Geographic information systems and science

SECOND EDITION Geographic Information Systems and Science Paul A Longley | Michael F Goodchild | David J Maguire | David W Rhind ©WILEY Geographical Information Systems and Science 2nd Edition Paul A L o n g l e y University College London, UK Michael F G o o d c h i l d University of California, Santa Barbara, USA David J M a g u i r e ESRI Inc., Redlands, USA David W Rhind City University, London, UK John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Foreword A t the time of writing, the first edition of Geographic Information Systems and Science (GIS&S) has sold well over 25 000 copies - the most, it seems, of any G1S textbook Its novel structure, content, and 'look and feel' expanded the very idea of what a GIS is, what it involves, and its pervasive importance In so doing, the book introduced thousands of readers to the field in which we have spent much of our working lifetimes Being human, we take pleasure in that achievement - but it is not enough Convinced as we are of the benefits of thinking and acting geographically, we are determined to enthuse and involve many more people This and the high rate of change in GIS&S (Geographic Information Systems and Science) demands a new edition that benefits from the feedback we have received on the first one Setting aside the (important) updates, the major changes reflect our changing world The use of GIS was pioneered in the USA, Canada, various countries in Europe, and Australia But it is expanding rapidly - and in innovative ways - in South East Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe, for example We have recognized this by broadening our geography of examples The world of 2005 is not the same as that prior to 11 September 2001 Almost all countries are now engaged in seeking to protect their citizens against the threat of terrorism Whilst we not seek to exaggerate the contribution of GIS, there are many ways in which these systems and our geographic knowledge can help in this, the first duty of a national government Finally, the sheen has come off much information technology and information systems: they have become consumer goods, ubiquitous in the market place Increasingly they are recognized as a necessary underpinning of government and commerce - but one where real advantage is conferred by their ease of use and low price, rather than the introduction of exotic new functions As we demonstrate in this book, GIS&S was never simply hardware and software It has also always been about people and, in preparing this second edition, we have taken the decision to present an entirely new set of current GIS protagonists This has inevitably meant that all boxes from the first edition pertaining to living individuals have been removed in order to create space: we hope that the individuals concerned will understand, and we congratulate them on their longevity! This second edition, then, remains about hardware, software, people - and also about geographic information, some real science, a clutch of partnerships, and much judgment Yet we recognize the progressive 'consumerization' of our basic tool set and welcome it, for it means more can be done for greater numbers of beneficiaries for less money Our new book reflects the continuing shift from tools to understanding and coping with the fact that, in the real world, 'everything is connected to everything else'! We asked loe Lobley, an individual unfamiliar with political correctness and with a healthy scepticism about the utterances of GIS gurus, to write the foreword for the first edition To our delight, he is now cited in various academic papers and reviews as a stimulating, fresh, and lateral thinker Sadly, at the time of going to press, Joe had not responded to our invitation to repeat his feat He was last heard of on location as a GIS consultant in Afghanistan So this Foreword is somewhat less explosive than last time We hope the book is no less valuable Paul A Longley Michael F Goodchild David J Maguire David W Rhind October 2004 ix Addendum H i again! Greetings from Afghanistan, where I am temporarily resident in the sort of hotel that offers direct access to GPS satellite signals through the less continuous parts of its roof structure Global communications mean I can stay in touch with the GIS world from almost anywhere Did you know that when Abraham Lincoln was assassinated it took 16 days for the news to reach Britain? But when William McKinley was assassinated only 36 years later the telegraph (the first Internet) ensured it took only seconds for the news to reach Old and New Europe Now I can pull down maps and images of almost anything I want, almost anywhere Of course, I get lots of crap as well - the curse of the age - and some of the information is rubbish What does Kabul's premier location prospector want with botox? But technology makes good (and bad) information available, often without payment (which I like), to all those with telecoms and access to a computer Sure, I know that's still a small fraction of mankind but boy is that fraction growing daily It's helped of course by the drop in price of hardware and even software: GIS tools are increasingly becoming like washing machines - manufactured in bulk and sold on price though there is a lot more to getting success than buying the cheapest I've spent lots of time in Asia since last we communicated and believe me there are some smart things going on there with IS and GIS Fuelled by opportunism (and possibly a little beer) the guys writing this book have seen the way the wind is blowing and made a good stab at representing the whole world of GIS So what else is new in this revised edition of what they keep telling me is the world's best-selling GIS textbook? I like the way homeland security issues are built in All of us have to live with terrorist threats these days and GIS can help as a data and intelligence integrator I like the revised structure, the continuing emphasis on business benefit and institutions and the new set of role models they have chosen (though 'new' is scarcely the word I would have used for Roger Tomlinson ) I like the same old unstuffy ways these guys write in proper American English, mostly avoiding jargon On the down-side, I still think they live in a rosetinted world where they believe government and academia actually useful things If you share their strange views, tell me what the great National Spatial Data Infrastructure movement has really achieved worldwide except hype and numerous meetings in nice places? Wise up guys! You don't have to pretend Now I like the way that the guys recognize that places are unique (boy, my hotel is ), but don't swallow the line that digital representations of space are any less valid, ethical or usable than digital measures of time or sound Boast a little more, and, while you're at it, say less about 'the' digital divide and more about digital differentiation And keep well clear of patronizing, social theory stroking, box-ticking, self-congratulatory claptrap The future of that is just people with spectacles who write books in garden sheds Trade up from the caves of the predigital era and educate the wannabes that progress can be a good thing And wise up that the real benefits of GIS not depend on talking shops or gravy trains What makes GIS unstoppable is what we can with the tools, with decent data and with our native wit and training to make the world a better and more efficient place Business and markets (mostly) will that for you! Joe Lobley Preface T he field of geographic information systems (GIS) is concerned with the description, explanation, and prediction of patterns and processes at geographic scales GIS is a science, a technology, a discipline, and an applied problem solving methodology There are perhaps 50 other books on GIS now on the world market We believe that this one has become one of the fastest selling and most used because we see GIS as providing a gateway to science and problem solving (geographic information systems 'and science' in general), and because we relate available software for handling geographic information to the scientific principles that should govern its use (geographic information: 'systems and science') GIS is of enduring importance because of its central coordinating principles, the specialist techniques that have been developed to handle spatial data, the special analysis methods that are key to spatial data, and because of the particular management issues presented by geographic information (GI) handling Each section of this book investigates the unique, complex, and difficult problems that are posed by geographic information, and together they build into a holistic understanding of all that is important about GIS Our approach GIS is a proven technology and the basic operations of GIS today provide secure and established foundations for measurement, mapping, and analysis of the real world GIScience provides us with the ability to devise GIS-based analysis that is robust and defensible GI technology facilitates analysis, and continues to evolve rapidly, especially in relation to the Internet, and its likely successors and its spin-offs Better technology, better systems, and better science make better management and exploitation of GI possible Fundamentally, GIS is an applications-led technology, yet successful applications need appropriate scientific foundations Effective use of GIS is impossible if they are simply seen as black boxes producing magic GIS is applied rarely in controlled, laboratory-like conditions Our messy, inconvenient, and apparently haphazard real world is the laboratory for GIS, and the science of real-world application is the difficult kind - it can rarely control for, or assume away, things that we would prefer were not there and that get in the way of almost any given application Scientific understanding of the inherent uncertainties and imperfections in representing the world makes us able to judge whether the conclusions of our analysis are sustainable, and is essential for everything except the most trivial use of GIS GIScience is also founded on a search for understanding and predictive power in a world where human factors interact with those relating to the physical environment Good science is also ethical and clearly communicated science, and thus the ways in which we analyze and depict geography also play an important role Digital geographic information is central to the practicality of GIS If it does not exist, it is expensive to collect, edit, or update If it does exist, it cuts costs and time - assuming it is fit for the purpose, or good enough for the particular task in hand It underpins the rapid growth of trading in geographic information (gcommerce) It provides possibilities not only for local business but also for entering new markets or for forging new relationships with other organizations It is a foolish individual who sees it only as a commodity like baked beans or shaving foam Its value relies upon its coverage, on the strengths of its representation of diversity, on its truth within a constrained definition of that word, and on its availability Few of us are hermits The way in which geographic information is created and exploited through GIS affects us as citizens, as owners of enterprises, and as employees It has increasingly been argued that GIS is only a part - albeit a part growing in importance and size - of the Information, Communications, and Technology (ICT) industry This is a limited perception, typical of the ICT supply-side industry which tends to see itself as the sole progenitor of change in the world (wrongly) Actually, it is much more sensible to take a balanced demand- and supply-side perspective: GIS and geographic information can and underpin many operations of many organizations, but how GIS works in detail differs between different cultures, and can often also partly depend on whether an organization is in the private or public sector Seen from this perspective, management of GIS facilities is crucial to the success of organizations - businesses as we term them later The management of the organizations using our tools, information, knowledge, skills, and commitment is therefore what will ensure the ultimate local and global success of GIS For this reason we devote an entire section of this book to management issues We go far beyond how to choose, install, and run a GIS; that is only one part of the enterprise We try to show how to use GIS and geographic information to contribute to the business success of your organization (whatever it is), and have it recognized as doing just that To achieve that, you need to know what drives organizations and how they operate in the reality of their business environments You need to know something about assets, risks, and constraints on actions - and how to avoid the last two and xi xii PREFACE nurture the first And you need to be exposed - for that is reality - to the inter-dependencies in any organization and the tradeoffs in decision making in which GIS can play a major role Our audience Originally, we conceived this book as a 'student companion' to a very different book that we also produced as a team - the second edition of the 'Big Book' of GIS (Longley et al 1999) This reference work on GIS provided a defining statement of GIS at the end of the last millennium: many of the chapters that are of enduring relevance are now available as an advanced reader in GIS (Longley et al 2005) These books, along with the first 'Big Book' of GIS (Maguire et al 1991) were designed for those who were already very familiar with GIS, and desired an advanced understanding of enduring GIS principles, techniques, and management practices They were not designed as books for those being introduced to the subject This book is the companion for everyone who desires a rich understanding of how GIS is used in the real world GIS today is both an increasingly mature technology and a strategically important interdisciplinary meeting place It is taught as a component of a huge range of undergraduate courses throughout the world, to students that already have different skills, that seek different disciplinary perspectives on the world, and that assign different priorities to practical problem solving and the intellectual curiosities of science This companion can be thought of as a textbook, though not in a conventionally linear way We have not attempted to set down any kind of rigid GIS curriculum beyond the core organizing principles, techniques, analysis methods, and management practices that we believe to be important We have structured the material in each of the sections of the book in a cumulative way, yet we envisage that very few students will start at Chapter and systematically work through to Chapter 21 - much of learning is not like that any more (if ever it was), and most instructors will navigate a course between sections and chapters of the book that serves their particular disciplinary, curricular, and practical priorities The ways in which three of us use the book in our own undergraduate and postgraduate settings are posted on the book's website (www.wiley.com/go/longley), and we hope that other instructors will share their best practices with us as time goes on (please see the website for instructions on how to upload instructor lists and offer feedback on those that are already there!) Our Instructor Manual (see www.wiley.com/go/longley) provides suggestions as to the use of this book in a range of disciplines and educational settings The linkage of the book to reference material (specifically Longley et al (2005) and Maguire et al (1991) at www.wiley.com/go/longley) is a particular strength for GIS postgraduates and professionals Such users might desire an up-to-date overview of GIS to locate their own particular endeavors, or (particularly if their previous experience lies outside the mainstream geographic sciences) a fast track to get up-to-speed with the range of principles, techniques, and practice issues that govern real-world application The format of the book is intended to make learning about GIS fun GIS is an important transferable skill because people successfully use it to solve real-world problems We thus convey this success through use of real (not contrived, conventional text-book like) applications, in clearly identifiable boxes throughout the text But even this does not convey the excitement of learning about GIS that only comes from doing With this in mind, an on-line series of laboratory classes have been created to accompany the book These are available, free of charge, to any individual working in an institution that has an ESRI site license (see www.esri.com) They are cross-linked in detail to individual chapters and sections in the book, and provide learners with the opportunity to refresh the concepts and techniques that they have acquired through classes and reading, and the opportunity to work through extended examples using ESRI ArcGIS This is by no means the only available software for learning GIS: we have chosen it for our own lab exercises because it is widely used, because one of us works for ESRI Inc (Redlands, CA., USA) and because ESRI's cooperation enabled us to tailor the lab exercises to our own material There are, however, many other options for lab teaching and distance learning from private and publicly funded bodies such as the UN1GIS consortium, the Worldwide Universities Network, and Pennsylvania State University in its World Campus (www.worldcampus.psu.edu/pub/index.shtml) GIS is not just about machines, but also about people It is very easy to lose touch with what is new in GIS, such is the scale and pace of development Many of these developments have been, and continue to be, the outcome of work by motivated and committed individuals - many an idea or implementation of GIS would not have taken place without an individual to champion it In the first edition of this book, we used boxes highlighting the contributions of a number of its champions to convey that GIS is a living, breathing subject In this second edition, we have removed all of the living champions of GIS and replaced them with a completely new set - not as any intended slight upon the remarkable contributions that these individuals have made, but as a necessary way of freeing up space to present vignettes of an entirely new set of committed, motivated individuals whose contributions have also made a difference to GIS As we say elsewhere in this book, human attention is valued increasingly by business, while students are also seemingly required to digest ever-increasing volumes of material We have tried to summarize some of the most important points in this book using short 'factoids', such as that below, which we think assist students in recalling core points Short, pithy, statements can be memorable We hope that instructors will be happy to use this book as a core teaching resource We have tried to provide a number of ways in which they can encourage their PREFACE students to learn more about GIS through a range of assessments At the end of each chapter we provide four questions in the following sequence that entail: • Student-centred learning by doing • A review of material contained in the chapter • A review and research task - involving integration of issues discussed in the chapter with those discussed in additional external sources • A compare and research task - similar to the review and research task above, but additionally entailing linkage with material from one or more other chapters in the book The on-line lab classes have also been designed to allow learning in a self-paced way, and there are self-test exercises at the end of each section for use by learners working alone or by course evaluators at the conclusion of each lab class As the title implies, this is a book about geographic information systems, the practice of science in general, and the principles of geographic information science (GIScience) in particular We remain convinced of the need for high-level understanding and our book deals with ideas and concepts - as well as with actions Just as scientists need to be aware of the complexities of interactions between people and the environment, so managers must be well-informed by a wide range of knowledge about issues that might impact upon their actions Success in GIS often comes from dealing as much with people as with machines The new learning paradigm This is not a traditional textbook because: • It recognizes that GISystems and GIScience not lend themselves to traditional classroom teaching alone Only by a combination of approaches can such crucial matters as principles, technical issues, practice, management, ethics, and accountability be learned Thus the book is complemented by a website (www.wiley.com/go/longley) and by exercises that can be undertaken in laboratory or self-paced settings • It brings the principles and techniques of GIScience to those learning about GIS for the first time - and as such represents part of the continuing evolution of GIS • The very nature of GIS as an underpinning technology in huge numbers of applications, spanning different fields of human endeavor, ensures that learning has to be tailored to individual or small-group needs These are addressed in the Instructor Manual to the book (www.wiley.com/go/longley) • We have recognized that GIS is driven by real-world applications and real people, that respond to real-world needs Hence, information on a range of applications and GIS champions is threaded throughout the text xiii • We have linked our book to online learning resources throughout, notably the ESRI Virtual Campus • The book that you have in your hands has been completely restructured and revised, while retaining the best features of the (highly successful) first edition published in 2001 Summary This is a book that recognizes the growing commonality between the concerns of science, government, and business The examples of GIS people and problems that are scattered through this book have been chosen deliberately to illuminate this commonality, as well as the interplay between organizations and people from different sectors To differing extents, the five sections of the book develop common concerns with effectiveness and efficiency, by bringing together information from disparate sources, acting within regulatory and ethical frameworks, adhering to scientific principles, and preserving good reputations This, then, is a book that combines the basics of GIS with the solving of problems which often have no single, ideal solution - the world of business, government, and interdisciplinary, mission-orientated holistic science In short, we have tried to create a book that remains attuned to the way the world works now, that understands the ways in which most of us increasingly operate as knowledge workers, and that grasps the need to face complicated issues that not have ideal solutions As with the first edition of the book, this is an unusual enterprise and product It has been written by a multinational partnership, drawing upon material from around the world One of the authors is an employee of a leading software vendor and two of the other three have had business dealings with ESRI over many years Moreover, some of the illustrations and examples come from the customers of that vendor We wish to point out, however, that neither ESRI (nor Wiley) has ever sought to influence our content or the way in which we made our judgments, and we have included references to other software and vendors throughout the book Whilst our lab classes are part of ESRI's Virtual Campus, we also make reference to similar sources of information in both paper and digital form We hope that we have again created something novel but valuable by our lateral thinking in all these respects, and would very much welcome feedback through our website (www.wiley.com/go/longley) Conventions and organization We use the acronym CIS in many ways in the book, partly to emphasize one of our goals, the interplay between geographic information systems and geographic information science; and at times we use two other possible interpretations of the three-letter acronym: geographic information xiv PREFACE studies and geographic information services We distinguish between the various meanings where appropriate, or where the context fails to make the meaning clear, especially in Section 1.6 and in the Epilog We also use the acronym in both singular and plural senses, following what is now standard practice in the field, to refer as appropriate to a single geographic information system or to geographic information systems in general To complicate matters still further, we have noted the increasing use of 'geospatial' rather than 'geographic' We use 'geospatial' where other people use it as a proper noun/title, but elsewhere use the more elegant and readily intelligible 'geographic' We have organized the book in five major but interlocking sections: after two chapters that establish the foundations to GI Systems and Science and the real world of applications, the sections appear as Principles (Chapters through 6), Techniques (Chapters through 11), Analysis (12 through 16) and Management and Policy (Chapters 17 through 20) We cap the book off with an Epilog that summarizes the main topics and looks to the future The boundaries between these sections are in practice permeable, but remain in large part predicated upon providing a systematic treatment of enduring principles - ideas that will be around long after today's technology has been relegated to the museum - and the knowledge that is necessary for an understanding of today's technology, and likely near-term developments In a similar way, we illustrate how many of the analytic methods have had reincarnations through different manual and computer technologies in the past, and will doubtless metamorphose further in the future We hope you find the book stimulating and helpful Please tell us - either way! Acknowledgments We take complete responsibility for all the material contained herein But much of it draws upon contributions made by friends and colleagues from across the world, many of them outside the academic GIS community We thank them all for those contributions and the discussions we have had over the years We cannot mention all of them but would particularly like to mention the following We thanked the following for their direct and indirect inputs to the first edition of this book: Mike Batty, Clint Brown, Nick Chrisman, Keith Clarke, Andy Coote, Martin Dodge, Danny Dorling, Jason Dykes, Max Egenhofer, Pip Forer, Andrew Frank, Rob Garber, Gayle Gaynor, Peter Haggett, Jim Harper, Rich Harris, Les Hepple, Sophie Hobbs, Andy Hudson-Smith, Karen Kemp, Chuck Killpack, Robert Laurini, Vanessa Lawrence, John Leonard, Bob Maher, Nick Mann, David Mark, David Martin, Elanor McBay, Ian McHarg, Scott Morehouse, Lou Page, Peter Paisley, Cath Pyke, Jonathan Raper, Helen Ridgway, Jan Rigby, Christopher Roper, Garry Scanlan, Sarah Sheppard, Karen Siderelis, David Simonett, Roger Tomlinson, Carol Tullo, Dave Unwin, Sally Wilkinson, David Willey, Jo Wood, Mike Worboys Many of those listed above also helped us in our work on the second edition But this time around we additionally acknowledge the support of: Tessa Anderson, David Ashby, Richard Bailey, Brad Baker, Bob Barr, Elena Besussi, Dick Birnie, John Calkins, Christian Castle, David Chapman, Nancy Chin, Greg Cho, Randy Clast, Rita Colwell, Sonja Curtis, Jack Dangermond, Mike de Smith, Steve Evans, Andy Finch, Amy Garcia, Hank Gerie, Muki Haklay, Francis Harvey, Denise Lievesley, Daryl Lloyd, Joe Lobley, Ian Masser, David Miller, Russell Morris, Doug Nebert, Hugh Neffendorf, Justin Norry, Geof Offen, Larry Orman, Henk Ottens, Jonathan Rhind, Doug Richardson, Dawn Robbins, Peter Schaub, Sorin Scortan, Duncan Shiell, Alex Singleton, Aidan Slingsby, Sarah Smith, Kevin Schurer, Josef Strobl, Larry Sugarbaker, Fraser Taylor, Bethan Thomas, Carolina Tobon, Paul Torrens, Nancy Tosta, Tom Veldkamp, Peter Verburg, and Richard Webber Special thanks are also due to Lyn Roberts and Keily Larkins at John Wiley and Sons for successfully guiding the project to fruition Paul Longley's contribution to the book was carried out under ESRC AIM Fellowship RES-331-25-0001, and he also acknowledges the guiding contribution of the CETL Center for Spatial Literacy in Teaching (Splint) Each of us remains indebted in different ways to Stan Openshaw, for his insight, his energy, his commitment to GIS, and his compassion for geography Finally, thanks go to our families, especially Amanda, Fiona, Heather, and Christine Paul Longley, University College London Michael Goodchild, University of California Santa Barbara David Maguire, ESRI Inc., Redlands CA David Rhind, City University, London October 2004 Further reading Maguire D.J., Goodchild M.F., and Rhind D.W (eds) 1991 Geographical Information Systems Harlow: Longman Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.W., and Rhind D.W (eds) 1999 Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications (two volumes) New York, NJ: Wiley Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.W., and Rhind D.W (eds) 2005 Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications (abridged edition) Hoboken, NJ: Wiley List of Acronyms and Abbreviations AA Automobile Association ABM agent-based model AGI Association for Geographic Information AGILE Association of Geographic Information Laboratories in Europe AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process AM automated mapping AML Arc Macro Language API application programming interface ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASP Active Server Pages AVIRIS Airborne Visible InfraRed Imaging Spectrometer BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BLM Bureau of Land Management BLOB binary large object CAD Computer-Aided Design CAMA Computer Assisted Mass Appraisal CAP Common Agricultural Policy CASA Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis CASE computer-aided software engineering CBD central business district CD compact disc CEN Comite Europeen de Normalisation CERN Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire CGIS Canada Geographic Information System CGS Czech Geological Survey CIA Central Intelligence Agency CLI Canada Land Inventory CLM collection-level metadata COGO coordinate geometry COM component object model COTS commercial off-the-shelf CPD continuing professional development CSDGM Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata CSDMS Centre for Spatial Database Management and Solutions CSO color separation overlay CTA Chicago Transit Authority DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DBA database administrator DBMS database management system DCL data control language DCM digital cartographic model DCW Digital Chart of the World DDL data definition language DEM digital elevation model DGPS Differential Global Positioning System DHS Department of Homeland Security DIME Dual Independent Map Encoding DLG digital line graph DLM digital landscape model DML data manipulation language DRG digital raster graphic DST Department of Science and Technology DXF drawing exchange format EBIS ESRI Business Information Solutions EC European Commission ECU Experimental Cartography Unit EDA exploratory data analysis EOSDIS Earth Observing System Data and Information System EPA Environmental Protection Agency EPS encapsulated postscript ERDAS Earth Resource Data Analysis System ERP Enterprise Resource Planning ERTS Earth Resources Technology Satellite ESDA exploratory spatial data analysis ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute EU European Union EUROGI European Umbrella Organisation for Geographic Information FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee FIPS Federal Information Processing Standard FM facility management FOIA Freedom of Information Act FSA Forward Sortation Area GAO General Accounting Office GBF-DIME Geographic Base Files - Dual Independent Map Encoding GDI GIS data industry GIO Geographic Information Officer GIS geographic(al) information system GIScience geographic(al) information science GML Geography Markup Language GNIS Geographic Names Information System GOS geospatial one-stop GPS Global Positioning System GRASS Geographic Resources Analysis Support System GSDI global spatial data infrastructure GUI graphical user interface GWR geographically weighted regression HLS hue, lightness, and saturation HTML hypertext markup language HTTP hypertext transmission protocol ICMA International City/County Management Association ICT Information and Communication Technology ID identifier IDE Integrated Development Environment IDW inverse-distance weighting IGN Institut Geographique National xv xvi LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS IMW International Map of the World INSPIRE Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe IP Internet protocol IPR intellectual property rights IS information system ISCGM International Steering Committee for Global Mapping ISO International Standards Organization IT information technology ITC International Training Centre for Aerial Survey ITS intelligent transportation systems JSP Java Server Pages KE knowledge economy KRIHS Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements KSUCTA Kyrgyz State University of Construction, Transportation and Architecture LAN local area network LBS location-based services LiDAR light detection and ranging LISA local indicators of spatial association LMIS Land Management Information System MAT point of minimum aggregate travel MAUP Modifiable Areal Unit Problem MBR minimum bounding rectangle MCDM multicriteria decision making MGI Masters in Geographic Information MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MOCT Ministry of Construction and Transportation MrSID Multiresolution Seamless Image Database MSC Mapping Science Committee NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NAVTEQ Navigation Technologies NCGIA National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency NGIS National GIS NILS National Integrated Land System NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency NIMBY not in my back yard NMO national mapping organization NMP National Mapping Program NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NPR National Performance Review NRC National Research Council NSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure NSF National Science Foundation OCR optical character recognition ODBMS object database management system OEM Office of Emergency Management OGC Open Geospatial Consortium OLM object-level metadata OLS ordinary least squares OMB Office of Management and Budget ONC Operational Navigation Chart ORDBMS object-relational database management system PAF postcode address file PASS Planning Assistant for Superintendent Scheduling PCC percent correctly classified PCGIAP Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific PDA personal digital assistant PE photogrammetric engineering PERT Program, Evaluation, and Review Techniques PLSS Public Land Survey System PPGIS public participation in GIS RDBMS relational database management system RFI Request for Information RFP Request for Proposals RGB red-green-blue RMSE root mean square error ROMANSE Road Management System for Europe RRL Regional Research Laboratory RS remote sensing SAP spatially aware professional SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome SDE Spatial Database Engine SDI spatial data infrastructure SDSS spatial decision support systems SETI Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence SIG Special Interest Group SOHO small office/home office SPC State Plane Coordinates SPOT Systeme Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre SQL Structured/Standard Query Language SWMM Storm Water Management Model SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats TC technical committee TIGER Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing TIN triangulated irregular network TINA there is no alternative TNM The National Map TOID Topographic Identifier TSP traveling-salesman problem TTIC Traffic and Travel Information Centre UCAS Universities Central Admissions Service UCGIS University Consortium for Geographic Information Science UCSB University of California, Santa Barbara UDDI Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration UDP Urban Data Processing UKDA United Kingdom Data Archive UML Unified Modeling Language UN United Nations UNIGIS UNIversity GIS Consortium UPS Universal Polar Stereographic URISA Urban and Regional Information Systems Association USGS United States Geological Survey USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation UTC urban traffic control UTM Universal Transverse Mercator VBA Visual Basic for Applications VfM value for money VGA video graphics array ... thinking and acting geographically, we are determined to enthuse and involve many more people This and the high rate of change in GIS&S (Geographic Information Systems and Science) demands a new... everyday life, and the roles of GIS in business; • Understand the significance of geographic information science, and how it relates to geographic information systems; • Understand the many impacts... title implies, this is a book about geographic information systems, the practice of science in general, and the principles of geographic information science (GIScience) in particular We remain convinced