A Primer of GIS

A PRIMER OF GIS A PRIMER OF FUNDAMENTAL GEOGRAPHIC AND CARTOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS Francis Harvey THE GUILFORD PRESS New York London © 2008 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper Last digit is print number: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Harvey, Francis (Francis James) A primer of GIS : fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts / Francis Harvey p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-1-59385-565-9 (pbk : alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-59385-565-6 (pbk : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-59385-566-6 (hardcover: alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-59385-566-4 (hardcover : alk paper) Geographic information systems Cartography I Title G70.212.H38 2008 910.285—dc22 2007050932 About the Author About the Author Francis Harvey is Associate Professor of Geography at the University of Minnesota He has also worked at the University of Kentucky and at a variety of academic and professional positions in Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom He has taught GIS courses in other academic and professional programs around the world His research is wide ranging, with a current focus on governance of land and spatial data infrastructures He received his doctorate in 1996 from the University of Washington for research on GIS overlay v Preface Preface The idea behind this book is simple: to put in the hands of people interested in geographic information systems (GIS), geographic information science, and geospatial science and engineering a book that provides a broad preparation for later work with geographic information, regardless of background Accordingly, this book explains, with a pragmatic approach, the concepts and practices of geographic information that underpin GIS It covers what and how geographic information represents, analyzes, and communicates about human and environmental activities and events on our planet In order to serve a broad array of readers, this book has four parts that, read sequentially, build on each other to offer a successively deeper understanding of GIS Part I introduces the most basic concepts of cartography and GIS; Part II goes into more detail to offer an overview of the fundamentals of cartography and GIS; Part III focuses on specific techniques and practices; Part IV looks at geographic information analysis and sketches out some of the exciting new GIS developments Each part, or individual chapters, can be read separately or together with other parts or chapters for courses, seminars, training, and workshops to learn about specific conceptual or practical issues Most readers should start with the first chapter to make sure they understand the key concepts of geographic representation and cartographic representation The other parts and chapters can be read as an instructor suggests or as fits your needs best Given the breadth of GIS and the diversity of people reading this book, and its modular structure, some parts of the book repeat other parts: the repeated material may be well known to some readers, but useful to other readers who need different explanations The access point sidebars in some chapters provide detailed practical examples of how people use geographic information; example sidebars focus on relevant aspects of examples; exercises allow you to apply theories and concepts to learn skills; in-depth sidebars offer practically oriented detailed vii viii / Preface discussion of theories and concepts To assist your reading and learning, you will also find Internet links at the end of each chapter to help you find examples that are relevant to your interests or learning needs This book provides a conceptual introduction to GIS without requiring the use of GIS software Through practical examples and exercises, regardless of your educational background or interests, you will find in this book detailed introductions to the theories, concepts, and skills you will need to prepare for working with GIS Acknowledgments Many people are explicitly connected to the writing of this book; many more implicitly Above all I am happy to thank Martin Galanda for discussions in conjunction with the GEOG 1502 course we teach at the University of Minnesota My other colleagues in the Department of Geography have been helpful on many occasions, particularly Mark Lindberg, Jonathan Schroeder, and Julia Rauchfuss, who were a great aid in preparing many of the figures Over the years, numerous discussions with colleagues from the University Consortium of Geographic Information Science have led to the refinement of many of the concepts and skills I cover in this book Colleagues and friends from around the world have also helped me out in various ways I thank the following people for discussions and contributions: Adam Iwaniak, Marek Baranowski, Brett Black, Omair Chaudhry, Nathan Clough, Jason Dykes, Dietmar Grünreich, Peter Fisher, Randy Johnson, Chris Lloyd, William Mackaness, Robert McMaster, Lori Napoleon, Annamaria Orla-Bukowska, and Nick Tate I most of all want to thank Alicja Piasecka and Anna Piasecka for their support during the many hours spent writing and revising this book Without their help I could not have written this book; any misinterpretations or errors in the presentations or translations remain my sole responsibility Contents Contents PART I Communication and Geographic Understanding Chapter Goals of Cartography and GI: Representation and Communication Chapter Choices in How We Make Representations 34 Chapter GI and Cartography Issues PART II 53 Principles of GI and Cartography Chapter Projections 75 Chapter Locational and Coordinate Systems 102 Chapter Databases, Cartography, and Geographic Information 127 Chapter Surveying, GPS, Digitization 139 ix 296 / GI ANALYSIS: UNDERSTANDING OUR WORLD tunities in this domain also exist for people who work on testing and refining devices and programmers and analysts who play key roles in development Support generally involves people who help users work with the technologies and devices as well as through training In between, many people work on developing and maintaining applications either as programmers or as specialists for particular application domains Last, but by no means least important, people working in marketing are often involved in assessing consumer demands and helping companies identify profitable areas to work in It is certainly possible to find individuals who work in all domains during the course of their normal work week—the needs of smaller companies often require such talents Opportunities can be found in all sectors Government positions abound in all areas, but are especially important for applications and to a lesser extent in research and development and in support Private industry offers a large number of applications as well, and has the most positions in research and development Nongovernment and nonprofit positions are scarcer, but many people find that they offer a better balance between quality-of-life and income than jobs in other sectors Summary GIS has experienced a dynamic past and adapted to the advent of new technologies Currently GIS seems set on at least partially morphing into more visualization capabilities focused on specific applications LBS appear to be a key driving force for the next round of GIS development Opportunities abound in this area, but also continue in traditional GIS areas These developments open ethical issues The capability of tracking people through the entire day is now readily possible, but how should we know and control how we are tracked and placed under surveillance? Challenges for the development of GIS touch on these issues, but other fundamental technical and organizational challenges remain In-Depth What Is a Spatial Data Infrastructure? There are many definitions of what makes up a spatial data infrastructure (SDI) Common to all is that an SDI facilitates and helps coordinate the exchange of spatial data This can be restricted to stakeholders, or limited to a defined community Sometimes the limits are not crystal-clear, but stakeholders and community members find better services, data, and support than others Problems arise because any SDI is understood in different ways by its stakeholders and community members SDIs seem to have been most successful when they support decision making and facilitate interactions between organizations Futures of GIS / 297 GPS serves a wide range of urban applications MobileMapper CE image courtesy of Magellan Navigation Inc GPS also serves a wide range of agricultural and environmental applications MobileMapper CE image courtesy of Magellan Navigation Inc 298 / GI ANALYSIS: UNDERSTANDING OUR WORLD Review Questions Do you think that geographic information will become pervasive and ubiquitous? Why or why not? How significant are costs for the development of geographic information? Why is government funding of GIS in the United States so small in comparison to overall funding of information technology? GIS’s history involves many fields What are some of the most important fields? What is the name of one of the most important U.S federal government agencies involved in GIS? What does “LBS” stand for? What is an SDI? What are important ethical issues for GIS? How are changes to technology impacting cost-recovery models of GI pricing? 10 What is the range of employment opportunities? Answers Do you think that geographic information will become pervasive and ubiquitous? Why or why not? There are no right or wrong answers, just thoughtful and unthoughtful ones How significant are costs for the development of geographic information? Costs are one, if not the most, significant issue, for the development of geographic information systems, no matter what form they take Why is government funding of GIS in the United States so small in comparison to overall funding of information technology? GIS is only one of the technologies used by government Major investments in health, welfare, public safety, and many other areas not involve computing GIS’s history involves many fields What are some of the most important fields? Landscape architecture, natural resource management, planning, geography, computer science, and cartography What is the name of one of the most important U.S government agencies involved in GIS? The United States Geological Survey (USGS) What does “LBS” stand for? Location-based services Futures of GIS / 299 What is an SDI? The alignment of various institutional GIS to support multiple GIS applications and users, some of whom may be unknown and undefined, but important in the future What are important ethical issues for GIS? Many questions: What people with data? How is the data collected? How will locational privacy be protected? How to charge for geographic information? How are changes to technology impacting cost-recovery models of GI pricing? GI is becoming a resources for services, used as needed by users and charged for according to use 10 What is the range of employment opportunities? Research, application development, and support Chapter Readings Chrisman, N (2006) Charting the Unknown Redlands, CA: ESRI Press Curry, M (1998) Digital Places: Living with Geographic Information Technologies New York: Routledge Fisher, P F., & D J Unwin (Eds.) (2005) Re-Presenting GIS Chichester, UK: Wiley Foresman, T (Ed.) (1998) The History of Geographic Information Systems: Perspectives from the Pioneers Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Pickles, J (2004) A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geocoded World New York: Routledge Sheppard, E (1993) Automated Geography: What Kind of Geography for What Kind of Society? The Professional Geographer, 45(4), 457–460 Web Resources OpenStreetMap is a free editable map of the whole world: http://openstreetmap.org/ The U.S National Academy of Sciences, Mapping Sciences Committee, periodically publishes reviews and perspectives The latest is Beyond Mapping available online at: http://darwin.nap.edu/execsumm_pdf/11687.pdf The GISCI website provides a concise list of important principles as well as discussion of ethical issues for GIS professionals See www.gisci.org Typical for what many organizations to have and maintain GIS, saving and scavenging: www.dailymail.com/story/News/+/2006083137/Frustrated+county+officials+to+use+ local+funds+for+mapping/ Google Earth is now famous for its mapping and visualization capabilities See http:// earth.google.com Index Index Abstraction choices and, 63 geography and cartography and, 16–18 overview, 61, 67 Accuracy choices and, 63 exercises regarding, 32 geographic information analysis and, 256, 268 of georeferencing, 121–122 global positioning system (GPS) technologies and, 153 overview, 46–47, 47t, 50 projections and, 78–79 Administrative GI cadastre and, 237–239, 239f exercises regarding, 248–250 geographic information technologies and, 239–243 government sources of geographic information, 243–244 overview, 235–237, 237f, 238f, 244–245 Advertising, power of maps and, 12 Affine scale transformations, 119–120, 119f Aggregation, 200–201, 201f Analysis of geographic information See also Geostatistics communication and, 254–256, 255f example applications of, 264–266, 265f exercises regarding, 270 overview, 253, 267–268 types and applications of, 256–262, 257t, 258f, 259f, 260f, 261f Analytical cartography, 39–40 Angles distortions and, 90 exercises regarding, 100 metes-and-bounds coordinate systems and, 110 overview, 58 projections and, 85–86, 95 Animation, cartographic, cartographic representation and, 216 Application of data, databases and, 132 Areas distortions and, 90 exercises regarding, 219–220 overview, 44, 58 projections and, 85–86, 95, 96–97 ASCII characters, 135 Aspect, 84 Associations choices and, 63–64 geography and cartography and, 18 overview, 18 Attributes, 42 Bands, emitted electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and, 163, 164f, 165t Baranowski, Dr Marek, 28 Bounds, 110 Buffer GIS operation, 257t, 258, 268 Buffer transformations, 181–182, 181f, 183, 186 Cadastral maps, 13–14, 211, 213 Cadastre, 237–239, 239f, 245 301 302 / Index Canadian Geographical Information System, 292 Canadian National Atlas, 243 Cartesian coordinate system, projections and, 97 Cartograms, 213 Cartographic communication, 44–46, 50 Cartographic language, 64 Cartographic representation See also Cartography; Representation choices and, 43–44, 60–61, 62f, 63f, 67f classification and, 203–206, 204f, 205f communication and, 254 crises of representation and, 231 databases and, 134 design of, 208 exercises regarding, 70, 218–220 generalization and, 199–203, 201f, 202f, 203f geographic information and, 200 geographic information system (GIS) and, 262 maps and visualizations and, 193–194, 221–222 overview, 9, 21–22, 35, 43, 49, 174–175, 193, 214–217 scale transformations and, 119 surveying and, 153 symbolization and, 206, 207f types of, 207–214, 209f, 210f, 212f, 214f Cartography See also Cartographic representation; Maps environmental monitoring and, 28 geography and, 14–23, 16f, 17f, 19f, 20f, 22f map elements and, 195 multipurpose, 240 overview, 6–7 projections and, 53–55, 54f Cells, 44 Change, global, 168–169 Charts, 213 Chi-square analysis exercises regarding, 287–289 overview, 279–282, 280t, 281t, 285 Choices cartographic representation and, 43–44 exercises regarding, 52, 70–72 in geographic and cartographic representations, 61–66, 62f, 63f, 67f geographic representation and, 42–43 geography and cartography and, 49 overview, 47–48, 66, 67 Choropleth maps classification and, 2034–2034 overview, 213, 214f Civilizations, maps and, 222–225, 224f, 232 Classification cartographic representation and, 203–206, 204f, 205f, 216 emitted electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and, 166 overview, 214 Coastal monitoring, remote sensing and, 168 Collection of data See also Remote sensing; Surveying ethical issues, 294 overview, 42, 47, 167–168 representation and, 153 Color cartographic representation and, 206–207 choices and, 65 overview, 68 Color hue cartographic representation and, 206–207 overview, 65, 68 Color saturation, 65, 68 Color value, 65, 68 Combination GI analysis, 257, 257t Communication cartographic communication, 44–46 cartographic representation and, 210–211, 214–215 classification and, 203 databases and, 130–131, 130f, 131f exercises regarding, 32 geographic information analysis and, 254– 256, 255f geographic information system (GIS) and, 267 geography and cartography and, 14–23, 16f, 17f, 19f, 20f, 22f mental maps and, 14, 15f overview, 27 representation and, 9–11, 10f Community, participatory GIS and, 225–226 Complex GI analysis, 255–256, 268 Compromise projections, 57–58, 86 Confederation of Independent States (CIS), 149 Conformal projections, 85–86 Conical projections, 84–85, 85f, 86 Index / 303 Conventions example of, 22–23 geography and cartography and, 18–20 overview, 5–6, 25, 27–28, 46 Coordinate systems cartographic communication and, 45 exercises regarding, 125–126 overview, 21, 42, 109–116, 109f, 111f, 112f, 114f, 115f, 120, 123–124 projections and, 102 scale and, 118–119 Copyright issues for geographic information, 151–152 Culture of maps, 221–225, 224f, 229–233 overview, 222–225, 224f participatory GIS and, 225–226 placenames and, 230–231 Cylindrical projections, 84–85, 85f Dangermond, Jack, 292 Dasymetric mapping, 216 Data classification and, 203 National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and, 241–242 overview, 38, 67 Data collection See also Remote sensing; Surveying ethical issues, 294 overview, 42, 47, 167–168 representation and, 153 Data combinations, 43 Data modeling choices and, 61–66, 62f, 63f, 67f databases and, 132–133, 133f overview, 134 Data normalization, databases and, 133–134, 136 Data sharing, 245 Data sources, 49 Data storage See also Databases databases and, 132 overview, 136 remote sensing and, 172 Data updates, 42 Databases data modeling and, 132–133, 133f data normalization and, 133–134 data storage and applications and, 132 data types and, 131–132 exercises regarding, 138 overview, 50, 127–129, 128f, 129f, 134– 135, 136–137 relationships and, 132–133, 133f representing and communicating and, 130–131, 130f, 131f Datum coordinate systems and, 109 distortions and, 91 projections and, 82–83, 83t, 102 State-Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) and, 111 Degrees, exercises regarding, 100 Department of Defense, 149 Digital Earth, 242, 244 Digital libraries, 242, 244 Direction distortions and, 90 overview, 58 projections and, 85–86 Disciplinary culture, 222, 232 Disciplines, cultural influences within, 224– 225 Displacement, 201, 202f Distance transformations, 257t, 258 Distances distortions and, 90 overview, 58 projections and, 85–86, 96–97 scale and, 198, 198f Distortion cartographic representation and, 211 displacement and, 201, 202f overview, 27, 67, 229 projections and, 58–59, 90–93, 95, 97 as propaganda, 226–227 scale and, 198–199 Dominion Land Survey, 105 Dot-density maps, 214, 215f Ecological fallacy, 275–276, 285 Ellipsoid distortions and, 91 making projections and, 80f, 81–82, 81t, 82–83 overview, 57–58, 67 Emitted electromagnetic radiation (EMR), 160, 161–163, 161f, 162f, 163f, 164f, 170–172 Employment opportunities, 295–296, 299 Enhancement, 202, 202f 304 / Index Entity-relationship diagrams (E-R models), 133, 133f, 136 Environmental monitoring, in Central and Eastern Europe, 28 Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 292 Equal interval classifications, 205, 217 Equipment in cartographic representations cartographic representation and, 216 types of, 209–210, 210f Equivalent projection, 86 Ethical issues, 293–294 Euclidean geometry, exercises regarding, 157–159 Euler, Leonard exercises regarding, 187 overview, 183–184 Europe environmental monitoring and, 28 geographic information and, 244 European cultures, maps and, 222–223 European Environment Agency, 244 European Umbrella Organization for Geographic Information (EUROGI), 244 Events choices and, 62 geography and cartography and, 15–16, 16f, 17f, 18 overview, 25, 27, 48, 285 representation and, External validity, 285 Extrinsic properties, measurement and, 39 Farming, precision, remote sensing and, 169–170 Field-based geographic representation, 178– 179, 179f Fields exercises regarding, 187–189 overview, 174–175, 175f, 185–186 Fitness for use geography and cartography and, 20–22 overview, 48 Flat-file database, 127–128, 128f Flexibility, projections and, 94 Flooding geographic representation and, 36–37 measurement, observations, and relationships, 37–38 Frameworks geography and cartography and, 18–20 overview, 25 Freedom of Information Act, 151–152 Fuller projection, 87f, 88 Funding issues, 290–291, 294–295, 298, 299 Fuzzy-set theory, 262 Generalization cartographic communication and, 46 cartographic representation and, 199–203, 201f, 202f, 203f, 210–211 digitization of maps and, 150 overview, 214 Geocentric Datum of Australia coordinate system, 115–116 Geographic information cartographic communication and, 44–46 cartographic representation and, 200 copyright issues for, 151–152 databases and, 130–131, 130f, 131f from different projections, 93–94, 95f, 97 distinguishing from a map, 23–24, 23f, 24f distortions and, 91 environmental monitoring and, 28 funding of, 290–291, 294–295 government sources of, 243–244 maps and, 221–222, 229–233 overview, 25, 29, 67, 174–175, 298–299 projections and, 60–61, 97 scale and, 118–119 Geographic information analysis See also Geostatistics communication and, 254–256, 255f example applications of, 264–266, 265f exercises regarding, 270 overview, 253, 267–268 types and applications of, 256–262, 257t, 258f, 259f, 260f, 261f Geographic information system (GIS) ethical issues, 293–294 example applications of, 264–266, 265f exercises regarding, 70, 270 funding of, 294–295 future of, 290–291, 292–293, 296 geography and cartography and, 14–23, 16f, 17f, 19f, 20f, 22f history of, 291–292 opportunities related to, 295–296 organization and, 65–66 overview, 8, 67, 253, 262–264, 263f, 267– 268, 298–299 participatory GIS and, 225–226, 232 projections and, 59–60, 84, 94 Index / 305 Geographic information technologies, administrative GI and, 239–243 Geographic representation See also Cartographic representation; Representation choices and, 42–43, 60–61, 62f, 63f, 67f communication and, 254 crises of representation and, 231 databases and, 130–131, 130f, 131f, 134, 136 exercises regarding, 52, 70 geographic information system (GIS) and, 262 maps and, 221–222 measurement, observations, and relationships, 37–38 overview, 9, 21, 26, 35, 36–37, 48, 49, 174–175, 185–186, 229–230 scale transformations and, 119 surveying and, 153 types of, 175–183, 176f, 177f, 179f, 180f, 181f, 182f Geoid distortions and, 91 making projections and, 79–81, 80f overview, 54, 57–58, 67 State-Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) and, 111 Geometry, Euclidean, 157–159 Geoprocessing, 295 Georeferencing accuracy of, 121–122 Digital Earth and, 242 Georelational model, 176–177, 177f Geospatial properties, 18 Geostatistics chi-square analysis, 279–282, 280t, 281t ecological fallacy and, 275–276 exercises regarding, 287–289 overview, 261–262, 271, 273f, 284–286 patterns and, 271–273 spatial autocorrelation and, 273–275 spatial interpolation, 282–284, 283f terrain analysis and, 276–279 Global change, remote sensing and, 168–169 Global navigation satellite system (GNSS), 145 See also Global positioning system (GPS) technologies Global positioning system (GPS) technologies exercises regarding, 155–159 overview, 7–8, 145–148, 145f, 146f, 147f, 151, 152–153, 290 surveying and, 139–140, 144–149, 145f, 146f, 147f Globes, 25, 25f Google Earth, 290 Google’s Digital Earth, 242, 244 GPS technology See Global positioning system (GPS) technologies Graphing, exercises regarding, 101 Grid Zone Designator (GZD), 113 Gridlines, 49 Gunther chain, 142 Gunther, Edmund, 142 Hardware, GIS, 65–66 Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis, 292 Hierarchical databases, 129 Histogram, 217 Horwood, Edgar, 292 Hue, color cartographic representation and, 206–207 overview, 65, 68 Hyperspectral data, remote sensing and, 167, 168 Indicatrix, Tissot distortions and, 93, 93f, 94f projections and, 97 Indigenous culture maps and, 223–224, 224f overview, 222, 232 Information technology, geographic information system (GIS) and, Infrared data, remote sensing and, 166–167 Internal validity, 285 International Cartographic Association, 23– 24, 23f, 24f Intrinsic properties, measurement and, 39 Jenks classification, 206, 217 Kriging, 284–285 Lambert conformal conic projection calculating, 89–90 overview, 87, 87f, 96–97 Land administration, geographic information system (GIS) and, 266 Land Ordinance of 1785, 105 Landsat remote sensing satellites bands and, 163, 164f, 165t overview, 171 Landscape architecture, 29 306 / Index Landslide analysis, geographic information system (GIS) and, 264–265, 265f Language, cartographic, 64 Laser (LiDAR) overview, 171 remote sensing and, 167, 168 Latitude overview, 25 scale and, 198–199, 198f Law of Sines, exercises regarding, 157–159 Legend, 48, 195 Libraries, digital, 242 LiDAR overview, 171 remote sensing and, 167, 168 Light, making projections with, 78 Lines digitization of maps and, 150 overview, 44 Local coordinate systems, 109–110, 109f Local scale, distortions and, 91 Location-based services (LBS), 293, 298 Locational system exercises regarding, 125–126 overview, 103–116, 103f, 104f, 105f, 106f, 107f, 108f, 109f, 111f, 112f, 114f, 115f, 120, 123 projections and, 102 Logical representation, 136 Longitude overview, 25 scale and, 198–199, 198f MacEachren’s Visualization Cube, 194, 194f Map cultures, 221–225, 224f, 229–233 Maps See also Cartography administrative GI and, 244–245 crises of representation and, 231 digitization of, 149–150 distinguishing geographic information from, 23–24, 23f, 24f elements of, 195, 216 ethical issues, 293–294 exercises regarding, 99–101, 218–220, 248–250 geographic information and, 6–7 geography and cartography and, 14–23, 16f, 17f, 19f, 20f, 22f mental, 14, 15f misuses of, 227–229 overview, 25, 29 parts of, 48–49 power of, 11–12, 11f, 29 representation and, 34 transformations and, 186 types of, 13–14, 13f, 211–214, 212f, 214f, 215f visualizations and, 193–194 without projections, 75–76 McHarg, Ian, 292 Measurement data and, 38 exercises regarding, 52 overview, 37–38 Sinton’s framework and, 39–41, 40f, 41f types of, 38–39, 49 Media formats, cartographic representation and, 211–214, 212f, 214f, 215f Mental maps exercises regarding, 31–32 overview, 14, 15f Mercator projection calculating, 90 distortions and, 91, 92f overview, 78–79, 84, 87–88, 87f, 96–97 Meridians, 25, 25f, 109, 110 Metes, 110 Metes-and-bounds coordinate systems, 110, 111f, 123 Middle Ages, maps and, 223 Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), 112–113 Misuses of maps, 227–229 Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP), 276, 284, 286 Monte Carlo simulations, 262 Multipurpose cartography, 240 Multipurpose Land Information System (MPLIS) overview, 240, 244, 246 spatial data infrastructures and, 240–242 Multispectrum data, remote sensing and, 167, 168, 168f, 169f Multivariate analysis, 261 National culture, 222, 232 National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI), 241–242 Native cultures See Indigenous culture Natural break classification, 206, 217 Neatline, 49 Neighborhood GI analysis, 258–259, 260f Index / 307 Network-based geographic representation, 178, 183 Networks exercises regarding, 187–189 overview, 174–175, 175f, 185–186 Nodes, georelational model and, 177, 177f Normalization, data, 133–134, 136 North American Datum of 1927, 111 North American Datum of 1983, 111 Object-oriented databases, 129 Objectivism, assumption of, 231 Observations data and, 38 exercises regarding, 52 overview, 37–38 Organization, choices and, 65–66 Orientation, 48, 195 Overlay GI analysis, 257, 257t, 258f, 268 Overlay transformations, 182–183, 182f Panchromatic, 171–172 Parallels local coordinate systems and, 110 overview, 25, 25f Participatory GIS, 225–226, 232 Patterns choices and, 62 exercises regarding, 32 overview, 267, 286 processes and, 271–273 representation and, 10, 10f Peripherals, GIS, 66 Photography, remote sensing and, 166 Pixels, 44 Placenames, 230–231 Planar projections, 84–85, 85f Points, 44 Polar aspect, 84–85 Polar coordinate systems, 115, 116f Polygons, georelational model and, 177, 177f Position-based geographic representation, 176–178, 176f, 177f, 183 Positional geographic information, transformations and, 182–183, 183–184 Positions exercises regarding, 187–189 overview, 174–175, 175f, 185–186 Presentations, cartographic representation and, 211–214, 212f, 214f Principle scale, distortions and, 91 Principles, overview, 5–6 Printing equipment, types of, 209–210, 210f Privacy protection misuses of maps and, 227–229 overview, 233 Processes choices and, 62 exercises regarding, 32 overview, 267, 286 patterns and, 271–273 representation and, 10, 10f Projections applying, 102–103 calculating, 89–90 cartographic communication and, 45 datum and, 82–83, 83t distortions and, 90–93 exercises regarding, 70–71, 99–101 geographic information and, 60–61 history of, 76–77 key concepts of, 55–60, 59f light and, 78 making, 79–82, 80f, 81t maps without, 75–76 overview, 21, 43, 49, 53–55, 54f, 67, 68, 75, 95, 96–97 properties of, 85–86 roles of, 77–79 types of, 83–88, 84f, 85f, 86f, 87f Propaganda overview, 226–227, 232, 233 power of maps and, 12 Public administration, locational and coordinate systems and, 123 Public domain GI, 246 Public Land Survey (PLS) exercises regarding, 125–126 local coordinate systems and, 109–110 overview, 104–108, 105f, 106f, 107f, 108f, 120, 123, 245 Public Land System (PLS), cadastre and, 238– 239 Public participatory GIS See Participatory GIS Public safety concerns, misuses of maps and, 227–229 Purpose, geography and cartography and, 15–16 Quad-tree, 185 Qualitative indicator, 50 308 / Index Quality of a map example of, 22–23 exercises regarding, 52 geography and cartography and, 20–22 overview, 27, 47–48 Quantile classification, 206 Query GI analysis, 256–257, 257t Radar, remote sensing and, 167, 168, 171 Radians calculating projections with, 88 exercises regarding, 100 Raster data cells or pixels and, 44 overview, 42 terrain analysis and, 277–279 Raster GIS, neighborhood GI analysis and, 260f Raster representation cartographic representation and, 200 overview, 40–41, 41f, 49–50, 177–178, 183 Rating GI analysis, 259 Rectangular coordinate systems, 109–110, 109f Reference systems, projections and, 102 Relational databases exercises regarding, 138 overview, 128–129, 128f, 129f, 136 Relationships databases and, 128–129, 132–133, 133f, 136 displacement and, 201, 202f exercises regarding, 52 overview, 18, 37–38 Sinton’s framework and, 41 Reliability geographic information analysis and, 256, 268 geography and cartography and, 16–18 overview, 27, 47–48 Remote sensing applications of, 167–170, 168f, 169f, 170f digitization of maps and, 150 emitted electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and, 161–163, 161f, 162f, 163f, 164f exercises regarding, 173 overview, 160–161, 170–172, 290 resolution and, 164–165, 165f types of sensors, 166–167 Representation See also Cartographic representation; Geographic representation communication and, 9–11, 10f crises of, 231 databases and, 130–131, 130f, 131f, 134 exercises regarding, 31, 52, 70 geography and cartography and, 14–23, 16f, 17f, 19f, 20f, 22f overview, 4–8, 4f, 5f, 7f, 8t, 26, 26f, 27, 34– 37, 35f, 48 power of maps and, 12 scale transformations and, 119 Sinton’s framework and, 39–41, 40f, 41f surveying and, 153 types of, 175–183, 176f, 177f, 179f, 180f, 181f, 182f Representative fraction, 117–118 Research support, 243 Resolution, remote sensing and, 164–166, 165f Robinson projection, 87f, 88 Roman centuration, 103–104, 103f, 104f, 123 Roman culture, maps and, 222–223 Route, exercises regarding, 187–189 Saturation, color, 65, 68 Scale cartographic communication and, 45 cartographic representation and, 195–199, 196f, 198f, 199f choices and, 64 determining, 197–199, 198f, 199f exercises regarding, 31, 187–189, 220 overview, 10–11, 44, 46–47, 47t, 48, 50, 67, 68, 116–120, 117f, 118t, 119f, 120f, 123, 214 patterns and, 272 projections and, 86 remote sensing and, 171 Scale bar, 117–118 Scale factor, distortions and, 91 Scale indicators, 195 Scale transformations, 118–120, 119f Sea cliff erosion, geographic information system (GIS) and, 265 Secant projection surfaces, 86f, 96 Selection, 202, 202f Semiotics, 64–65 Simple GI analysis, 255–256, 268 Simplification, 203, 203f Sines, Law of, 157–159 Sinton, John, 39–41, 40f, 41f, 48, 49–50 Sinusoidal equal area projection calculating, 88–89 exercises regarding, 99–101 overview, 87, 87f Index / 309 Software, GIS, 65–66 Space, geography and cartography and, 18 Spaces, administration of exercises regarding, 248–250 geographic information technologies and, 239–243 government sources of geographic information, 243–244 overview, 235–237, 237f, 238f, 244–245 Spatial autocorrelation and geostatistics and, 273–275 overview, 285 Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI), 240–242, 244, 245, 293, 296, 299 Spatial interpolation kriging and, 284–285 overview, 282–284, 283f, 286 Spatial properties, 18 Spatial resolution, 164–165, 165f Spectral resolution, 164–166 Spectral signature, 162–163, 163f Spherical coordinate systems, 115–116 Spheroid making projections and, 80f, 81–82, 81t, 82 overview, 57–58, 67 State-Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) and, 111 Standard deviation classification, 206 Standard lines, 85 Standard parallels, 85 State-Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), 111– 112, 112f, 120, 123 Statement, scale, 117–118 Statistics See also Geostatistics chi-square analysis, 279–282, 280t, 281t spatial autocorrelation and, 274 Steinitz, Carl, 29 Stereographic projection, 87f, 88 Stevens, Stanley Smith, 38–39, 49 Storage of data See also Databases databases and, 132 overview, 136 remote sensing and, 172 Stream gauge, 40, 50 Structured query language (SQL), 129 Subjectivism, 231 Surveillance ethical issues, 294 misuses of maps and, 227–229 overview, 233 Surveying basic techniques of, 142–143 cultural influences and, 224–225 exercises regarding, 155–159 global positioning system (GPS) technologies and, 144–149, 145f, 146f, 147f history of, 141–142 overview, 139–141, 141f, 143f, 151, 152– 153 remote sensing and, 171 Surveys Dominion Land Survey, 105 Public Land Survey (PLS), 104–108, 105f, 106f, 107f, 108f Symbolic representation, 136 Symbolization cartographic representation and, 206, 207f, 216–217 choices and, 64–65 overview, 67 Symbols cartographic communication and, 45 databases and, 136 overview, 21, 44 Tabular information, 136 Tangent, 85, 96–97 Tangent projection surfaces, 86f Temperature differences, patterns and, 271–273 Temporal resolution, emitted electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and, 164–165 Terrain analysis, 276–279, 285 Thematic maps, 13–14, 13f, 213 Things choices and, 62 geography and cartography and, 15–16, 16f, 18 overview, 25, 27, 48, 285 representation and, 3-D terrain analysis, 279 TIN overview, 50 terrain analysis and, 279 Tissot indicatrix distortions and, 93, 93f, 94f projections and, 97 Tissot, Nicholas distortions and, 93, 93f, 94f projections and, 97 Title of maps, 49, 195 Tomlinson, Roger, 292 310 / Index Topographic maps, 13–14, 13f, 211, 212f Topography, exercises regarding, 218–220 Topology exercises regarding, 187–189 overview, 50, 183–184, 185 Transformations distance transformations, 257t, 258 exercises regarding, 187–189 geographic information analysis and, 255– 256, 268 overview, 183–184, 185–186, 253 representation and, 179–183, 181f, 182f scale and, 116–120, 117f, 118t, 119f, 120f, 123 Translations, 253, 268 Transverse projection, 96–97 Triangular irregular network (TIN), 179, 185 2-D terrain analysis, 277–278 UK Ordnance Survey, 244 U.S National Atlas, 243 U.S National Grid (USNG), 112–113, 114f, 120, 122 U.S Public Land Survey See Public Land Survey (PLS) UNEP-GRID, 244 Universal Modeling Language (UML), 133, 134f Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid, 113, 115f, 122 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA), 292 Urban dynamics, remote sensing and, 169 Urban growth, geographic information system (GIS) and, 266 Validity, statistical, 285 Value, color, 65, 68 Variance, 262 Vector-based terrain analysis, 278–279 Vector data overview, 42 points, lines and areas, 44 Vector representation cartographic representation and, 200 overview, 40–41, 41f, 49–50, 176–177, 185 Vehicle navigation systems, 148 See also Global positioning system (GPS) technologies Visualizations cartographic representation and, 207–209 classification and, 203–204 maps and, 193–194 Westward expansion of the U.S., administrative GI and, 236–237 Wood, Denis, 224–225 Wright, John K., 216 ... COMMUNICATION Goals of CartographyAND and GI GEOGRAPHIC UNDERSTANDING Part I Communication and Geographic Understanding Chapter Goals of Cartography and GI: Representation and Communication Many of. .. of map power to create biased representations Goals of Cartography and GI / 13 Types of Maps Three of the most common types of maps are thematic, topographic, and cadastral There are many ways... understood means of communication Mental maps communicate what an individual knows and can draw about some aspect and part of the world A mental map represents particular geographic relationships based