Educational Psychology Windows on Classrooms Glo ba l T enth Edit i o n Editi o n Paul Eggen University of North Florida Don Kauchak University of Utah Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Vice President and Editorial Director: Jeffery W Johnston Vice President and Publisher: Kevin M Davis Development Editor: Gail Gottfried Editorial Assistant: Caitlin Griscom Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Senior Product Marketing Manager: Christopher Barry Project Manager: Lauren Carlson Senior Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Sandhya Ghosal Associate Project Editor, Global Edition: Amrita Kar Project Manager, Global Edition: Ruchi Sachdev Manager, Media Production, Global Edition: Vikram Kumar Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber Procurement Specialist: Carol Melville Senior Art Director: Diane Lorenzo Text Designer: Studio Montage Cover Designer: Studio Montage Cover Art: FWstudio/Shutterstock Media Project Manager: Caroline Fenton Full-Service Project Management: Cenveo® Publisher Services Composition: Cenveo® Publisher Services Printer/Binder: Vivar, Malaysia Cover Printer: Vivar, Malaysia Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2016 The rights of Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms, 10th edition, ISBN 978-0-13-354948-5, by Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak, published by Pearson Education © 2016 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC 1N 8TS All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners ISBN-10: 1-292-10756-1 ISBN-13: 978-1-292-10756-1 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 Typeset by Cenveo® Publisher Services Printed and bound by Vivar, Malaysia To Judy and Kathy, teachers who have changed many lives About the Authors Paul Eggen Paul has worked in higher education for nearly 40 years He is a consultant for public schools and colleges in his university service area and has provided support to teachers in 12 states Paul has also worked with teachers in international schools in 23 countries in Africa, South Asia, the Middle East, Central America, South America, and Europe He has published several articles in national journals, is the co-author or co-editor of six other books, and presents regularly at national and international conferences Paul is strongly committed to public education His wife is a middle school teacher in a public school, and his two children are graduates of public schools and state universities Don Kauchak Don has taught and worked in schools and in higher education in nine states for over 40 years He has published in a number of scholarly journals, including the Journal of Educational Research, Journal of Experimental Education, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Teaching and Teacher Education, Phi Delta Kappan, and Educational Leadership In addition to this text, he has co-authored or co-edited six other books on education He has also been a principal investigator on federal and state grants examining teacher development and evaluation practices, and presents regularly at the American Educational Research Association He currently volunteer-tutors first, second, and third graders in a local elementary school These students have taught him a lot about educational psychology Preface Welcome to the tenth edition of Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms We have redoubled our efforts to make this edition the clearest, most comprehensive, and up-to-date presentation of theory and research, combined with the most specific and usable applications, of any text in the field Our text is generally recognized as the most applied in educational psychology, and in this edition we’ve tried to achieve the optimal balance of theory, research, and application To meet this goal we have much that is new to this edition We outline these changes in the sections that follow Content New to This Edition To provide students with the most complete and up-to-date information on recent developments in educational psychology, we have included the following new content in our tenth edition • Major reorganization of the learning section of the book—Chapters 6–9: Learning is at the heart of educational psychology, and we’ve reorganized these chapters to reflect recent developments in our understanding of how students in classrooms, and people of all ages, learn • Analyzing Theories: Research in every field is grounded in theory, but all theories have both strengths and weaknesses “Analyzing Theories,” a new feature in this edition, analyzes all the major theories discussed in the text For instance, Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development are analyzed in Chapter 2, behaviorism and social cognitive theory are analyzed in Chapter 6, and constructivism is analyzed in Chapter This analysis includes a summary of the major concepts within each theory, together with the contributions the theories make to our understanding of teaching and learning and common criticisms directed at each We believe the addition of this feature will provide students with a more complete and accurate view of the theoretical foundation of educational psychology • New chapter—Knowledge Construction in Social Contexts: Educational psychology generally accepts the idea that learners construct their own knowledge and that learning is substantively a social process This new chapter reflects and integrates these ideas in a comprehensive presentation that explains how these powerful ideas influence teaching and learning • Extensive coverage of the learning sciences: The learning sciences focus on learning as it exists in real-world settings and how teachers can facilitate that learning This is the essential message of our text, and this new content explains how to apply these ideas to increase learning for all students • Expanded coverage of technology’s impact on learning: To say that technology is an integral part of our lives is a vast understatement Expanded coverage of technology throughout the text examines how it influences learning, development, and motivation, in addition to the general impact it is having on the way we live • Greatly expanded coverage of neuroscience: Neuroscience is providing researchers, educational leaders, teachers, and students with new insights into the teaching– learning process As one powerful example, the concept of neuroplasticity helps us understand that our learning potential is much greater than we once believed possible, and with the right kinds of experiences, we can literally get smarter This • Preface expanded coverage helps teachers capitalize on this information to increase learning for all students regardless of their backgrounds • Extensive coverage of the role of personality and emotion on learning and development: Learning and development consist of much more than cognitive processes alone; personality and emotion play an important role in our motivation and how effectively we learn and develop Further, both home and school environments have an important impact on the healthy development of learners’ personalities and emotions This coverage helps teachers create the kinds of environments that capitalize on these insights • Updated descriptions of standards, accountability, and value-added teacher assessment and how they impact teaching and learning: Standards—including the Common Core State Standards—combined with accountability, are facts of teaching life, and our discussion of these topics in this edition, including the controversies involved with each, is designed to prepare teachers to adapt to this new reality This new content adds to our expanded and detailed descriptions of traditional theories combined with the latest research Our goal is to make the content presented in this text the most comprehensive and up-to-date discussion of learning, development, motivation, instruction and classroom management, classroom and standardized assessment, and learner diversity of any text in the field Applications New to This Edition The content of educational psychology isn’t useful if teachers don’t know how to apply it to increase their students’ learning and shape their development To prepare teachers for the real world, and to help all students understand how educational psychology applies to their lives today, we have again redoubled our efforts to improve what is already the most applied educational psychology text in the field The following applications are new to this edition: • Explicit suggestions for applying educational psychology in teaching: Instructors often tell us that their students can describe the theories and research that make up educational psychology, but these same students “don’t know what to with the content” when they go out into the real world of teaching We attempt to solve this problem in this edition Each chapter now includes specific sections titled “Educational Psychology and Teaching,” which provide teachers with specific and concrete suggestions for applying the content of each chapter in their teaching For instance, in Chapter 2, “Educational Psychology and Teaching: Applying Piaget’s Theory with Your Students” provides teachers with specific suggestions for using Piaget’s theory to advance their students’ development, and a similar section does the same with Vygotsky’s theory As another example, in Chapter 4, “Educational Psychology and Teaching: Teaching Students in Your Classes Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse” provides specific suggestions for accommodating and capitalizing on the diversity that our students are increasingly bringing to our classes These suggestions are combined with concrete illustrations of teachers in the real world demonstrating these applications “Educational Psychology and Teaching” sections are included in every chapter in the text • Case studies linked to standards: Standards have become a part of teachers’ lives in today’s classrooms Case studies that introduce each chapter in the book are now linked to standards so prospective teachers can now see how their colleagues in the real world have adjusted to this new reality and have incorporated standards into their instruction Preface • • Case studies in both written and video formats: In the etext version of this edition, students can read case studies embedded in the text and can now see in video form the very lesson on which the case study is based So they can read the case studies, and then with a simple click of their mouse see the actual lesson and how the teacher in the lesson applies the content of educational psychology to the real world of classrooms No other text in the field applies the content of educational psychology to classrooms in this way • Ed Psych and You: This feature, which first appeared in our ninth edition, has been expanded to help students see that educational psychology applies not only to teaching but also to our lives as we live them every day This feature is also designed to make the content of educational psychology more meaningful to students who may not plan to be teachers These new applications, combined with other features such as “Classroom Connections” and “Developmentally Appropriate Practice,” make this edition even more usable in the real world of teaching Further, we would like to believe that the text can be a resource for both new and veteran teachers as they move through their careers The Most Applied Educational Psychology Book in the Field This is the most applied text in the field The following illustrate these applications Educational Psychology and Teaching: Applying Information Processing and the Model of Human Memory with Your Students Applying your understanding of information processing and the model of human memory in your teaching can increase learning for all your students Guidelines for applying this information in your teaching are outlined below and discussed in the sections that follow • Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions • Begin learning activities with attention-getting experiences • Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content • Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load • Capitalize on meaningful encoding strategies • Model and encourage metacognition The guidelines overlap and interact with each other We will see how as we discuss each CONDUCT REVIEWS TO ACTIVATE SCHEMAS AND CHECK PERCEPTIONS To begin this section let’s return to Mike’s Thursday lesson before he had his students work in their groups He begins, “What were we talking about yesterday? Alexandria?” “ Figurative language and figures of speech,” Alexandria responds hesitantly Explicit Suggestions for Applying Educational Psychology in Teaching “Educational Psychology and Teaching,” which appears in every chapter, provides teachers with specific suggestions for applying the content of educational psychology to increase learning for all their students The excerpt you see here appears on page 320 of Chapter in the text • Preface Ed Psych and You This feature helps students see Ed Psych and You how educational psychology applies to our lives and the people around us The example you see here appears on page 66 in Chapter of the text Are you bothered when something doesn’t make sense? Do you want, and even expect, the world to be predictable? Are you more comfortable in classes where the instructor specifies the requirements, outlines the grading practices, and consistently follows through? For most people, the answer to these questions is “Yes.” Why you think this is the case? The students in this case are third graders, and their teacher, Alicia Evans, is working with them on Common Core State Standard CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1f “Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014f) After completing her routines for the beginning of language arts, Alicia explains and demonstrates the rules with some examples on the board She then displays the following short paragraph on her document camera Bill takes his lunch to the cafeteria when it’s time to eat His friend Leroy and his other friend Antonio (takes, take) (his, theirs) to the cafeteria, too Each of the boys has (his, their) own lunch box with pictures of cars on (it, them) Bill doesn’t like apples, so he will give his to anyone else if (he, they) (wants, want) it “Now,” she directs, “Read the paragraph carefully, think about it, and then decide which one of the words in the parentheses in each case is correct Remember, our reasons and thinking are as important as the actual answers.” After giving the students a couple minutes to study the paragraph, she begins, “How about the first one?” pointing to the first set of parentheses (takes, take) in the paragraph The students conclude that “take” is correct in the sentence because “Leroy and Antonio” is a plural subject, so it requires the plural verb “take.” They also conclude that “theirs” is correct in the sentence because “theirs” agrees with its antecedent (Leroy and Antonio) “Now, how about this one?” she asks, pointing to the next set of parentheses (his, their) in the third sentence—Each of the boys has (his, their) own lunch box with pictures of cars on (it, them) “What you think, and why you think so Brittany?” Case Studies Linked to Standards The case studies that appear in this edition are now linked to standards The excerpt you see here appears on page 379–380 in Chapter of the text Preface • Classroom Connections at Elementary, Middle School, and High School Levels These features in each chapter offer suggestions and illustrations for applying topics discussed in the chapter at different grade levels Each strategy is illustrated with a classroom example, derived from teachers’ experiences in elementary, middle, and high schools The example you see here appears on page 427 of Chapter 10 of the text Classroom Connections Capitalizing on Students’ Needs to Increase Motivation in Classrooms Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ■ Elementary: A fourth-grade teacher calls on all students to involve everyone and promote a sense of belonging in his classroom He makes them feel safe by helping them respond correctly when they are unable to answer ■ Middle School: To help meet learners’ belonging needs, a seventh-grade teacher asks two of the more popular girls in her class to introduce a new girl to other students and to take her under their wings until she gets acquainted ■ High School: To address learners’ growth needs, an American government teacher brings in a newspaper columnist’s political opinion piece, comments that it was interesting to her, and asks students for their opinions on the issue Learners’ Needs for Self-Determination Self-determination theory suggests that people have innate needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness Design challenging learning tasks that, when completed, can provide evidence for increasing competence, and emphasize these accomplishments when students succeed ■ Elementary: A fifth-grade teacher drops an ice cube into a cup of water and a second cube into a cup of alcohol and asks them why it floats in one and sinks in the other He guides students’ efforts until they solve the problem and then praises them for their thinking ■ Middle School: A math teacher has students bring in a challenging “problem of the week.” He helps them solve each problem and comments on how much their problem solving is improving ■ High School: A biology teacher guides a discussion of our skeletal system until students understand the function of the skull, rib cage, and other bones, and then comments on how good the students are getting at analyzing our body systems Learners’ perceptions of autonomy increase when teachers ask them for input into classroom procedures, involve them in learning activities, and give them feedback on assessments Create a classroom environment that helps meet learners’ needs for autonomy Developmentally Appropriate Practice These features in each chapter describe developmental differences in our students and help teachers ensure that their instruction will best meet the needs of learners at all developmental levels The example you see here appears on page 146 of Chapter in the text ■ Elementary: A fourth-grade teacher holds periodic class meetings in which she encourages students to offer suggestions for improving the classroom environment ■ Middle School: A prealgebra teacher returns all tests and quizzes the following day and discusses frequently missed problems in detail He comments frequently on students’ continually improving skills ■ High School: In a simulation, a world history teacher asks students to identify specific archeological evidence for sites that represent different civilizations She comments that the students’ ability to link evidence to conclusions has improved significantly Maslow described people’s needs in a hierarchy with deficiency needs—survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem—preceding the growth needs Address students’ deficiency and growth needs both in instruction and in the way you interact with students Learners’ needs for relatedness are met when teachers communicate a commitment to students both as people and as learners ■ Elementary: A first-grade teacher greets her students each morning at the door with a hug, “high five,” or handshake She tells them what a good day they’re going to have ■ Middle School: A seventh-grade teacher calls a parent to express concern about a student whose behavior and attitude seems to have changed ■ High School: A geometry teacher in an urban school conducts help sessions after school on Mondays through Thursdays When they come in for extra help, she also encourages students to talk about their personal lives and their hopes for the future Learners’ Needs to Preserve Self-Worth Self-worth theory suggests that people link self-worth to high ability Emphasize that ability can be increased with effort ■ Elementary: When her second graders succeed with word problems during their seatwork, a teacher comments, “You’re really understanding what we’re doing The harder we work, the smarter we get.” ■ Middle School: A life-science teacher comments, “You’re really seeing the connections between animals’ body structures and their ability to adapt This is not an easy idea to grasp and you should feel good about figuring this out ■ High School: As students’ understanding of balancing equations increases, a chemistry teacher comments, “Balancing equations is important in chemistry and I know it isn’t easy, but you people are really getting good at this stuff.” Developmentally Appropriate Practice Personal, Social, and Moral Development with Learners at Different Ages Important differences exist in the personal, emotional social, and moral development of elementary, middle, and high school students The following paragraphs outline suggestions that will help you respond to these differences Working with Students in Preschool Programs and Elementary Schools As children enter preschool, they are developing autonomy and taking the initiative to seek out experiences and challenges “Let me help!” and “I want to it” are signs of this initiative Criticism or overly restrictive directions detract from a sense of independence and, in extreme cases, lead to feelings of guilt and dependency At the same time, children need the structure that helps them learn to take responsibility for their own behavior As children move through the elementary years, teachers attempt to help them succeed in learning activities challenging enough to promote feelings of competence and industry This is demanding Activities that are so challenging that students frequently fail can leave them with a sense of inferiority, but success on trivial tasks does little to make students feel competent (Brophy, 2010) During the elementary years, students need opportunities to practice perspective taking and social problem solving Discussions and small-group work where students can interact with others and practice these skills are effective learning experiences The elementary grades also lay the foundation for students’ moral growth and the development of social responsibility and self-control Teachers who encourage students to understand the impact of their actions on others help them make the transition from preconventional morality, with its egocentric orientation, to conventional morality, at which stage students understand why rules are important for both classrooms and the world outside of school Working with Students in Middle Schools Adolescence is a time of considerable physical, emotional, and intellectual changes, and adolescents are often uncertain about how to respond to new sexual feelings They are concerned with what others think of them and are preoccupied with their looks They want to assert their independence, yet long for the stability of structure and discipline They want to rebel to assert their independence but need something solid to rebel against Most adolescents successfully negotiate this period, however, exploring different roles and maintaining positive relationships with their parents, teachers, and other adults Students in middle and junior high schools need firm, caring teachers who empathize with them and their sometimes capricious actions while simultaneously providing the security of clear limits for acceptable behavior (Emmer & Evertson, 2013) Classroom management provides opportunities to advance moral reasoning from preconventional to conventional thinking Effective teachers create clear classroom rules, discuss the reasons for them, and enforce them consistently Instruction in middle school classrooms should promote deep understanding of the topics being studied, while simultaneously providing students with opportunities to practice prosocial behaviors, such as tolerance for others’ opinions, listening politely, and avoiding hurtful comments Effective instruction in middle schools is highly interactive, and lecture is held to a minimum Working with Students in High Schools High school students are continuing to wrestle with who they are and what they want to become Peers become increasingly important to students and have an important influence on social, emotional, and moral development Linking content to students’ lives is particularly valuable at this age For example, examining ideas about gender and occupational trends in social studies and showing how math and science can influence their futures are important for these students Like younger learners, high school students need opportunities to try out new ideas and link them to their developing sense of self Discussions, small-group work, and focused writing assignments provide valuable opportunities for students to integrate new ideas into their developing self-identities www.downloadslide.net 738 • Subject Index Crystallized intelligence, 192 Cues See Prompts and cues Cultural intelligence, 192 Culturally responsive classroom management, 533–534 Culturally responsive teaching, 163–164 Cultural mismatches, 154–155 cautions about, 157–158 Culture, 45, 152–158 See also Ethnic identity; Ethnicity; Learner diversity; Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development accommodations for, 162–163 adult-child relationships and, 156 assessment practices and, 631–632 attitudes and values, 155–156 autonomy need and, 422 classroom instruction and, 157–158 classroom management and, 533–534 emotional and behavioral disorders and, 212 emotional self-regulation and, 108 goals and, 440–441 knowledge construction and, 390–391 metacognition and, 317 multicultural education, 157 parenting styles and, 105–106 personalization of lessons and, 480–481 resistance cultures, 155–156 respect, communicating, 163–164 self-regulation and, 272 stereotype threat, 156 strategic learning and, 369 transfer of learning and, 368–369 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and, 81–82 Curiosity and motivation, 414 Curriculum-based assessments, 203 Curriculum planning for learners with exceptionalities, 226 Cyberbullying, 145, 531–532 D Dead time, eliminating, 503 Deaf students, 216–217 Decision making, involving students in, 425–426 Declarative knowledge, 294–295 as schemas, 295–296 De facto segregation, 154 Defiant students, 530 Deficiency needs, 419, 420 Delay of gratification and self-regulation, 498 Deliberate practice for problem solving, 349–351 Dendrites, 61, 62 memory and, 299 Descriptive research, 36 Descriptive statistics of standardized tests, 654–655 Design-based research, 38 Desists, 247, 527 Detention, 248 Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude, 649 Development, 56–57 alcohol use and, 142 Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development, 57–60 child abuse and, 142–143 in cultural context, 78 drug use and, 142 neuroscience of, 60–65 obesity and, 140–141 Piaget’s stages of development in, 69–74 principles of, 57 Developmental differences, 34 Developmentally appropriate practice for assessment, 633 for behaviorism, 278 for classroom management, 534 for cognitive development, 88 for complex cognitive skills, 372–373 for effective teaching, 585 for knowledge construction, 404–405 for language development, 96 for learner diversity, 184 for learners and learning, 34 for learners with exceptionalities, 229 for learning activities, 489 for memory models, 327 for moral development, 146 for motivation, 454 for personal development, 146 for social cognitive theory, 278 for social development, 146 for standardized tests, 667–668 Diabetes, 215 Diagnostic assessment, 595 Diagnostic tests, 649 Dialects, 161–162 bidialecticism, 165 Differentiating instruction, 579–580 mastery learning and, 580 personalizing content and, 580 small-group support and, 579–580 Direct instruction, 562–566 cognitive-based direct instruction, 562–564 effective use of, 582 guided practice in, 565 homework in, 565–566 independent practice in, 565 introduction and review in, 564 understanding, developing, 564–565 Direct modeling, 263–264 Discipline See also Misbehavior; Time-outs assertive discipline, 521–522 nonexclusionary time-outs, 523 Discrepancy model of identification, 203 Discrepant events for attracting attention, 321 Discrimination in classical conditioning, 238 Discussion-lecture See Lecturediscussion Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, 213 Distracted: The Erosion of Attention and the Coming Dark Age (Jackson), 303 Distractions and distractors attention and, 303 in multiple-choice items, 603, 604 Distributed processing, using, 294 Divergent thinking, 346 Diversity See also Culture; Ethnicity; Learner diversity; Socioeconomic status (SES); Standardized tests assessment practices and, 631–632 behaviorism and, 258–259 classroom management and, 533–534 cognitive processes and, 313–314 cooperative learning and, 576–577 developmentally appropriate practice for, 184 emotional self-regulation and, 108–109 ethnic identity and, 118–119 goals and, 440–441 knowledge construction and, 390–391 language disorders and, 210 learners with exceptionalities, cautions on identification of, 204–205 mastery goals and, 440–441 metacognition and, 317 parenting styles and, 105–106 performance goals and, 440–441 personalization of content and, 480–481 self-determination and need for, 422 self-regulation and, 272 special education, equity in, 223 speech disorders and, 210 transfer of learning and, 368–369 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and, 81–82 Dopamine and emotion, 447 squirt, 303 Drawing analogies, 362 Drill-and-practice technologies, employing, 252–254 Dropout problem and socioeconomic status (SES), 177–178 Drug use and development, 142 DSM-25 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) on ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), 208 on bipolar disorder, 213 Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, 213 on learning disabilities, 207 Oppositional Defiant Disorder, 212–213 Social Communication Disorder, 210 Dual-coding theory, 310 Due process and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 202 The Dumbest Generation (Bauerlein), 92 Durrell Analysis of Reading Difficulty, 649 Dyscalculia, 207 Dyslexia, 207 E Early childhood education, 69 Educational psychology (Ed Psych), 26 Educational Testing Service, 43–44 Effective teaching, 538–589 See also Models of instruction assessment and, 545, 584 behaviors of teacher and, 553, 561 beliefs of teacher and, 553, 561 Bloom’s Taxonomy, 543–544 closure and, 554, 560 cognitive domain, objectives/ taxonomies in, 543–544 communication and, 554, 560–561 defined, 540 developmentally appropriate practice for, 585 essential teaching skills, 553, 554 feedback and, 554, 558–560, 561 focus and, 554, 555, 561 implementing instruction, 551–561 instructional alignment and, 545–546 organization and, 553–554, 561 phases of instruction, model of, 540–541 planning for instruction, 540–551 questioning and, 554, 555–558, 561, 613 rating scale for, 613 review and, 554–555, 561, 613 specifying learning objectives, 542–544 standards-based environment, planning in, 546–550 taxonomies for cognitive objectives, 543–544 topics, identifying, 541–542 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index • 739 Efficacy See also Self-efficacy collective efficacy, 464–465 personal teaching efficacy, 464–465 teacher efficacy, 464–465, 469 Effort expectations of teachers and, 467 teachers modeling, 470 Egocentrism in preoperational stage, 72 Elaboration concept mapping and, 359 encoding and, 308–309 mnemonics and, 308–309 Elaborative questioning, 359 Elaborative rehearsal, 310–311 Emails to parents, 514–516 Embarrassment as punishment, 248 Embedding learning activities, 82 Embodied cognition, 389–390 Emotional and behavior disorders, 212–214 bipolar disorder, 213–214 suicide and, 213 teaching students with, 214 Emotional development, 57 rules promoting, 504 Emotional intelligence, 108, 192 Emotional self-regulation, 107–109, 498 diversity and, 108–109 emotional intelligence and, 108, 192 poverty and, 108–109 Emotional support by teachers, 467 Emotions, 445–448 See also Emotional self-regulation anxiety and motivation, 446–447 defined, 445 increasing motivation, influence on, 450–453 misbehavior, emotional factors and, 517–518, 528 models arousing, 265 moral development and, 136–137 neuroscience of, 447–448 peers and emotional support, 125–126 personality development and, 106–109 self-efficacy and emotional state, 430–431 social influences and, 381 variables influencing motivation, 450 Empathy and moral development, 136 Emphasis for attracting attention, 321 and communication, 560 development of, 90 Employment, dropout problem and, 178 Empowerment in multicultural education, 157 Encoding, 305–311 analyzing theories of, 319 capitalizing on, 314, 324–325 cognitive activity and, 311 elaboration and, 308–309 imagery and, 309–311 meaningfulness and, 306 organization and, 307–308 rehearsal and, 310–311 schema activating and, 307 Engaged time, 501 English dialects, 161–162 English learners (ELs), 45 bilingualism and, 160–161 evaluating programs, 160–161 programs, types of, 159–160 standardized tests and, 663–664 Enrichment programs, 222–223 Enthusiasm of teacher, modeling, 465–471 Entity view of intelligence or ability, 429 Environment See also Classroom environment as antecedent to behavior, 249 barrier-free environments, 217–218 creativity, environments encouraging, 346–347 gender differences and, 167 intelligence, nurture view of, 192 personality development and, 104–109 resilience and safe classroom environment, 182 Epilepsy, 215 Episodic memory, 294–295 Equilibrium and order and safety of classroom, 472 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and drive for, 66–67 Equitable distribution effective teaching and, 613 and metacognition, 326 of questioning, 556, 613 Equity pedagogy in multicultural education, 157 Equivalent fractions lesson, personalization of, 486 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, 114–116 analyzing, 116 evaluation of, 114 life-span stages in, 114–115 ESL pullout programs, 159–160 Essay items, 607–608 feedback on, 624 Essential teaching skills, 553, 554 Ethics See Kohlberg’s theory of moral development; Moral development Ethics of care, 135–136, 466 Ethnic identity, 118–119 pride and, 119 valuing ethnic backgrounds, 122–123 Ethnicity, 153–154 See also Learner diversity assessment practices and, 631–632 autonomy need and, 422 classroom management and, 533–534 emotional and behavioral disorders and, 212 goals and, 440–441 learners with exceptionalities, cautions on identification of, 204–205 poverty and, 173–174 standardized tests, bias in, 662 transfer of learning and, 368–369 Evaluation See also Teacher evaluation in Bloom’s Taxonomy, 543–544 of cooperative learning, 575–576 of motivation theories, 448 Examples See also Concrete examples; High-quality examples; Personalization of lessons effective teaching and, 613 elaboration and, 308 introductory focus and, 485 representing topics with, 31 resilience, examples for promoting, 183 for transfer of learning, 370–371 Exceptionalities, learners with See Learners with exceptionalities Executive functioning and Neo-Piagetian theory, 74 Exemplars and concept learning theory, 337 defined, 337 Exosystems, 59 Expectancy x value theory, 428 involvement, importance of, 481 task comprehension and, 474 Expectations follow-through and, 520 high expectations, maintaining, 121, 469, 471 and resilience, 183 in social cognitive theory, 261–262 teachers communicating, 467–468 Expectations for success, 430 beliefs and, 428–429 promoting, 435–436 Experiences See also Social interaction abstract ideas, concrete experiences and, 75–76 attention-getting experiences, activities with, 321 cognitive development and, 67–68 and cognitive learning theories, 286–287 as developmental bridges, 77 expectations and, 428–429 linguistic diversity, incorporating for, 164 making sense of, 286–287 peak experiences, 420 in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 67–69 Experimental research, 37 Experts and expertise automaticity and, 293 on critical thinking, 363 flow and, 415 and problem solving, 349–351 teacjers as, 25–26 Expressive disorders, 209–210 Externalizing emotional and behavioral disorders, 212–213 External morality, 132 Extinction in classical conditioning, 238–239 reinforcement and, 242–243 Extraversion, 103 workplace achievement and, 109 Extrinsic motivation, 413–414 Eye contact with students, 470, 521 F Facebook, 382–383 addiction syndrome, 423 self-determination and, 423 Facial expressions of teacher, 521 as desists, 527 Family See also Parents brothers and sisters, social development and, 124–125 ethnic identity and, 118 Fantasy and motivation, 414 Fear, responses to, 107 Feedback, 488 assessment with, 487–488, 623–624 effective teaching and, 554, 558–560, 561 expectations of teachers and, 467 information about progress, providing, 486–487 interaction and, 398 knowledge construction and, 391 learning progress and, 482, 486–487, 488 praise and, 559 as strategic thinking learning tool, 365–366 written feedback, 559–560 Field trips, virtual field, 397 Fighting, responding to, 531 First days of school, planning for, 509–510 First-letter mnemonic device, 309 First-Year Teacher (Bullough), 37 Fixed-interval reinforcement schedules, 244–245 Fixed mindset, 429 attributions and, 433 performance goals and, 439 Flipped instruction, 577–579 issues with, 578–579 Flow of instruction, 528 motivation and, 415 www.downloadslide.net 740 • Subject Index Flowcharts for organizing information, 307 Fluency disorders, 210 Fluid intelligence, 192 Flynn effect, 93 Focus See also Introductory focus effective teaching and, 554, 555, 561 Follow-through, maintaining, 519–520 Food insecurity, 175 Forgetting, 311–312 as interference, 311–312 as retrieval failure, 312 Formal assessment, 402, 601–616 See also Performance assessments commercially prepared test items, 609 completion items, 607–608 essay items, 607–608 formats, evaluation of, 614–615 matching items, 605–606 multiple-choice items, 603–605 paper-and-pencil items, 602–609 portfolio assessment, 613–614 rubrics for, 608–609 true-false items, 606 Formal operational stage, 72–73 Formative assessment, 625–626 Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), 200 Frequency distributions of standardized test scores, 654, 655, 657 Functional analysis, 257–258 G Games and involvement, 487 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, 192–194 analysis of, 195–196 evaluation of, 194 Gender, 166–170 assessment bias on standardized tests, 662 caring teachers and, 466 classroom behavior differences, 169 communication on issues, 170–171 differences between genders, 167 eliminating gender bias, 170–171 emotional self-regulation and, 108 goals and, 440–441 instructional activities, eliminating bias in, 171 metacognition and, 317 moral development and, 135–136 nonstereotypical role models, presenting, 171 personalization of lessons and, 480–481 responding to gender issues, 170–171 school-related differences, 168–169 self-determination and, 422 self-regulation and, 272 Gender-role identities, 168 General intelligence (g), 192 Generalization in classical conditioning, 238 language, overgeneralization in, 90 General pedagogical knowledge, 32–33 General transfer of learning, 367 Generativity vs stagnation stage, 115 Genetics ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and, 219 autism spectrum disorder and, 219 gender differences and, 167 homosexuality and, 117–118 intelligence and, 191–192 temperament and, 103 Geomter’s Sketchpad, 354, 397 Gestures by teacher, 521 Gifted and talented students, 221–223 characteristics of, 221–222 general education classroom, teaching in, 228 identification of, 222 programs for, 222–223 standardized tests to determine, 646 Goals, 437–443 See also Mastery goals; Performance goals assessments and, 442 of classroom management, 497–500 defined, 438 diversity and, 440–441 encouraging goal-setting, 442–443 of high-efficacy teachers, 464 for increasing student motivation, 443 influence of goals and motivation, 441–443 monitoring, 442–443 self-regulated learning and, 270 social goals, 439, 440 variables influencing motivation, 450 work-avoidance goals, 439–440 The Golden Rule, 134 Goodness of fit, 111 Grade equivalent scores, 659 Grades alternative assessments, 628 criterion-referenced grades, 626–627 designing grading system, 626–627 for homework, 627–628 increasing learning/motivation and, 627–629 for learners with exceptionalities, 632 norm-referenced grading, 626–627 for paper-and-pencil items, 627 for performance assessments, 627 points or percentages, grading by, 629 standards-based grading, 629 Grammar development of, 91 promoting development of, 94 Graphs for organizing information, 307 Group grading, 576 Group work See also Cooperative learning; Small groups differentiating instruction and, 579–580 and involvement, 487 involvement and, 481–482 Growth mindset, 429 mastery goals and, 439 modeling, 434–435 teacher qualities and, 465 Growth needs, 420 Guided discovery, 571–580 See also Cooperative learning application of, 572, 573–574 closure phase of, 572, 573 cognitive learning components of, 571–572 convergent phase of, 572, 573 differentiating instruction, 579–580 effective use of, 583 flipped instruction, 577–579 introduction of, 572, 573 open-ended phase of, 572, 573 phases of, 571–572 review of, 572, 573 Guided notes, 357 Guided practice in direct instruction, 565 Guilt initiative vs guilt stage, 115 moral development and, 136 H Handicap, defined, 206 Hands-ons activities and involvement, 481 Headings as text signals, 357 Health See also Mental health; Physical health attributions in, 433 background knowledge, developing, 323 self-efficacy and, 430 Hearing disabilities, 216–217 Hemispheres of cerebral cortex, 63 Heuristics, 344 Hierarchies conceptual hierarchies, 359–360 for organizing information, 307 Hierarchy of needs (Maslow), 418, 419–420, 427 High judgment, 205 High-quality examples, 475–476 knowledge construction and, 395–396 High-stakes tests, 642–643 Hispanic Americans See Culture; Diversity History and background knowledge, 323 HIV/AIDS, 215 Homelessness, 174–175 Homework in direct instruction, 565–566 effective homework, characteristics of, 566 grades for, 627–628 options for assessing, 628 Homosexuality genetics and, 117–118 understanding, stages of, 118 Hostile attributional bias, 143 How to Solve It (Pólyá), 342 Humanistic psychology, 418 Humiliation as punishment, 248 Humor, teaching with, 465 Hunger food insecurity, 175 poverty and, 174 Hyperactivity and ADHD, 209 Hypothetical thinking, 72–73 I IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Identity See also Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development; Ethnic identity achievement state, 117 adolescents and, 507 contemporary views of, 115–117 crisis of identity, 114–115 development of, 102, 113–124 diffusion state, 117 foreclosure state, 117 gender-role identities, 168 moratorium state, 117 sexual identity, 117–118 states in development of, 117 supporting development of, 120–121 Identity crisis, 114–115 IEPs (individualized education programs) See Individualized education programs (IEPs) Ignoring inappropriate behavior, 526 Ill-defined problems, 341–342 Imagery concept mapping and, 359 encoding and, 309–311 I-messages, use of, 521–522 Immersion programs, 159–160 Implementing instruction, 551–561 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index • 741 Improvement drills promoting involvement, 487 Impulse control and self-regulation, 498 Inclusion concept, 201–202 Increasing complexity and cognitive apprenticeships, 386–387 Incremental view of intelligence, 429 Independent practice in direct instruction, 565 Individualized education programs (IEPs), 202–203 grading and, 632 referrals for, 204 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) See also Individualized education programs (IEPs) amendments to, 200 autism and, 214 due process and, 202 fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation requirement, 202 grading and, 632 and least restrictive environment (LRE), 200–202 major provisions of, 200–203 standardized tests for students with exceptionalities, 664–665 Individual workspaces and involvement, 487 Inductive sequences and introductory focus, 485 Industry vs inferiority stage, 115 Informal assessment, 401–402, 598–601 capitalizing on, 601 learning activities and, 599–600 reliability of, 601 Information processing analyzing theories of, 319 evaluating, 318 and order and safety of classroom, 472 personalization of lessons and, 480 Information processing theory, 289 Information stores, analyzing theories of, 319 Inhibitions, modeling changing of, 265 Initiative vs guilt stage, 115 supporting, 121 Input devices, adaptations to, 218–219 Instruction See also Effective teaching general pedagogical knowledge and, 32 scaffolding and, 81 Instructional alignment, 545–546 effective teaching and, 613 Instructional time, 501 Instrumental aggression, 143 Integration of information in lecturediscussion, 570–571 Integrity vs despair stage, 115 Intellectual disabilities, 210–212 defined, 211 Intellectual functioning, 211 Intelligence, 190–199 See also Emotional intelligence; Gifted and talented students ability grouping and, 194–197 accommodating ability differences, 199 analyzing theories of, 195–196 beliefs about, 429, 437 crystallized intelligence, 192 fluid intelligence, 192 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, 192–194 intellectual disabilities, 210–212 nature view of, 191–192 nurture view of, 192 psychometric descriptions of, 190–192 Sternberg’s triarchic theory of, 194 Intelligence tests, 649–650 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition, 649–650 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 650–651 Interactive teaching abilities and knowledge construction, 399–400 Interactive whiteboards, 46 problem solving and, 354 Interest See Personal interest Interference, forgetting as, 311–312 Intermittent reinforcement schedules, 244–245 Internalization, 79 Internalizing emotional and behavioral disorders, 212–213 Internet See also Technology addiction disorder, 383 attention and, 303 Interpersonal harmony morality, 133 Interpersonal intelligence, 193 Interpersonal relationships, attributions in, 433 Interpretive exercises, 615 Interspersed practice, 350 Interval reinforcement schedules, 244–245 Interventions See also Misbehavior for bullying, 532 Intimacy vs isolation stage, 115 Intonation, development of, 90 Intrapersonal intelligence, 193 Intrinsic motivation, 413–414 Introductory focus, 479, 484, 488 tools and techniques for providing, 485 Intuitive appeal, 393 Involvement, 488 See also Parents resilience, involving students and, 182–183 strategies for promoting, 487 student interest and, 481–482, 484–486, 488 Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 648 IQ scores, 191 See also Gifted and talented students Italicized text as text signal, 357 conventional ethics, 133–134 postconventional ethics, 134 preconventional ethics, 133 stages of moral reasoning, 133–135 Korean parenting styles, 106 J L Jealousy and Facebook, 383 Jigsaw II strategy, 575 Joy, neuroscience of, 448 Labeling controversy, 206 Language acquisition device (LAD), 89 Language disorders, 209–210 Language/language development, 89–92 See also English learners (ELs); Grammar; Linguistic diversity; Syntax background knowledge, developing, 323 bilingualism and, 160–161 early language development, 90 knowledge construction, teachers’ examples for, 395 linguistic diversity and, 164–165 listening and, 91 misconceptions and, 393 nativist theory of, 89 people-first language, 206 and prenatal brain development, 220 reading and, 91 in school years, 90–91 speaking and, 91 technology and, 92–93 theories of, 89–90 vocabulary development, 90–91 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and, 79–80 writing and, 92 Law and order morality, 133 Learned helplessness and attributions, 434 Learner diversity, 44–45, 150–187 See also Culture; English learners (ELs); Gender; Socioeconomic status (SES) accommodations for, 162–163 concrete experiences and, 164 developmentally appropriate practice for, 184 involving students and, 164 respect, communicating, 163–164 types of, 152–153 working with students and, 166 Learners, knowledge of, 33–34 Learners with exceptionalities, 188–233 See also Gifted and talented students; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) adaptive behavior, assessment of, 204 ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), 208–209 K Key-word mnemonic device, 309 Khan Academy, 578 Knowledge See also Background knowledge; Knowledge construction; Professional knowledge in Bloom’s Taxonomy, 543–544 conditional knowledge in longterm memory, 298 declarative knowledge, 294–295 pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 29–30 procedural knowledge in longterm memory, 297–298 Knowledge construction, 287–288, 383–405 assessment and, 401–402 cognitive constructivism, 384 conceptual change, teaching for, 400–401 cooperative learning and, 398–399 developmentally appropriate practice for, 404–405 diversity and, 390–391 evaluation of, 402–403 examples, teachers’ use of, 395 feedback and, 482 high-quality examples and, 395–396 interaction and instruction in, 397–398 interactive teaching abilities and, 399–400 and learning sciences, 387–390 misconceptions and, 391–393 open-ended discussions and, 399 organization and, 307–308 promoting conceptional change, 394 real-world contexts and, 397 social constructivism, 384–387 suggestions for classroom practice, 394–396 teacher’s roles in, 394 technology and, 396–397 theoretical framework for highquality examples, 396 valid knowledge, constructing, 403–404 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, 132–135 analyzing, 134–135 www.downloadslide.net 742 • Subject Index Learners with exceptionalities, continued autism spectrum disorders, 214–215 categories of, 206–221 collaboration and working with, 226–227 communication disorders, 209–210 curriculum-based assessments, use of, 203 defined, 190 developmentally appropriate practice for, 229 discrepancy model of identification, 203 diversity cautions in identification process, 204–205 emotional and behavioral disorders, 212–214 general education classroom, teaching in, 228 grading systems for, 632 identification of, 203 inclusive classrooms, responsibilities for, 223–224 instruction modifications for, 224–225 intellectual disabilities, 210–212 labeling controversy, 206 learning problems and, 205–221 legal basis for working with, 200–203 metacognition and, 317 multitrait views of, 192–194 neuroscience of, 219–221 people-first language, 206 physical and sensory challenges, students with, 215–217 referral for special services, 204 response to intervention model of identification, 203–204 self-regulation, development of, 225–226 social integration, promoting, 227–228 special education for, 223 standardized tests and, 664–665 strategy-development for, 225 technology and, 217–219 understanding/acceptance by classmates, promoting, 227 universal design for learning, 217–218 Learning See also Strategic learning behaviorism on, 236 in cultural context, 78 knowledge of, 33–34 mastery learning, 580 metacognition and, 315–316 rote learning, 310 schemas and, 296–297 social cognitive theory and, 261 social interaction facilitating, 288 vicarious learning, 268 Learning activities applying instructional variables, 482–488 attention, attracting, 479, 484 attention-getting experiences and, 321 developing interest in, 478–488 developmentally appropriate practice for, 489 feedback, importance of, 482, 486–487, 488 informal assessment during, 599–601 introductory focus, 484, 488 involvement, importance of, 481–482, 484–486, 488 model for promoting, 478 personalization of lessons, 479–480, 484, 488 preparing/organizing, 544–545 specifying learning objectives for, 542–544 Learning disabilities, 207–208 ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and, 209 identifying and working with students with, 207–208 people-first language, 206 working memory and, 220 Learning objectives, specifying, 542–544 Learning sciences, 387–390 conceptual understanding, requirement for, 388–389 embodied cognition and, 389–390 focus on learning and, 389 personal reflection and, 388–389 situated cognition and, 390 Learning styles, 197–199 implications for teachers, 198–199 and learning preferences, 198 misconceptions and, 393 research on, 198 Least restrictive environment (LRE), 200–202 adaptive fit and, 201 inclusion and, 201–202 Lecture-discussion cognitive learning components of, 567–568 comprehension monitoring in, 570 disadvantages of, 567 effective use of, 583 integration of information in, 570–571 introduction of, 569–571 overcoming weaknesses of, 567–571 phases of, 567–568 popularity of, 567 presenting information in, 570 review and, 569–571 Lesson scope for effective teaching, 613 Letters to parents, 514, 515 Linguistic diversity, 158–166 See also English learners (ELs) academic language proficiency and, 164–165 accommodations for, 162–163 concrete experiences and, 164 English dialects, 161–162 patience and, 165 working with students and, 166 Linguistic intelligence, 193 Linking words/phrases, 359 Link mnemonic device, 309 Listening active listening, 95 and language development, 91 skills, developing, 94–95 Locus and attributions, 432–433 Logical consequences, applying, 522 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 193 Long-term memory, 294–298 See also Schemas characteristics of, 299 cognition and, 318 conditional knowledge in, 298 declarative knowledge in, 294–295 dual-coding theory and, 310 procedural knowledge in, 297–298 promotion of learning and, 301 M Macrosystems, 59 Mainstreaming, 200–201 Maintenance EL programs, 159–160 Maintenance rehearsal, 291, 310 Manipulatives and problem solving, 354 Maps for organizing information, 307 Market exchange, 133 Market stage of moral development, 133 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 418, 419–420, 427 Mastery-focused classroom, 461–463 model for promoting, 461–462 teacher-student relationship in, 462–463 Mastery goals, 438–439, 440 diversity and, 440–441 focusing on, 441 teacher qualities and, 465 Matching items, 605–606 Mathematics background knowledge, developing, 323 dyscalculia, 207 knowledge construction, teachers’ examples for, 395 Matrices for organizing information, 307 Maturation, 57 Maximizing teaching/learning time, 501 Mean, defined, 654, 656 Meaningfulness and encoding, 306 and retrieval, 312 of schemas, 295–297 transfer of learning and, 367 Means-ends analysis, 344 Measures of central tendency of standardized test scores, 654, 656 Median, defined, 654, 656 Mega-attention, 315 Memory, 290–301 See also Forgetting; Long-term memory; Short-term memory; Working memory analyzing theories of, 319 components of, 289 developmental differences in, 298–299 developmentally appropriate practice for, 327 evaluating model of, 318 metamemory, 315 model of, 288–290 neuroscience of, 299 and order and safety of classroom, 472 promotion of learning and, 301 sensory memory, 290 success and, 473 Mental health See also ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) bipolar disorder, 213–214 bullying and, 144 emotions and, 107 social connections and, 382 suicide and, 213 Mesosystems, 59 Metacognition, 315–319 analyzing theories of, 319 developmental differences in, 316–317 equitable distribution and, 326 memory and, 289 modeling and encouraging, 325–326 multitasking and, 304 promotion of, 317 research on, 315–316 strategic learning and, 356–357 systematic assessment of, 326 task difficulty and, 316 teacher metacognition, 326 Metaphors constructed knowledge and, 287 representing topics with, 32 Method of loci mnemonic device, 309 Metropolitan Achievement Test, 648 Microsystems, 58–59 Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (Dweck), 429 Mindsets See also Growth mindset and beliefs, 429 beliefs about, 437 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index • 743 Minorities See Culture; Diversity; Ethnicity Misbehavior, 517–529 See also Bullying applying consequences, 527 behavioral interventions, 522–525 cognitive interventions, use of, 518–522, 528–529 consistency, maintaining, 519–520 continuum for intervention, 525–527, 529 corporal punishment, 523 defiant students, 530 designing/maintaining behavioral management system, 524–525 desists, 527 effective responses to, 528–529 emotional factors in interventions, 517–518 emotional safety of students, protecting, 528 fighting, responding to, 531 flow of instruction, maintaining, 528 follow-through, maintaining, 519–520 ignoring inappropriate behavior, 526 I-messages, use of, 521–522 indirect cues for behavior, 526 logical consequences, applying, 522 overlapping and, 528 positive behavior support, 525 positive reinforcement and, 529 praise for desired behavior, 526 removing students from classrooms, 523–524 successful interventions for, 529 verbal/nonverbal behaviors, congruency in, 520–521 vicarious reinforcements and, 526 withitness, demonstrating, 518–519 Misconceptions, 391–393 change, resistance to, 393 intuitive appeal and, 393 learning styles and, 393 origin of, 392–393 in teaching and learning, 392 Mnemonics, 308–309 types of, 309 Mode, defined, 654, 656 Models/modeling See also Models of instruction; Social cognitive theory cognitive apprenticeships and, 386 cognitive modeling, 263 control attributions, 434–435 critical thinking, modeling, 365 discrepancy model of identification, 203 enthusiasm of teacher, modeling, 465, 471 expectations for success, modeling, 435–436 growth mindset, 434–435 internal attributions for success, 434–435 learning activities, model for promoting, 478 of memory, 288–290 metacognition, modeling and encouraging, 325–326 moral development and, 138 for organizing information, 307 personal interest in topics, 452–453 of personality traits, 111 representing topics with, 32 response to intervention model of identification, 203–204 scaffolding and, 81 self-efficacy and, 430, 435–436 social skills, modeling, 128 teacher qualities, model of, 463 value-added models, 43, 645–646 working memory, model of, 291–292 Models of instruction, 562–580 See also Cooperative learning; Guided discovery; Lecture-discussion defined, 562 direct instruction, 562–566 lecture-discussion, 566–571 Moral development, 102 classroom, supporting in, 140 classroom management for promoting, 139 defined, 130 developmentally appropriate practice for, 146 discussion for understanding and, 138–139 emotional factors in, 136–137 gender differences and, 135–136 modeling, 138 Piaget’s theory of moral development, 131–132 promotion of, 137–139 social domain theory of, 131 society, interest of, 130 Moral dilemmas, 132 as reference points, 138 Moral domains, 131 Morality See also Moral development of caring, 135–136 conventional level of, 133–134 postconventional morality, 134 preconventional ethics, 133 Motivation, 410–457 See also Beliefs; Emotion; Goals; Mastery-focused classroom; Needs; Personal interest anxiety and, 446–447 behaviorist view of, 416 cognitive theories of, 417 as contextual, 414 defined, 413 developmentally appropriate practice for, 454 evaluation of theories, 448 extrinsic motivation, 413–414 flow and, 415 humanistic views of, 418 intrinsic motivation, 413–414 to learn, 415–416 models and learning, 266–267 sociocultural theories of, 417–418 summary of theories, 448 technology, influence of, 422–424 unconditional positive regard and, 418 variables influencing, 449–459 Motivational zone of proximal development, 417 Multicultural education, 157 Multiple-choice items, 603–605 feedback on, 624 guidelines for, 603–605 in higher-level learning, 605 Multiple intelligences, Gardner’s theory of, 192–194 Multitasking, 303–304 Music intelligence, musical, 193 and prenatal brain development, 220 Myelination, 62 Myelin sheath, 62 N NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress) See National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Names of students, learning, 470 Narcissism and Facebook, 383 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) achievement tests, 648–649 descriptive research by, 36 on proficiency standards, 641 on standards, 40 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 649 National norms, 646–647 National School Boards Association Center fot Public Education on teacher evaluation trend, 44 National School Lunch Program, 173 A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, 40 Nation’s Report Card, 649 Nativist theory of language development, 89 Naturalist intelligence, 193 Nature view of intelligence, 191–192 NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act), 641–642 Needs approval, need for, 421–422 autonomy, need for, 421 capitalizing on needs and motivation, 427 for competence, 421 decision making, involving students in, 425–426 deficiency needs, 360 growth needs, 420 influence of needs on learning, 424–427 Maslow’s hierarchy of, 418, 419–420, 427 people first, treating students as, 425 praise and, 426 for self-determination, 420–422, 427 for self-worth, 424, 427 social comparisons, avoiding, 426–427 variables influencing motivation, 449 Negative emotions, 445–446 Negative reinforcement, 246 Negative wording in multiple-choice items, 604 Negligence and fighting, 531 Neocortex and social interaction, 381–382 Neo-Piagetian views of development, 74 Neural commitments, 300 Neural scaffolding, 361 Neurons, 61 memory and, 299 structure of, 62 Neuroplasticity, 47 of brain, 61 synaptic connections and, 62–63 Neuroscience, 46–47 controversies in, 64–65 of development, 60–65 of emotion, 447–448 of joy, 448 of learners with exceptionalities, 219–221 of memory, 299–301 of self-regulation, 272–273 of social connection, 381–382 Neuroticism, 103 emotions and, 106 Neurotransmitters, 62 and emotion, 447 Neutral stimuli, 237 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act, 641–642 “None of the above” in multiplechoice items, 604 Nonexclusionary time-outs, 247, 523 Nonverbal communication by teachers, 520–521 Noradrenaline and emotion, 447 Normal distribution of standardized test scores, 657, 658 Norming groups, 646–647 www.downloadslide.net 744 • Subject Index Norm-referenced grading, 626–627 standardized tests and, 647–648 Note taking, 357 Nucleus of neuron, 62 Numbered lists as text signals, 357 Nurture view of intelligence, 192 O Obesity development and, 140–141 recess, need for, 141 Objectives and introductory focus, 485 Object permanence in vocabulary development, 90 Observation, systematic, 611–612 OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), 40 Open-ended discussions, 399 Open-ended phase of guided discovery, 572, 573 Open-ended questions, 323, 475–476 involvement, promoting, 183 Openness, 103 Operant conditioning, 240–253 See also Antecedents; Applied behavior analysis (ABA); Punishment; Reinforcement application to students, 249–253 classical conditioning compared, 241 consequences and, 241–242 drill-and-practice technologies, employing, 252–254 effective use of, 255 reinforcement in, 242–246 Oppositional Defiant Disorder, 212–213 Optimism and flow, 415 Order and safety of classroom, 471–472, 475, 477–478 Organization an encoding, 307–308 concept mapping and, 359 effective teaching and, 561, 613 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 40 Organized bodies of knowledge, 566–567 Outlines for organizing information, 307 Overgeneralization in language, 90 Overlapping and misbehavior, 528 Overweight See Obesity P Pakastani parenting styles, 106 Paper-and-pencil items, 602–609 grading for, 627 Paragraph structure, rubric for, 608–609 Paraprofessionals and learners with exceptionalities, 226 Parents assessment system and, 629 benefits of communicating with, 513 culture and styles of, 105–106 effective communication with, 516–517 emails to, 514–516 first days of school, communication on, 510 learners with exceptionalities, collaboration for, 226 letters to, 514, 515 personality development and, 104–105 signature on work, soliciting, 514 social development and, 124–125 strategies for involving, 513–517 telephone calls to, 514–516 Past performance and self-efficacy, 430–431 Peak experiences, 420 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 29–30 demonstration of, 30–32 general pedagogical knowledge, 32–33 Peer aggression See also Bullying development and, 143–145 school violence, 143–144 Peers emotional support and, 125–126 social development and, 125–126 social skills and, 125 Peg-word mnemonic device, 309 People, students as, 110–111 People first, treating students as, 425 People first language, 206 Perceived competence of model, 266 Perceived similarity of model, 266 Perceived status of model, 266 Percentages, grading by, 629 Percentile bands, 659 Percentile ranks (PR), 657–658 Perceptions, 304–305 analyzing theories of, 319 capitalizing on, 314 reviews for checking, 320–321 Performance-approach goals, 438–439 Performance assessments, 610–613 checklists and, 612 designing evaluation procedures, 611–613 grading for, 627 process and products and, 611 rating scales and, 612–613 specifying performance components, 610–611 standardized tests and, 644 structuring evaluation setting, 611 systematic observation, 611–612 Performance-avoidance goals, 439 Performance-focused classrooms, 461 Performance goals, 438–439, 440 diversity and, 440–441 Permissive parents and personality development, 104–105 Personal development, 57 developmentally appropriate practice for, 146 Personal domain, 131 Personal efficacy and resilience, 179 Personal interest, 444 connecting topics to real-world, 452 high level of involvement, promoting, 452 increasing motivation, influence on, 450–453 personalizing content and, 443 variables influencing motivation, 450 Personality See also Personality development defined, 103 and flow, 415 Personality development, 102 See also Emotional self-regulation and academic achievement, 109–110 authoritative classroom management style and, 112–113 concrete examples for, 111–112 defined, 103 discussing positive personality traits, 112 emotions and, 106–109 environment and, 104–109 modeling positive personality traits, 111 parenting and, 104–105 people, seeing students as, 110–111 promoting, 113 school achievement and, 110 supporting, 110–111 temperament and, 103–104 workplace achievement and, 109–110 Personalization See also Personalization of content; Personalization of lessons of classrooms, 509 differentiating instruction and, 580 Personalization of content, 443 differentiating instruction and, 580 and diversity, 480–481 Personalization of lessons, 479–481, 484, 488 diversity and, 480–481 teachers’ efforts for, 486 Personal qualities of teacher See Teacher qualities Personal reflection and learning sciences, 388–389 Personal teaching efficacy, 464–465 Person-centered therapy, 418 Personification and constructed knowledge, 287 Person praise, 559 Perspective taking, 126–127 Persuasive writing, performance outcomes in, 610 Phonological loop component of working memory, 291 Physical aggression, 143 Physical and sensory challenges, 215–217 hearing disabilities, 216–217 input devices, adaptations to, 218 output devices, adaptations to, 218 visual disabilities, 215–216 Physical development, 57 attributions in, 433 Physical exercise and background knowledge, 323 and cognitive neuroscience of brain, 300 Physical health emotions and, 107 food insecurity and, 175 and HIV/AIDS, 215 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 65–77 accommodation in, 67–69 analysis of, 86–87 application of theory to teaching, 74–77 assimilation in, 67–69 concrete operational stage, 72 conservation in, 70–71 equilibrium, drive for, 66–67 experiences, responses to, 67–69 formal operational stage, 72–73 Neo-Piagetian views, 74 overview of, 66 promoting cognitive development with, 77 and research, 73–74 schemes, development of, 67 social interactions in, 68–69 stages of development in, 69–74 Piaget’s theory of moral development, 131–132 Pictures for attracting attention, 321 Points, grading by, 629 Population lesson, personalization of, 486 Portfolio assessment, 613–614 guidelines for, 614 Positive behavior support, 258, 525 Positive emotions, 445 Positive expectations, 619 Positive interdependence, 574 Positive learning climate, 471–472 Positive reinforcement, 243–244 and misbehavior, 529 Premack principle, 244 shaping, 244 Postconventional morality, 134 Poverty, 173–175 basic needs and, 175 emotional self-regulation and, 108–109 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index • 745 homelessness and, 174–175 hunger and, 174 PowerPoint presentations effective use of, 580–582 flipped instruction and, 578–579 Power struggles, avoiding, 530 Practical intelligence, 194 Praise for desired behavior, 526 and feedback, 559 mindset and, 429 needs and, 426 Praxis Series™, 43–44 Precise language, 560 Preconventional ethics/morality, 133 Predictive validity of standardized tests, 653 Preeminence of teachers, 25–26 Prefrontal cortex, 63–64 and self-regulation, 273 Prejudice reduction in multicultural education, 157 Premack principle, 244 Prenatal influences genetics and, 118 and pregnancy, 219–220 Preoperational stage, 70–72 conservation in, 70–71 egocentrism in, 72 Presentation punishment, 247 Presenting information in lecturediscussion, 570 Pride, ethnic, 119 Primary reinforcers, 243 Principled morality, 134 Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) tests, 43 Private speech, 80 Proactive aggression, 143 Problem-based learning, 353 Problems, 341.See also Problem solving for attracting attention, 321 ill-defined problems, 341–342 introductory focus and, 485 well-defined problems, 341–342 Problem solving, 341–355 background knowledge and, 348 challenges in teaching, 347–348 creativity and, 345–347 deliberate practice for, 349–351 developing abilities of learners, 355 high-quality examples for, 370 identifying problem goals, 343, 348–349 imagery and, 310 implementing strategy for, 344–345 paradox of, 342 problem-based learning, 353 process of, 342–345 real-world contexts, presenting problems in, 348–349 representing problem, 343 results, evaluating, 345 selecting strategy for, 343–344 sense making and, 352–353 social interaction and, 351–352 social problem solving, 127 strategic learning and, 356 strategies for developing, 348–353 styles, 197 technology and, 353–355 thinking processes and, 348 worked examples for, 349–351 Procedural knowledge in long-term memory, 297–298 Procedures See Rules and procedures Process praise, 559 Professional knowledge, 26–35 application of, 47–48 content, knowledge of, 29 general pedagogical knowledge, 32–33 introduction to, 26–29 learners, knowledge of, 33–34 learning, knowledge of, 33–34 and reflective practice, 35 research and, 35–39 Prompts and cues as antecedent to behavior, 249 effective teaching and, 613 questioning and, 377 scaffolding and, 81 Proximity of teacher, 521 Psychological health See Mental health Psychometric approach to intelligence, 190–192 analysis of, 195–196 Psychomotor domain, 542–544 Psychosocial development See also Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development promoting, 123–124 Public Law 114-142 See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Public’s Attitude Toward the Public Schools survey, 36 Punishers, 247 applied behavior analysis (ABA) and, 257 effective use of, 255 Punishment, 247–248 See also Consequences; Corporal punishment; Discipline effective use of, 247–248 ineffective forms of, 248 orderly classroom, maintaining, 252 vicarious punishment, 268, 275 Punishment-obedience stage of moral development, 133 Q Qualitative research, 37 Quality See also Teacher qualities of commercially prepared test items, 609 Quantitative research, 36–37 Questions/questioning challenge, capitalizing on, 476–478 cognitive levels of, 558 effective teaching and, 554, 555–558, 561, 613 elaborative questioning, 359 equitable distribution of, 556 expectations of teachers and, 467 frequency of questioning, 555–556 introductory focus and, 485 involvement and, 481 knowledge construction and, 400 open-ended questions, 475–476 prompting and, 377 reciprocal questioning strategy, 575 scaffolding and, 81 wait-time and, 557–558 Quizzes See Assessment R Race, 154 See also Culture; Diversity; Ethnicity ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and, 209 learners with exceptionalities, cautions on identification of, 204–205 Race to the Top program, 642 Range of standardized test scores, 656–657 Rating scales and performance assessments, 612–613 Rationales introductory focus and, 485 rules, emphasizing rationales for, 511–512 Ratio reinforcement schedules, 244–245 Raw scores, 658 Reactive aggression, 143 Readiness tests, 652 Reading dyslexia, 207 and language development, 91 skills, developing, 94–95 Real-world contexts concept learning examples and, 349 and knowledge construction, 397 personal interest, connecting topics to real world and, 452 problem-solving and, 348–349 transfer of learning and, 368, 371 Receptive disorders, 209–210 Recess, need for, 141 Reciprocal causation, 262 Reciprocal interdependence, 574 Reciprocal questioning strategy, 575 Redundancy and communication, 561 Referrals for special services, 204 Reflective practice, 35 Rehearsal analyzing theories of, 319 elaborative rehearsal, 310–311 as encoding strategy, 310–311 maintenance rehearsal, 291, 310 Reinforcement for genuine accomplishments, 252 negative reinforcement, 246 in operant conditioning, 242–246 positive reinforcement, 243–244 Premack principle, 244 primary reinforcers, 243 satiation and, 242 secondary reinforcers, 243 vicarious reinforcement, 268, 275, 526 Reinforcement schedules, 244–245 effective use of, 255 examples of, 245 Reinforcers, 242 activity reinforcers, 243–244 applied behavior analysis (ABA) and, 257 concrete reinforcers, 243–244 effective use of, 255 functional analysis and, 257–258 orderly classroom, maintaining, 252 social reinforcers, 243–244 Relatedness and caring teachers, 466 diversity and, 422 need for, 421–422 Relational aggression, 143 Reliability of classroom assessment, 597–598 of informal assessments, 601 Religious beliefs knowledge construction and, 390–391 transfer of learning and, 369 Removal punishment, 247 Removing students from classrooms, 523–524 Reproduction models and learning, 266–267 Research on ability grouping, 197 action research, 37–38 on attributions, 432 on caring teachers, 466 correlational research, 36–37 descriptive research, 36 design-based research, 38 on expectations of teachers, 468 experimental research, 37 on homework, 456 on learning styles, 198 on metacognition, 315–316 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and, 73–74 professional knowledge and, 35–39 qualitative research, 37 quantitative research, 36–37 on single-gender classes, 169 www.downloadslide.net 746 • Subject Index Research, continued on social connections, 382 on social media, 383 on study strategies, 361–362 on test anxiety, 446–447, 620 and theory development, 38–39 Resilience safe classroom environment and, 182 schools promoting, 178–179 strategies for promoting, 180–183 students at risk and, 178–179 teachers promoting, 179 Resistance cultures, 155–156 Respect caring teachers and, 466 classical conditioning and, 239–240 Response cost, 247 Response to intervention model of identification, 203–204 Responsibility, teachers modeling, 470 Results of assessment, analyzing, 622–623 Results of standardized tests See Standardized tests Retention models and learning, 266–267 Retrieval analyzing theories of, 319 capitalizing on, 314 forgetting and, 312 Reversibility in preoperational stage, 71 Review in direct instruction, 564 effective teaching and, 554–555, 561, 613 in guided discovery, 572, 573 lecture-discussion and, 569–571 Rewards and motivation, 416 Ripple effect, 267 Rote learning, 310 Routines and classroom management, 503 Rubrics for formal assessment, 608–609 Rule-driven theory of concept learning, 336 Rules and procedures See also Misbehavior classroom management and, 503 concrete examples for, 512 consequences for breaking/following, 524 creating and teaching, 510–513 in elementary classrooms, 504–505 first days of school, planning for, 509–510 in middle and secondary classrooms, 507–508 planning for, 512–513 positively stated rules, creating, 511 rationales for rules, emphasizing, 511–512 small number of rules, creating, 511 soliciting student input on, 511 S Safety as deficiency need, 419, 420 bullying and, 532 in classroom environment, 477–478 misbehavior, emotional safety of students and, 528 of classroom, 471–472, 475, 477–478 resilience and, 183 Satiation, 242 SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), 597, 607, 650, 652 Scaffolding cognitive apprenticeships and, 386–387 instructional scaffolding, providing, 85 resilience, involving students and, 182 types of, 81 and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development, 80–81 Schemas activation, 307 background knowledge and, 321–322 in daily lives, 297 declarative knowledge as, 295–296 encoding and, 307 meaningful schemas, developing, 295–297 in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 67 reviews for activating, 320–321 scripts and, 297 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 597, 607, 650, 652 School connectedness, 142 Schooling game, 176 School nurses and poverty, 175 School violence, 143–144 Science background knowledge, developing, 323 knowledge construction, teachers’ examples for, 395 Scripted cooperation strategy, 575 Scripts, 297 Secondary reinforcers, 243 Segregation, 154 Seizure disorder, 215 Selected response formats, 602 Self-actualization and growth needs, 420 Self-assessment and self-regulated learning, 271 Self-concept, 102 See also Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development achievement and, 120 development of, 113–124 promoting development of, 123–124 self-efficacy and, 430 self-esteem and, 119 supporting development of, 120–121 Self-determination diversity and need for, 422 feedback and, 482 in middle and secondary classrooms, 507 need for, 420–422, 427 and order and safety of classroom, 472 personalization of lessons and, 480 technology needs and, 423 Self-efficacy beliefs and, 430–431 and classroom environment, 472 promoting, 435–436 Self-esteem as deficiency needs, 419, 420 ethnic identity and, 118 Facebook use and, 383 self-concept and, 119 Self-fulfilling prophecies, 467–468 Self-handicapping behaviors mindset and, 429 and self-worth, 424 Self-monitoring and self-regulated learning, 270–271 Self-motivation and self-regulation, 498 Self-questioning and anxiety, 446 Self-regulated learning, 270–272, 498 feedback and, 482 Self-regulation classroom assessment and, 596 classroom management and, 497–500 diversity and differences in, 272 learners with exceptionalities, development for, 225–226 neuroscience of, 272–273 portfolio assessment and, 613–614 private speech and, 80 promotion of, 275–276 social cognitive theory and, 268–270 Self-socialization, 498 Self-worth See also Self-handicapping behaviors classroom environment and, 473–474 need to preserve, 424, 427 praise and, 426 teacher qualities and, 465 Semantic memory, 294–295 Semantics, 91 Sense making and problem solving, 352–353 Sensorimotor stage, 69–70 Sensory memory, 290 analyzing theories of, 319 characteristics of, 299 promotion of learning and, 301 Sensory register, 290 Seriation in concrete operational stage, 72 Serotonin and emotion, 447 SES (socioeconomic status) See Socioeconomic status (SES) Sexual identity, 117–118 Sexual orientation, 117–118 See also Homosexuality The Shadows (Carr), 92 Shakespeare lesson, personalization of, 486 Shame autonomy vs shame stage, 115 moral development and, 136 as punishment, 248 school achievement and, 109 Shaping effective use of, 255 and positive reinforcement, 244 Sheltered English programs, 159–160 Short-term memory video games and, 93 visual-spatial sketchpad and, 292 Siblings, social development and, 124–125 Similarity perceived similarity of model, 366 transfer of learning and, 366–367 Similar words in multiple-choice items, 603 Similes and constructed knowledge, 287 Simulations knowledge construction and, 396–397 representing topics with, 32 Single-gender classes, 169 Sisters and brothers, social development and, 124–125 Situated cognition, 390 Situational interest, 444 variables influencing motivation, 450 Situational interest and involvement, 481–482 Small groups cognitive activity, developing, 324 support and differentiating instruction, 579–580 Smarter Than You Think (Thompson), 92–93 Smartphones See Technology Smiling at students, 470 Social cognition, 124 Social cognitive theory, 260–277 See also Self-regulation behaviorism compared, 261–262 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index • 747 classrooms, capitalizing on theory in, 276–277 cognitive modeling, 263 developmentally appropriate practice for, 278 evaluation of, 276–277 expectations in, 261–262 follow through and, 275 increasing learning with, 273–276 learning in, 262 models, 262–267 capitalizing on, 273–275 cognitive modeling, 263 direct modeling, 263–264 effectiveness of, 266 emotions, arousing, 265 existing behaviors, facilitating, 265 inhibitions, changing, 265 new behaviors and, 264–265 outcomes of modeling, 264–265 processes in learning from, 266–267 symbolic modeling, 263–264 synthesized modeling, 263–264 reciprocal causation in, 262 self-regulated learning, 270–272 self-regulation and, 268–270 vicarious learning, 268 Social Communication Disorder, 210 Social comparisons, avoiding, 426–427 Social constructivism, 384–387 appropriating understanding and, 385 cognitive apprenticeships and, 386–387 community of learners, classroom as, 385–386 sociocultural theory and, 385 Social contract, 134 Social development, 57, 102, 124–130 See also Social skills advancing in classroom, 129 application of understanding of, 127–129 classroom management promoting, 129 developmentally appropriate practice for, 146 influences on, 124–126 parallel suggestions for, 127–128 parents and, 124–125 peers and, 125–126 perspective taking and, 126–127 rules promoting, 504 siblings and, 124–125 Social goals, 439, 440 Social integration for learners with exceptionalities, 227–228 Social intelligence, 192 Social interaction abstract ideas, social interaction and, 75–76 cooperative learning and, 399 facilitating learning, 288 influences of, 381 involving students in, 82–84 neuroscience of, 381–382 in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 68–69 and problem solving, 351–352 recess, need for, 141 research on, 382 technology and, 382–383 and transfer of learning, 371 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and, 79 Social media, 382–383 need for, 423 Social problem solving, 127 Social referencing, 124 Social reinforcers, 243–244 Social-responsibility goals, 439 focusing on, 441 Social skills cooperative learning and, 399 explicitly teaching, 128–129 learners with exceptionalities, development for, 227–228 modeling, 128 peers and, 125 school success and, 129 Social studies, 395 Social world, 380–383 See also Social interaction Sociocultural theories, 385 See also Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development of motivation, 417–418 Socioeconomic status (SES), 172–183 See also Poverty assessment bias on standardized tests, 662 attitudes and values and, 176 basic needs and, 175 cautions and implications for teachers, 179–180 characteristics of levels, 172 dropout problem and, 177–178 home learning experiences and, 175–176 learning, factors influencing, 175–177 students, impact on, 176–177 students at risk and, 177–178 Spatial intelligence, 193 Speaking developing skills, developing, 95 and language development, 91 private speech, 80 Special education, 223 Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English, 160 Specific learning disabilities, 207 Specific transfer of learning, 367 Speech disorders, 209–210 Spina bifida, 215 Spinal cord injury, 215 Stability and attributions, 432–433 Stages of development in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, 69–74 Standard deviation, defined, 656–657 Standard English, 162 bidialecticism and, 165 Standard error of measurement, 660–661 Standardized tests, 638–671 See also Intelligence tests accommodations for English learners (ELs), 664 role of teacher and, 666 for students with exceptionalities, 664–665 and accountability, 640–646 achievement tests, 648–649 administering tests, role of teacher in, 666 aptitude tests, 650–651 assessment bias and diversity, 662–663 assessment/diagnosis of learning function, 647 benchmark assessments, 644 Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) and, 642 computerized adaptive testing programs, 644–645 construct validity of, 654 content, bias in, 662–663 content validity of, 653 criterion-referenced grading and, 647–648 defined, 646 descriptive statistics of, 654–655 developmentally appropriate practice for, 667–668 diagnostic tests, 649 diversity, 661–665 and assessment bias, 662–663 content bias in, 662–663 eliminating test bias in classrooms, 667 English learners (ELs) and, 663–664 preparing students for tests and, 665–666 students with exceptionalities, 664–665 testing procedures, bias in, 663 test interpretation and use, bias in, 663 effective use of, 661 eliminating test bias in classrooms, 667 English learners (ELs) and, 663–664 frequency distributions, 654, 655, 657 functions of, 647 grade equivalent scores, 659 high-stakes tests, 642–643 measures of central tendency, 654, 656 measures of variability of scores, 656–657 national norms, 646–647 normal distribution of scores, 657, 658 norming groups, 646–647 norm-referenced grading and, 647–648 percentile bands, 659 percentile ranks (PR), 657–658 performance assessments and, 644 predictive validity of, 653 preparing students for, 665–666 program evaluation/accountability function, 647 raw scores, 658 readiness tests, 652 results, interpretation of, 657–661 role of teacher and, 666 role of teacher in, 665–666 scaled scores, 660 scores, interpreting and understanding, 654–657 selection/placement function, 647 standard error of measurement, 660–661 standard scores, 660 stanines, 659 teacher evaluation and accountability, 645–646 testing procedures, bias in, 663 test interpretation and use, bias in, 663 true scores, 661 t-scores, 660 validity and, 653–654 z-scores, 660 Standards, 40–42 See also Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) defined, 546 effective teaching and, 546–550 grading, standards-based, 629 Standard scores, 660 Stanford Achievement Test, 648 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition, 649–650 Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, 649 Stanines, 659 Stem of multiple-choice items, 603 Stereotype threat, 156 Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence, 194 analysis of, 195–196 Strategic learning, 356–366 See also Study strategies; Transfer of learning critical thinking and, 362–363 www.downloadslide.net 748 • Subject Index Strategic learning, continued culture and, 369 developmentally appropriate practice for, 372–373 helping students with, 363–366 high-quality examples for, 370–372 metacognition and, 356–357 promoting, 366 Strategic thinking assessment as learning tool, 365–366 feedback as learning tool, 365–366 Strategies See also Strategic learning defined, 356 self-regulated learning and, 271–272 Stress and attention, 303 Structured immersion programs, 160 Students at risk See also Resilience and resilience, 178–179 socioeconomic status (SES) and, 177–178 Student teams achievement divisions (STAD), 575 Study strategies concept mapping, 359–361 developmentally appropriate practice for, 372–373 elaborative questioning, 359 explicitly teaching, 364–365 note taking, 357 promoting learning of, 366 research on, 361–362 summarizing, 358 text signals, 357–358 Subconscious processing, 318 Suicide, 213 Summarizing as study strategy, 358 Summative assessment, 625–626 Summer learning and socioeconomic status (SES), 176 Superlative adjectives lesson, personalization of, 486 Supply formats, 602 Survival as deficiency need, 419, 420 Suspension, 248 Symbolic modeling, 263–264 Synapses, 61, 62–63 memory and, 299 Synaptic pruning, 62 Syntax development of, 91 promoting development of, 94 Synthesis in Bloom’s Taxonomy, 543–544 Synthesized modeling, 263–264 Systematic observation, 611–612 T Table of specifications, 616–618 sample table, 617 Tables for organizing information, 307 Task analysis, 544–545 force/Bernouilli’s principle, teaching of, 544–545 Task comprehension, 473–474, 477, 478 Task difficulty and metacognition, 316 Taxonomies for effective teaching, 543–544 Teacher evaluation, 43–44 trends in, 44 value-added models, 43 Teacher licensure, 42–43 Teacher qualities, 25–26, 463–471 caring teachers, 466, 470 collective efficacy and, 464–465 commitment to student learning, 470 demonstrating personal qualities, 468–470 differential treatment of students, 468 efficacy of teacher, 464–465, 469 enthusiasm, modeling, 465, 471 high expectations for students, maintaining, 469, 471 model of, 463 positive expectations, communicating, 467–468 responsibility, modeling, 470 self-fulfilling prophecies and, 467–468 Teaching to the text, 646 Technical wording in multiple-choice items, 603 Technology, 45–46 See also Assessment; PowerPoint presentations and attention, 303–304 behaviorism and, 253–254 cognitive development and, 92–93 cyberbullying and, 145, 531–532 drill-and-practice technologies, employing, 252–254 Flynn effect and, 93 input devices, adaptations to, 218–219 knowledge construction and, 396–397 language development and, 92–93 learners with disabilities, support for, 217–219 motivation and, 422–424 multitasking and, 303–304 output devices, adaptations to, 218 problem solving and, 353–355 socioeconomic status (SES) and, 176 Techspeak, 93 Telephone calls to parents, 514–516 Temperament, 103–104 Test anxiety, 237, 446–447 reducing, 620–621 Tests See Assessment; Formal assessment; Standardized tests Test-taking strategies, teaching, 619 Texting, 93 dangerous activities and, 382–383 Text signals, 357–358 Theories defined, 39 research and development of, 38–39 Theory of mind, 126 Think-alouds, 81 Thinking styles, 197 Think-pair-share strategy, 575 Thought-provoking questions, 321 Time dead time, eliminating, 503 maximizing teaching/learning time, 501 questioning wait-time and, 557–558 spent with students, 470 Time-outs nonexclusionary time-outs, 247, 523 removing students from classrooms, 523–524 Topics, identifying, 541–542 Total assessment system, designing, 625–629 Tough love, 179 Tracking, 195 Transfer of learning, 366–371 application of understanding of, 369–371 conceptual knowledge and, 368 developmentally appropriate practice for, 372–373 diversity and, 368–369 factors affecting, 367–368 general transfer, 367 high-quality examples, providing, 370–371 meaningfulness and, 367 promotion of, 371 real-world contexts and, 368, 371 similarity and, 366–367 social interaction and, 371 specific transfer, 367 Transfers See also Transfer of learning situated cognition and, 390 Transformation in preoperational stage, 71 Transitional EL programs, 159–160 Transition signals, 560 Transitivity in concrete operational stage, 72 Traumatic brain injury, 215 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 649 Triarchic theory of intelligence, Sternberg, 194 True-false items, 606 True scores, 661 Trust and caring, creating community of, 500–501 Trust vs mistrust stage, 115 T-scores, 660 Twins ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and, 219 autism spectrum disorders and, 219 Twitter, 383 U Unconditional positive regard, 418 Unconditioned response, 237 Unconditioned stimulus, 237 Undergeneralization in language, 90 Underlined text as text signal, 357 Uninvolved parents, 105 Universal design for learning, 217–218 Universal principles, 134 Utility value and beliefs, 431 beliefs about, 437 emphasizing in teaching, 436 V Validity, 596–597 of formal assessment, 602–603 standardized tests and, 653–654 table of specifications and, 616–618 Value-added models, 43, 645–646 Values See also Utility value cultural values, 155–156 peers communicating, 125 socioeconomic status (SES) and, 176 Variability of standardized test scores, 656–657 Variable-interval reinforcement schedules, 244–245 Variable-ratio reinforcement schedules, 244–245 Verbal communication by teachers, 520–521 Verbalization and cognitive apprenticeships, 386–387 Verbal/nonverbal behaviors, congruency in, 520–521 Verbal persuasion and self-efficacy, 430–431 Vicarious learning, 268 Vicarious punishment, 268, 275 Vicarious reinforcement, 268, 275, 526 Video games and cognitive development, 93 Violence See also Peer aggression school violence, 143–144 Virtual field trips, 397 Virtual manipulatives, 354 Visible thinking, interaction and, 398 Visual disabilities, 215–216 Visual-spatial sketchpad in working memory, 291–292 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index • 749 Vocabulary development of, 90–91 linguistic diversity and, 164–165 promoting development of, 94 semantics, 91 Vocal variation by teacher, 521 Voice disorders, 210 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development, 77–87 analysis of, 86–87 application of, 82–85 culture and diversity in, 81–82 language, use of, 79–80 overview of, 78 promoting cognitive development using, 86 scaffolding and, 80–81 social interaction and, 79 and zones of proximal development, 80 W Wait-time effective teaching and, 613 and questioning, 557–558 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 191, 650–651 sample items, 651 Weight Watchers, 381 Welcoming students, 122–123 Well-being See Health Well-defined problems, 341–342 Within-class grouping, 195 Withitness, demonstrating, 518–519 Work-avoidance goals, 439–440 Worked examples for problem solving, 349–351 Working memory, 290–294 analyzing theories of, 319 automaticity, developing, 293 characteristics of, 299 chunking, 294 cognition and, 318 distributed processing, using, 294 intelligent behavior and, 194 learning disabilities and, 220 limitations of, 292–294 model of, 291–292 Neo-Piagetian theory and, 74 promotion of learning and, 301 schemas and, 296 Writing grammar, promoting development of, 94 and language development, 92 persuasive writing, performance outcomes in, 610 syntax, promoting development of, 94 Z Zero-tolerance for bullying, 532 Zones of proximal development, 80 creating learning activities in, 84 motivational zone of proximal development, 417 in vocabulary development, 90 Z-scores, 660 www.downloadslide.net this page intentionally left blank www.downloadslide.net this page intentionally left blank www.downloadslide.net this page intentionally left blank .. .Educational Psychology Windows on Classrooms Glo ba l T enth Edit i o n Editi o n Paul Eggen University of North Florida Don Kauchak University of Utah Boston Columbus Indianapolis... Classrooms, 10th edition, ISBN 978-0-13-354948-5, by Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak, published by Pearson Education © 2016 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored... ISBN-13: 978-1-292-10756-1 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 Typeset by Cenveo® Publisher Services Printed and bound by Vivar,