply  Lung cancer, melanoma and breast cancer are the primary tumours most frequently associated with metastatic spread to the brain,  Melanoma usually causes multiple metastases whereas breast cancer tends to cause solitary lesions  The most common effect of a metastatic deposit is to cause oedema of the surrounding tissue leading to raised intracranial pressure and displacement, rather than infiltration, of the brain  Treatment of brain metastases is generally dictated by the type of cancer, the neurological status of the patient and the extent of systemic disease  General measures include high dose corticosteroids and palliation of any distressing symptoms such as agitation Image no 1) this patient has melanoma metastases that have cavitated Image no 2) there are two slightly irregular ring-enhancing areas of low attenuation in the cerebellum consistent with metastases Given the history of heavy smoking, the chest examination findings and hypercalcaemia, the suspicion of malignancy is high The diagnosis is therefore cerebellar metastases, most likely from a squamous cell lung carcinoma 50 This gentleman is demonstrating classic signs of an acute dystonic reaction and given the history of starting a new medication in the last few days it would be important to exclude that as the cause Common presentations include protrusion of the tongue, trismus, facial grimacing, difficulty speaking, torticollis and oculogyric crisis The patient's mental status and basic observations (for example, heart rate and blood pressure) remain unaffected The most common drug causes of acute dystonia are neuroleptics (for example, haloperidol, levomepromazine), antiemetics (for example, metoclopramide) and antidepressants (for example, amitriptyline, trazodone) Management is dominated by the need to stop the causative drug, followed by administration of either benztropine or diphenhydramine Both of these medications block striatal cholinergic receptors which may help to balance cholinergic and dopaminergic activity and resolve the dystonia Benzodiazepines may also be helpful 51 Brain stem death A code of practice for the diagnosis of brain stem death was published in March 1998 by a working party from the Royal College of Physicians (A code of practice for the diagnosis of brain stem death) Brain stem death arises when there has been such devastating damage to the brain stem that it is no longer able to fulfil its function of cardiac and respiratory control This inevitably means that the heart will soon stop beating However, there can be a period of time when an individual is sustained by artificial ventilation and circulation despite the fact that they have already died Identification of this clinical scenario, accurate diagnosis of brain stem death and sensitive management of the patient's family, can lead to the humane withdrawal of artificial support and the avoidance of futile interventions Assessment involves the observation that all brain stem reflexes are absent (for example, corneal reflex) and this assessment must be carried out by two medical practitioners either together or separately These practitioners must be registered for more than five years and at least one (but not both) must be a consultant Members of the transplant team are not permitted to be involved in the diagnosis of brain stem death The period of time between assessments is determined by clinical judgement although it must be sufficient to offer reassurance to all involved Death is pronounced after the second tests have been completed although the legal time of death is recorded as the time that the first set of tests revealed brain stem death 52 DVLA  Patients must inform the DVLA as soon as possible after receiving a diagnosis of a brain tumour, failure to so may incur a fine of up to £1000  The period of disqualification differs according to the type of tumour and where it is in the brain  A patient with a high grade glioma (that is, WHO grade or 4) such as a glioblastoma will be unable to drive for at least two years following completion of treatment After the two years have elapsed the DVLA will consult with the physicians involved in the patient's care and a decision is made regarding return of the licence  A patient with a solitary metastatic deposit that is fully excised would be considered for a licence one year after primary treatment if free from recurrence and no evidence of secondary spread elsewhere  Those with multiple metastases would require at least two years off driving from time of completion of treatment After the two years have elapsed the DVLA will consult with the physicians involved in the patient's care and a decision is made regarding return of the licence  A first unprovoked seizure requires six months off driving from the date of the seizure unless there are factors which suggest an unacceptably high risk (>20% per annum) of a further seizure  For a patient with known epilepsy who has a seizure whilst awake, they must have their licence refused or revoked for one year 53 The diagnosis is a massive fibroid The bladder is inferior to the large midline mass arising out of the pelvis There are separate planes of cleavage from the bladder and the anterior abdominal wall, which have normal appearances This mass is contiguous with the uterus as it wraps around the bladder Metastasis There is a soft tissue mass destroying a large portion of the scapula 54 ... beta-hCG levels and is therefore common in choriocarcinoma  On ultrasound scanning;  choriocarcinoma is associated with Calcifications and cystic areas are haemorrhage and necrosis and may appear... embryonal and yolk sac elements Radical orchiectomy is required for definitive histologic staging and treatment, followed by additional staging studies such as a CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis and. .. the thyroid only and may be found in one or both lobes) 2) Stage II - T2, N0, M0 and T3, N0, M0 (Cancer is in the thyroid only and is larger than 1.5 cm) 3) Stage III - T4, N0, M0 and any T, N1,