Praise for Family Law ‘Family Law is like a favourite relative: intelligent, insightful, interesting, witty, compassionate, and generally good to spend time with.’ Dr Andrew Gilbert, Anglia Ruskin University ‘Herring’s inimitable style of writing, combining clarity and accessibility with a remarkably detailed discussion of the law has ensured the status of Family Law as the definitive textbook on the subject.’ Dr Osian Rees, Bangor University ‘Family Law by Jonathan Herring offers a comprehensive and practical explanation of a dynamic and continually evolving subject It covers a wide range of contemporary issues and provides a clear and in-depth socio-legal analysis The book critically evaluates various theories and approaches to family law and offers a meticulous discussion of the various legislative reform.’ Dr Ayesha Shahid, Coventry Law School, Coventry University ‘[Family Law] is the one of our most popular optional subjects and I have to say that this is in small part due to Herring being used as the textbook The book really does capture the zeitgeist! It is a very good book.’ Robert Jago, University of London ‘[Herring] is quite simply the best available textbook in family law Year on year students report how much they enjoy it.’ Dr Julie Wallbank, University of Leeds ‘Very highly recommended an exceptionally well-written, clear and well structured text Informative and thought-provoking.’ Professor Richard Collier, University of Newcastle ‘An excellent textbook It offers very good coverage of family law, is well written in an accessible easy-to-read format whilst simultaneously drawing out the complexities within the subject.’ Dr Caroline Jones, University of Southampton At Pearson, we have a simple mission: to help people make more of their lives through learning We combine innovative learning technology with trusted content and educational expertise to provide engaging and effective learning experiences that serve people wherever and whenever they are learning From classroom to boardroom, our curriculum materials, digital learning tools and testing programmes help to educate millions of people worldwide – more than any other private enterprise Every day our work helps learning flourish, and wherever learning flourishes, so people To learn more, please visit us at www.pearson.com/uk Family Law Eighth edition Jonathan Herring Exeter College University of Oxford Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • São Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk First published 2001 (print) Second edition published 2004 (print) Third edition published 2007 (print) Fourth edition published 2009 (print) Fifth edition published 2011 (print) Sixth edition published 2013 (print and electronic) Seventh edition published 2015 (print and electronic) Eighth edition published 2017 (print and electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 2001, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2011 (print) © Pearson Education Limited 2013, 2015, 2017 (print and electronic) The right of Jonathan Herring to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Barnard’s Inn, 86 Fetter Lane, London EC4A 1EN The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and the publisher’s rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence (OGL) v3.0 http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3/ Contains Parliamentary information licensed under the Open Parliament Licence (OPL) v3.0 http://www.parliament.uk/site-information/copyright/open-parliament-licence/ Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-1-292-15524-1 (print) 978-1-292-15525-8 (PDF) 978-1-292-15526-5 (ePub) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Herring, Jonathan, author Title: Family law / Jonathan Herring, Exeter College, University of Oxford Other titles: Family law (Treatise) Description: Eighth edition | New York : Pearson, 2017 Identifiers: LCCN 2017004490| ISBN 9781292155241 (Print) | ISBN 9781292155258 (PDF) | ISBN 9781292155265 (ePub) Subjects: LCSH: Domestic relations—England Classification: LCC KD750 H47 2017 | DDC 346.4201/5—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017004490 10 21 20 19 18 17 Print edition typeset in 9/12 ITC Giovanni Std by 35 Printed in Slovakia by Neografia NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION To Kirsten, Laurel, Jo and Darcy This page intentionally left blank Brief contents Preface Acknowledgements Table of cases Table of statutes Table of statutory instruments Table of European and International legislation What is family law? xxi xxiii xxiv lvii lxvi lxviii Family justice 36 Marriage, civil partnership and cohabitation 71 Divorce 137 Family property 170 Property on separation 201 Domestic violence 298 Who is a parent? 352 Parents’ and children’s rights 432 10 Private disputes over children 519 11 Child protection 604 12 Families and older people 714 Bibliography and further reading Index 749 801 vii This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface Acknowledgements Table of cases Table of statutes Table of statutory instruments Table of European and International legislation What is family law? Introduction Seeking a definition of the family A The person in the street’s definition B A formalistic definition C A function-based definition D An idealised definition E A self-definition approach F Do we give up? G Discussion of how the law defines families H The Government’s definition of family I New families? Should family life be encouraged? A Proposing new visions for families Approaches to family law A What is family law? B How to examine family law Current issues in family law A How the state interacts with families B Privatisation of family law C Autonomy D The decline in ‘moral judgements’ E Sending messages through the law F Solicitors, barristers and family law G Non-legal responses to family problems H Rules or discretion I Multiculturalism and religious diversity The Human Rights Act 1998 and family law Conclusion Further reading xxi xxiii xxiv lvii lxvi lxviii 1 3 4 12 14 16 16 16 23 23 23 25 26 28 28 29 29 30 33 33 34 ix www.downloadslide.net Index employment 11, 19, 139, 171 child support deduction from earnings 211 older people 717 parents 203, 220–1, 225 post-divorce 227, 243, 266, 295 welfare of children 239–40 women 220, 224, 225, 227, 228, 238, 243, 246, 295 enforcement 60, 229 child support 209, 210, 211, 361 divorce/dissolution, orders on 229, 284 family assistance orders 592 non-molestation orders 312 occupations orders section 40 orders 319 engaged couples 123–4 engagements 123–4, 174, 190–1 domestic violence: associated persons 124, 308 England 487 equality on divorce 221, 224, 251–61, 265, 273, 293–4 complexity 292 departure from 252–5, 265, 294 non-marital assets 255, 256–60, 265, 292, 293 estoppel nullity decrees 97 proprietary 188–90, 192, 196, 313, 324, 734 ethic of care 18–19, 400, 483 ethic of justice 19, 400 ethnic minorities see minorities European Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of Decisions Concerning Custody of Children and on Restoration of Custody of Children (the European Convention) 600 European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) Children Act 1989 and 471–2 evidence 120–1, 347 evidence of spouse or civil partner 120–1 exceptional funding 41–2 exclusion orders 628–9 expert witnesses 49–50 express declarations of trust 176 express statutory provision 460 express trusts 179 fair hearing (art 6) 684 fraud 289, 290 leave requirement: section orders 706 legal aid 42 mediation 61 non-disclosure 231 non-molestation orders 329 occupation orders 327, 329 representation in court 505 fairness and MCA 1973 239, 264–5, 295, 296 810 pre-nuptial agreements 274–5, 277–80 family, definition of 2–12 family assistance order (FAO) 619 family court 25, 37 family home 178–9, 615, 736 criticism of present law 191–2 divorce/dissolution 244, 270–3 marital assets 257, 260 property adjustment orders 233 transfer of property orders 233, 273, 328 welfare of children 239–41 equitable ownership 179–90 express trusts 179 proprietary estoppel 188–90, 192, 196, 313, 324 resulting trusts 180, 190, 196, 242, 313 home rights 196–7, 273 improvements 190–1 intestacy 736 legal ownership 178–9 occupy, right to 196–7, 273 reform 192–6 sale: enforcing trusts 198–9 Family Justice Review 36–7, 50 divorce law 158–9 family law 1–34 approaches to 16–22 arguments for and against family life 12–16 collaborative 62, 63–4 current issues in 23–32 definition of 16 definition of family 2–12 formalistic approach 3, functionalist approach 3–4, government idealised definition legal 5–6 self-definition approach examining 16–22 autopoietic theory 22 chaos 22 feminist perspectives 17–20 functionalist approach 16–17 public/private divide 20–2 feminist perspectives 17–20, 79, 306 home rights 121 Human Rights Act 1998 33 new visions for families 14–16 occupy, right to 121 family systems, and abuse 612 family test 1, family values fatal accidents 122 fatherless children 367 fathers 10–12, 18, 226, 227 adoption 377, 416, 684, 690–1, 692, 693 secret birth 669 www.downloadslide.net Index birth registration 360–2 contact with children 27, 58 genetic 363, 364, 366–8, 371, 373, 406 guardians 377–9 human rights defining family life 387–9 legal 114, 359–65 balance of probabilities 362, 539 birth registration 360–2 presumptions of paternity 104, 359–60, 362–3 surrogacy 368–76 parental responsibility 118 child support and 205 losing 404–5 registered 392 reprehensible conduct of 396 reproduction, assisted 363–5 birth certificate 364 DIY 366 residence orders 398, 525 restricting section applications 524–6 shared parental involvement presumption 543 unmarried 11, 203 birth certificate 118, 398–9 child support 205 guardianship 398–403 parental responsibility 118, 205, 398–403 wardship 599 fault-based vs no-fault divorce 160–4 female genital mutilation (FGM) 300 feminism of equality 19 feminist perspectives 17–20, 79 on abuse 612 on family law 17–20, 79, 306 finances: money management 171–2 forced marriage 96–7, 98–101, 300 formalistic definition, of family 3, former spouse reasonable financial provision 741 foster parents/carers 380–1, 704, 705 adoption 673, 677, 679, 683, 693 care or supervision order 637 forenames 559 local authority 381 nature of foster parenthood 380 private 380–1 removal by parents from 599 section orders 706 France 357 fraud 94, 179, 207, 285, 289 friendship 133 functionalist approach definition of family 3–4, examining family law 16–17 marriage and 75 gamete intrafallopian transfers (GIFT) 363 gender bias 192 domestic violence and 302–3 intent-based parenthood 409 obligation to family and 720, 722 poverty 716 recognition certificate 95, 105–8 stereotypes 18, 409 genetic fathers 363, 364, 366–8, 371, 373, 406 genetic mothers 356, 418, 423, 425 genetic origins right to know 361–2, 406, 411, 414, 696 genetic parentage 406–7 genetic testing before marriage 87 testing, parental see separate entry Germany 85, 417, 562 gifts 123–4, 174, 175, 257, 293 Government’s, definition of family grandparent(s) 10 adoption 679, 693 secret birth 669 child care 10, 550, 715 contact 715 family assistance orders 592 legal costs 45 relatives 384–5, 596 rights of 716 special guardianship 659, 664–5 volatile relationship 664 grievous bodily harm 119 guardianship 214, 377–80, 686 appointment by courts 378 appointment by parents 378 disclaimer 379–80 legal effects of 379 revoking an appointment 379 special 658–65 termination 380 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction (The Hague Convention) 600 harassment 107, 332–3, 336 sexual 299 harm definition 539 emotional 404, 563–4, 640 health care and older people 723–4 hearsay rule 347 Hinduism 83 HIV 95 homemakers 171, 192, 225, 246, 259, 292, 294, 300 hostility, and step-parents 581 housekeeping and maintenance allowance 175 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority 365, 416 811 www.downloadslide.net Index human rights 33, 104, 110, 129, 387–90 contact see under contact cultural values, minority 30 discrimination (art 14) 83, 116, 130, 328, 401, 481, 555, 671–2, 687 divorce 163 domestic violence 306, 326–8, 336, 343 family life 387–9 incompatibility declaration 106 infringement, justification of 390 inhuman or degrading treatment (art 3) 326, 343 legal aid 44–7 liberty (art 5) 731–2 life, right to (art 2) 326, 343, 436, 437, 476, 487, 498 marriage (art 12) 98, 106, 359–60 mediation 52 paramount as primary 470 parental responsibility 445 placement 675 private and family life (art 8) see separate entry property (Protocol 1) 82, 328 respect for family life 389–90 same-sex couples 670, 671 welfare principle and 33 idealised definition, of family ignorance of the law 454 illegitimacy 84, 118 illness 126 immigration 38, 95, 99, 122, 144 implied trusts 179 constructive trusts see separate entry proprietary estoppel 188–90, 192, 196, 313, 324, 734 resulting trusts 180, 190, 196, 242, 313 improvements: personal property 176 in vitro fertilisation (IVF) 363 incest 30, 86, 142 incompatibility declaration 33, 106 indirect contact 582 individualism 8–9, 25–6, 75, 139, 195 control of money 172 information adoption 668–9, 684, 695–6 confidential 121 court obtaining on child’s welfare 534–5 discovery/disclosure 230–1 domestic violence disclosure scheme 344 Family Law Act 1996: information meeting 154–5, 158 gamete donors 416 genetic origins child’s right to know 361–2, 406, 411, 414 right to know 696 investigations by local authorities 619–23 prenuptial agreements 293 812 non-disclosure 274, 275, 276, 277, 279 reproduction, assisted 416 section orders: precise terms inherent jurisdiction of court 598–600 challenging decisions of local authorities 706–7 child protection 629–30 divorce 150 domestic violence 306, 334–5 marriage forced 101 void 88 parental responsibility 405 vulnerable adults 732, 745 wardship 599 inheritance 173 divorce inherited property 242, 254, 257, 259, 293 inadequate provision 118, 734, 736–43 intestacy 118, 663, 733–6 loss of benefits 249 tax 110, 121 will 736–7 inhuman or degrading treatment (art 3) 468, 498 domestic violence 326, 343 intestacy inadequate provision 663 injunctions 332–3 insanity 142 insemination, assisted 363 intent, parents 407–9 intention-based ownership 173 interests autonomy 478 basic 478 developmental 478 inter-generational justice 723–4 internet 147, 159 intersex people 108–9 intestacy 118, 663, 733–6 inadequate provision 118 intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) 363 investigations by local authorities 619–23 child assessment orders 622–33 section 37 directions 621 section 47 investigations 620–1 investment or business property 181, 184–5, 191, 259, 314 Islam divorce 31 marriage 83 Jehovah’s Witnesses 731 Jewish law and culture 150, 165 judicial independence 37 judicial review 703–4, 706 adoption 671, 675 justice www.downloadslide.net Index divorce 162 ethic of 19, 400 inter-generational 723–4 natural 692 kidnapping 123 laissez-faire 607 laissez-faire model 23 land register 197 landlords: home rights 197 Law Commission cohabitation 131–2, 193, 199 costs 57 divorce 28, 143, 147, 151–3, 219–20, 222–3, 292–3 domestic violence 310, 324, 325 marriage 92, 98 non-matrimonial property 293 property, family 174, 176, 191, 193, 199 qualifying nuptial agreements (QNAs) 278–9, 293 learning difficulties 88, 94, 101 legal aid 26, 28, 68, 203 costs 57 cuts, impact of 42, 60, 330 domestic violence 38–41 exceptional category 38 justification for the cuts 42–4 legal definition, of family 5–6 legal services payment orders (LSPOs) 238 lesbian couples 11, 357, 426, 427 liberty (art 5) 731–2 licences, contractual 196, 314 life, right to (art 2) 326, 343 life expectancy 139 litigants in person (LIPs) 47–9 litigation 28 living apart together (LAT) 15 local authorities 33, 612–19 accommodation 613–16 adoption 377, 670–1, 673–4, 681, 691–2 open 687–8 balance of power: courts and 707–11 budget, social services 657 care plans 654, 656–7 children in need 617–19 costs 45 domestic violence 334–5 duties towards children in care 698–702 family assistance orders (FAOs) 619 forced marriage 100–1 foster parents 380–1 guardians 377–8 human rights children in care 33, 445, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704 investigations by 619–23 parental responsibility 391, 445 care orders 634–5 interim care orders 655–7, 656 supervision orders 634–5 problem of ousting abuser 631–2 questioning decisions of 702–7 reviews 701–2 Secretary of State, intervention of 704 section orders 630, 702, 706 secure accommodation 627–8 special guardianship 659, 660, 662, 663 support post- 691–2 surrogacy 381 voluntary services 612–19 accommodation 613–16 children in need 617–19 family assistance orders (FAOs) 619 welfare principle 654 local authority foster parents 381 lottery win 258, 285 maintenance children 117, 203 guardians 425 children in care 700 during civil partnership 117 housekeeping and maintenance allowance 175 during marriage 117–18, 176–8 unmarried cohabitants 117, 176 wills/intestacy: inadequate provision 738 management of money 171–2 marriage 135, 357, 359–60, 403 abolition of legal 132–4 abroad 88, 97, 101 age 31, 86, 140 arranged 91, 99 bigamy 87–8, 98 comparison: legal position of partners and unmarried couples same treatment arguments 193 comparison: legal position of spouses and unmarried couples 116–23 same treatment arguments 124–31 contract or status 76, 78–80 counselling 87, 154, 156, 163, 164 covenant 80, 160 death and 166–7 definition of sex and intersex people 108–9 transsexual people 105–8 differences between civil partnership and 113–14 duress 91–2 equal 102–5 financial support 117–18, 176–8 forced 96–7, 98–101, 300 formalities 86–7, 116–17 813 www.downloadslide.net Index marriage (continued) legal definition of 76–7 meaning of 74–6 no-fault divorce and 162–3 non- 82–3 overseas 88, 97, 101 polygamy 30, 71–2, 88 presumption of 80–1 reasons people enter 77–8 religious views 72, 75–6, 77, 83, 88, 92, 98 same-sex 72, 102, 104, 105 same-sex see same-sex marriage saving 141 sex outside of 7–8 sham 95, 144 status or contract 76, 78–80 void 81–8 prohibited degrees 687 Martin orders 272–3 ‘Med-Arb’ model 53 media 24–5, 28, 158, 306 mediation 24, 25, 38, 43, 44, 47, 50–63, 68 aim of 52 benefits of 55–8 consent orders 283–4 definition 52 disadvantages of 58–62 false dichotomy of litigation and 62–3 Family Law Act 1996 155, 156, 157, 158 fault, allegations of 161–2 legal aid 38, 50 legal services payment orders (LSPOs) 238 MIAM (Mediation Information & Assessment Meeting) 50–2 role of mediator 52–4 views of child 157 medical law, and children 490–501 medical treatment advance decisions 728–9 children 118 court decision 496–8 doctor refuses treatment 498 failure to arrange medical care 499 importance of doctors 501 law not adequately protecting children 501 misuses of competence 501 necessity defence 490 consent and children 444 16- and 17-year-olds 490–1 under 16-year-olds 492–6 comments on law 500–1 MMR vaccine 451 non-therapeutic treatment 499–500 parental responsibility 400–2, 452 special guardians 662 unmarried fathers 398–403 deputies 729, 730–1 814 genetic origins 361–2, 406, 411, 414 lasting powers of attorney 729 older people 723–4 incapable 724–32 parental responsibility orders wardship 599 mental disorder 101, 346 legal aid 47, 48 voidable civil partnership 112 voidable marriage 94, 96 minimal intervention model 52–3 minorities 69, 717 adoption 678 divorce: employment 238 domestic violence 340 marriage 73, 99 void marriage and non- 83 multiculturalism and religious diversity 30–2 special guardianship 678 misrepresentation 94, 279, 284, 293 mistake 92, 179, 692 MMR vaccine 451 money management 171–2 in families 171–2 moral judgements 26–8 mortgages 176, 178, 197, 319 constructive trusts 180, 182, 184, 186 mothers 11–12, 18, 19, 356–8 adoption 377, 416, 685, 690, 691, 692, 693, 696 secret birth and 668–9 birth registration 360–2 genetic 356, 418, 423, 425 human rights defining family life 387–9 legal surrogacy 368–76 mediation 60 parental responsibility 118 balance of power 707–10 paternity testing: refusal of consent by 414–15 reproduction, assisted 363–5 multiculturalism 30–2 names birth register 556 change of child’s surname 450, 451, 556 special guardianship 662, 664–5 child in local authority care 557–8 court resolving disputed case 558–9 child’s relationship with parents 559 child’s views 558 cultural factors 559 double-barrelled names 559 embarrassment 558 informal use of names 558–9 risk of harm 559 www.downloadslide.net Index double-barrelled 559 first 559–60 informal use of 558 law and 560 parental responsibility 557 registration of birth 556 residence order 556–7 National Lottery win 258, 285 natural justice 692 neglect 384, 424 negligence 231, 289, 705–6 negotiated settlements 520 negotiation 28, 43, 47, 58, 62–4 consent orders 283–4 family home 192 financial support: certainty or discretion 229 no delay principle 543–4 no order principle 544–5 no-fault vs fault-based divorce 160–4 non-legal responses, to family problems 29 non-marriage 82–3 non-molestation orders 41, 124, 307–12, 330, 524, 744 engaged couples 123–4, 308 non-residential parent 453 involvement of 453 lack of knowledge of 453 norms of society 60 nullity 91, 142 divorce distinguished from 82 effects of decree of 97–8 non-marriage and 82–3 reform of 98 void civil partnership 112–13 void marriage 84, 95, 97–8 grounds 84–8, 687 voidable civil partnership 112, 113, 114 voidable marriage 83–4, 98, 99 bars to relief 95–7 grounds 84, 88–95, 98, 108 nullity decree 82, 96 occupation orders 122, 176, 178, 307, 311, 313–28, 330 children’s interests 325 conduct 324 distinction between married and unmarried couples 325–6 ex parte 327, 328–9 Human Rights Act 1998 326–8 local authorities 349 no existing right to occupy 323–4 section 35: one ex-spouse with 319–21, 347 section 36: one cohabitant with 321–2, 347 section 37: both spouses 322–3 section 38: both cohabitants 323 property interests 324 section 33: married and entitled applicants 313–19, 347 significant harm test 314–16, 325, 326 wider consequences of 328 older people 308, 714–47 abuse, elder 299, 714 carers 716, 721–2 children: obligation to support parents 244, 717–21 discrimination 717, 723–4 financial support 721–3 incapable 724–32 inter-generational justice 723–4 rights of incapable 724–5 succession and intestacy 732–43 ombudsman 704–5 on-going relationships 141 order under s 15 Children Act 1989 214–18 orders, forced marriage protection 99–101 orders available to the court 520–7 attaching conditions 526–7 child arrangements order 521–3 contact, involving 522–3 no contact order 523 obligation under 522 parent forced to have contact with child 522 prohibited steps order 524 Children Act 1989 524 restrictions on the use of section orders 524–6 section orders, restrictions on 524–6 capacity 526 child in care 525 inherent jurisdiction 525 making disguised CAO order using a PSO or SIO 525 making PSO or SIO in relation to trivial matters 525 occupation or non-molestation order 524 order relating to parental responsibility 524 in precise terms 525 residence orders 525 unjustifiably interfering with parent’s rights 526 specific issue orders 523 Children Act 1989 523 orders on divorce/dissolution, court 63, 149–51, 199, 295–6 1973 Matrimonial Causes Act 199, 218–19 children 24, 218 appeals 285, 289–91 autonomy 263–4, 274–5 pre-nuptial agreements 275, 277, 280 businesses 247 corporate veil 242 difficulties in liquidation 254 child of the family 218 children, applications by 218–19 clean break 233–8, 254, 266, 289, 291, 294 cohabitation, pre-marital 246 815 www.downloadslide.net Index orders on divorce/dissolution, court (continued) compensation 254, 262–3, 281 pre-nuptial agreements 274, 278, 280–1 theory 224–5 consent 51, 65, 283–4, 291 contracts 119–20 defeating claims 285 duration of marriage 245–6, 281, 294 enforcement 229, 284 factors to consider 238–50 conduct 247–9 contributions 246–7 disability 246 duration of marriage 245–6, 281 fairness 238–9, 260, 262, 263, 264–5 financial resources 241–3 loss of benefits 249 needs, obligations and responsibilities 243–5 standard of living 245 welfare of children 239–41 Family Law Act 1996 156–7 homemakers 192, 225, 246, 292, 294, 300 income 232, 234, 254, 262–3, 281 pension earmarking 267, 268, 270 variation 285, 287–8 interim 238 legal services payment (LSPO) 238 lump sum (LSO) 232, 254, 284, 285, 286 enforcement 284 pension earmarking 267, 268, 270 MIAM (Mediation Information & Assessment Meeting) 51 needs 243–5, 250–1, 254, 259, 263, 265 Law Commission 292 pre-nuptial agreements 274, 275, 276, 280, 281 variation of periodical payments 286–8 nominal 236, 265–6 non-marital assets 255, 256–60, 265, 274, 292, 293 nullity decree 97–8 pension sharing 268–70 power to order sale 233 press in court 25 principles developed by courts 250–65 autonomy 255, 263–4 compensation 254, 262–3, 281 equality 251–61, 265, 292 needs 243–5, 250–1, 254, 259, 263, 265, 281 principles, role of 264–5 property adjustment (PAO) 233, 286, 288, 320 reform 291–5 set aside applications 285, 288–9 theoretical issues 219–31 abolition of maintenance 228 certainty or discretion 228–30 discovery/disclosure 230–1 economic realities 220–1 redistribution 221–8 816 TLATA 1996, section 14 199 transfer of property 233, 273, 328 types of property orders 232–3 variation 285–8 void marriage and non-marriage 82 paramount, meaning of 456 paramountcy see welfare principle parental orders: surrogacy 368–71 parental responsibility 86, 390–8, 443–9, 656, 662–3 adoption 662–3, 673, 675, 690, 693, 698 agreements 118, 392–3 breakdown of 695 changing child’s surname 451 child of the family 381–2 child support and 205, 214 Children Act 1989 444, 449 children in care 392–3, 700 circumcision 451 consent 445 criminal law 445 delegation of 384 described 443–6 domestic violence: associated persons 309 education 450 emergency protection orders 624–7 equal 451–2 extent of 449 fathers 118, 391, 392 parental responsibility agreements 392–3 registered father 392 section applications 393–8 foster parents 381 human rights 445 judicial understanding of 445–6 local authorities 391, 398, 445 losing 404–5 MMR vaccine 451 mothers 118, 390, 391–2 non-parents 391, 398 orders 51, 368–71 orders of the court 445 outline of law 390–1 parental orders: surrogacy 368–71 in practice 446–8 residence orders 637–8 rights of a parent without 448 sharing 449–54 special guardianship 662–3 state of the law 452–4 step-parents unmarried fathers 205, 398–403 wardship 599 parental rights genetic parents 381, 383, 405–7, 410–11 parental responsibility 437–40 parent without 448 www.downloadslide.net Index parent-centred rights 437–40 parenting co-operative 453–4 disruption for child 453–4 fears of misuse 453 ignorance of the law 454 law stressing ‘doing’ 454 non-residential parent 453 lack of knowledge of 453 onerous obligation on residential parent 453 reality 454 see also parents parents 134, 352–3 allocation of parenthood in HFE Acts 366–8 biological or social: property on separation 353–4 child support 204–6, 214, 217 Children Act 1989 214 MCA 1973 218 biological perceptions 354 child welfare 409–10 children obligation to support 202–4 obligation to support parents 244 Children act 1989 436 conflict of interests between children and 463–7 divorce: court orders and parental contribution 254 earned parenthood 405, 409 foster 380–1 genetic parentage 406–7 genetics child’s right to know 361–2, 406, 411, 414, 696 defining family life 387–9 DIY assisted reproduction 366 parental orders: surrogacy 368–76 welfare of child 455–67 granting parenthood, basis for 405–10 child welfare 409–10 earned parenthood 409 genetic parentage 406–7, 410–19 intent 407–9 social parenthood 409 human rights 33, 387–90 fathers 387–90 mothers 387–90 illegitimacy 424–5 intent and parenthood 407–9 key issues of debate basis for parenthood 405–40 child welfare 409–10 earned parenthood 409 genetic parentage 406–7 intent 407–9 right to be parent 419–24 right to know genetic parentage 410–19 social parenthood 409 legal 354–6 fathers 359–65 losing parenthood 377 mothers 356–8 non-residential 453 parental orders: surrogacy 368–71 parental rights 436–7 psychological 353–4 restricting section applications right to be parent 419–24 rights and responsibilities best interests of the child 443 child protection 607 child-centred 437–40 children as property 440 children on trust 441 ‘extensions claim’ 442 imposition by society 442 link between 437–40 parental responsibility 443–9 parent-centred 437–40 reasons for 440–3 voluntary assumption by parents 442 without responsibility 448 same-sex couples and parenthood 425–9 social 377–84 foster parents 380–1 guardianship 377–80 others caring for the child 383–4 property on separation: biological or 204–6, 214, 217 special guardians 381 step-parents 383 those who treat a child as a child of the family 381–2 social parenthood 409 voluntary assumption by 442 wider issues over parenthood 405–29 see also parenting partnership approach to marriage 222–4 paternalism 26, 275 paternity fraud 207 paternity leaves 10 patriarchy 110, 130, 301–2, 305, 346, 607 pensions 84, 121 cohabitation 193 divorce/dissolution 61, 150, 221, 249, 263, 266–70 earmarking 267, 268, 270 pension sharing 268–70 separation orders 166 state 269, 721 State Earnings Related Pension Scheme (SERPS) 269 void and voidable marriages 84 women 221 periodical payments order (PPO) 232, 280–1 earmarking 267, 268, 270 variation 286–8 personal property 174–6 817 www.downloadslide.net Index pluralism 30, 302 pocket money 209 police 40 domestic violence 303, 330, 336, 340–1, 344, 345 difficulties of proof 346–7 integrated approach 349 forced marriage 100–1 police protection 623–4 politics, and marriage 75 polygamy 30, 71–2, 88 poverty 61, 139 child 202, 208, 213, 227 lone parents 207 older people 716 pregnancy 95, 96, 112, 356, 369, 409 planned or not and child support 205–6 pre-nuptial or pre-marriage agreements/contracts 79, 120, 273–80, 293 presumptions advancement 180, 190 agreements between married couples 178 death 166–7 engagement ring 124 equal sharing of beneficial interest 185 family home 180 marriage 80–1 non-intervention in family life 345 parental responsibility order 395 pater est 359 paternity 104, 359–60, 362–3 personal property 174, 176 resulting trust 180 of shared involvement in child’s life 540–3 soundness of mind 93 welfare principle 474 prison/prisoners 149, 678 privacy 19, 129 adoption 689 secret birth and 668–9 arbitration 64–5 divorce 273 disclosure 231 domestic violence 345–6 non-molestation orders 310–11 genetic origins 696 genetic parents 410, 418 press reporting 24–5 public/private divide 20–2 private and family life (art 8) 20–1 abuse 390 adoption 387–9, 689 genetic origins 696 orders 683–4, 687 placement for 675, 676 child protection children in care 701, 702 contact 389 818 defining family life 387–9 domestic violence occupation orders 327 fathers 387–9 genetic origins 361–2, 406, 411, 414, 696 infringement justified 390 leave requirement: section orders 506 mothers 387–9 occupation orders 327 parental responsibility agreements 392–3 removal from jurisdiction 471 representation of children in court 506–10 respect for 387–90 siblings 551–2 social parents 382 spouses, civil partners and cohabitees 128 transsexual people 106 private disputes over children 519–602 abduction 600–1 applicant for section orders 528–32 applying without leave 528–9 court on granting leave 529–30 leave of the court 529 restricting section applications: section 91(14) 530–2 children’s welfare on divorce 532–3 children’s welfare on relationship breakdown 532–3 court obtaining information on child’s welfare 534–5 inherent jurisdiction 598–600 issues in applying welfare principle 545–98 contact between a child and parent 566–98 disabled parents 555 employed parents 554–5 internal relocation 565–6 names 556–60 ‘natural parent presumption’ 549–51 presumption in favour of mothers 548 presumptions 545 religion 552–4 relocation 561–5 shared residence 546–8 siblings residing together 551–2 negotiated settlements 520 orders available to the court 520–7 attaching conditions 526–7 child arrangements order 521–3 prohibited steps order 524 restrictions on the use of section orders 524–6 specific issue orders 523 statutory checklist 535–45 factors listed in s 1(3) 536–45 wardship 598–600 private foster parents 380–1 private law cases 507–10 privatisation of family law 23–5 www.downloadslide.net Index prohibited steps orders (PSOs) 335 child with capacity 526 internal relocation 565–6 local authorities 619–21 surname, change of 450, 451, 556 voluntary accommodation: local authority 613–15 property, children as 440 property, family 170 business or investment property 181, 184–5, 191 cohabitation 117–18, 172–6 bank accounts 174–5 contract 117, 119–20, 134, 194 criticism of present law 191–2 family home 178–9, 190, 192, 198–9 housekeeping allowance 175 improvements to personal property 176 reform 192–6 general theory: ownership 172–3 joint ownership 172, 173 maintenance during marriage 117–18, 176–8 personal property 174–6 reality of family finances 171–2 property adjustment orders (PAOs) 233, 286, 288, 320 property of engaged couples 123–4 property on separation 117, 163, 201–96 contract 119–20 TLATA 1996, section 14 199 proportionality 731 adoption 686, 691 interim care orders 657 section orders: s 91(14) order surrogacy: expenses 368–76 proprietary estoppel 188–90, 192, 196, 313, 324, 734 protection 131 protection orders, forced marriage 99–101 psychological need, and marriage 75 psychology 56, 163, 353–4 domestic violence 305 fault-based divorce 161–2 public law cases 507 public policy 120 marriages 94, 96 surrogacy 370 void marriages 84, 88 public/private divide 20–2 privatisation of family law 23–5 purchaser-based ownership 173 pure relationship purposive abstention model 28 race 303, 401, 481, 672 discrimination 717 radicalisation 630 rape 119, 335–6, 361, 402, 442, 580, 644 reasonableness 146–7, 167, 195 reconciliation 128, 141, 148, 152, 164 Family Law Act 1996 155–6, 158 and mediation 52 redistribution on divorce/dissolution 221–8 particular issues housing 270–3 pensions 266–70 periodic payments 280–1 poor 265–6 poverty 265–6 pre-nuptial contracts 273–80 theory 221–8 reform cohabitation 131–2, 192–6 divorce 158–9 failure of Family Law Act 1996 153–8 issues 159–66 domestic violence criminal procedure 342–4 Family Justice Review 36–7, 158–9 financial support for spouses 291–5 nullity 98 older people 723 qualifying nuptial agreements (QNAs) 278, 293 registered land: home rights 197 relationship-based welfare 465–6 relatives 384–6 adoption 677–8, 688 by relatives 677–8 secret birth 668–9 contact 714 domestic violence 308, 323–4 human rights: private and family life 387–9 inheritance tax and 110 local authorities: voluntary accommodation 613–16 marriage: prohibited degrees 687 residence orders 637–8 interim 657 sisters 134 special guardianship 659 relativism 30–1 religion 671–2 accommodation agreements 627–8 adoption 671–2, 693 civil partnership 111, 114 divorce 142–3, 165 decree absolute 150, 165 Jewish law 150, 165 Sharia courts 31 marriage 32, 71–2, 75–6, 77, 83, 88 mistake 92 reform of nullity 98 same sex 72, 102, 104–5 religious tribunals 66–8 Sharia courts 31 testing, parental 414–15 religious diversity 30–2 819 www.downloadslide.net Index representation of children Official Solicitor 599, 600, 690 private law cases 507–10 public law cases 507 reproduction, assisted 114, 665 allocation of parenthood in HFE Acts 366–8 assisted insemination 363 birth registration 360–2 birth certificate changed 695 DIY 366 fatherless children 367 fathers and 114, 363–5 gamete intrafallopian transfers (GIFT) 363 genetic parentage, right to know 361–2, 406, 411, 414 human rights defining family life 387–9 intent and parenthood 407–9 intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) 363 lesbian couples 357, 426, 427 mothers and 356–8 right to be parent 419–24 in vitro fertilisation (IVF) 363 residence orders 328 adoption 679, 693 care orders 708 change of residence 588 child in care 525 child of the family 381, 382 fathers 328, 391 financial order under s 15 Children Act 1989 214 in force 556 foster parents/carers 380–1 guardianship 378, 659 interim 657 internal relocation 565 occupation orders 328 parental responsibility 395, 404, 405, 557 relatives 385–6, 657 religion 552 relocation 561 shared 427 special guardianship 660, 661, 662 voluntary accommodation: local authority 613–15 see also child arrangements orders residential homes older people 716, 722, 744, 746 restraining orders 336, 349 resulting trusts 180, 190, 196, 242, 313 ‘right to procreate’ 419–22 rules or discretion 29, 228–30, 296 principles as rules or tools 264–5 sadomasochism 119 same-sex couples 4, 6–7, 76, 116 adoption 670, 671, 690 definition of family for 16 820 finance 172 lesbian couples 11, 357, 426, 427 reproduction, assisted 357 parenthood and 425–9 private and family life 387 religion 31–2 reproduction, assisted lesbian couples 357 tenancies 122 wills/intestacy: inadequate provision 737 same-sex marriage 8, 71–2, 102, 104–5 sandwich generation 12 Scandinavian countries Sweden 417, 515, 547 Scotland 194 section orders adults seeking leave 529–30 applicants 520–1, 528–32 children 528–32, 702 court deciding on granting leave 529–30 leave of the court 529 people who need the leave of the court 529 persons who can apply without leave 528–9 restricting applications: s 91(14) 530–2 restricting section applications: section 91(14) 530–2 without leave 528–9 child arrangements orders see separate entry children in care 525, 702, 706 conditions attached 527, 657 contact see separate entry domestic violence 335, 577–81 local authorities 702 conditions attached 527, 657 foster carers 380–1, 706 oppose order 706 voluntary accommodation 613–16 local authorities and 630 prohibited steps orders see separate entry residence orders see separate entry restrictions on use of 524–6 special guardianship 661 specific issues orders see separate entry welfare principle and leave to apply for 706 see also welfare principle section 37 directions 621 section 47 investigations 620–1 secure accommodation orders 627–8 self-definition approach, of family separation agreements 178 five years’ 149, 167 and mediation 52 orders 166 respondent’s consent to divorce/dissolution and two years’ 148–9, 167 sex, definition of www.downloadslide.net Index intersex people 108–9 transsexual people 95, 105–8 sex/gender discrimination 17–18, 88, 99, 227, 272, 328 older people 717 religious tribunals 66–7 unmarried fathers and parental responsibility 398–403 sexless family law 15 sexual abuse 612, 620, 630, 637, 639, 644–5 sexual intercourse/relations 8, 88, 118, 119, 145, 196 definition of family 3–4, 6, 15 DIY assisted reproduction 366 genetic parentage, right to know 361–2, 406, 411, 414 intent and parenthood 407–9 lack of capacity to consent to sex 93, 101 parental orders: surrogacy 368–71 voidable civil partnership 112, 113, 114 voidable marriage 93–4 non-consummation 89–90, 104 sexual offences 101, 104, 121, 487 incest 30, 86, 142 rape 119, 335–6, 361, 402, 442, 580, 644 sexual orientation discrimination 111, 116, 671–2 sexually transmitted diseases 95, 114 sham marriages 95, 144 Sharia see Islam single parents 7, 18, 124, 126 child support 207–8, 209 ‘crisis’ 207–8 poverty 202, 227 social security benefits 139, 207–8 single people 125, 376, 420, 669 social engineering 410, 607 social housing 21, 43 social parenthood 409 social parents 377–84 foster parents 380–1 local authority 381 nature of foster parenthood 380 private 380–1 guardianship 377–80 appointment by courts 378 appointment by parents 378 disclaimer 379–80 legal effects of 379 revoking an appointment 379 termination 380 others caring for the child 383–4 special guardians 381 step-parents 383 legal position of 383 those who treat a child as a child of the family 381–2 social security benefits carers 721–2 child benefit 203 child support and 204, 207, 209 divorce clean break orders 234 consent orders 283–4 disability and orders on 246 parties on benefits 265–6 pre-nuptial agreements 278 homemakers 171 maintenance during marriage 177 marriage, civil partnership and cohabitation 124 older people 721–2 single parents 124, 139, 207–8 social work/workers 22, 29 care-giver and care-receiver 746 child protection system under strain 605 contact centres 595 co-operation with other departments 608 family assistance orders 592 negligence in child protection work 705–6 non-legal solutions 475 sociologists 354 sole ownership 173 solicitors 28–9, 44, 46, 47, 54, 58, 61–2, 214 collaborative family law 62, 63–4 divorce 152, 164, 229, 231, 289 negligence 231, 289 pre-nuptial agreements 279 special guardians 381, 658–65 special guardianship 51, 658–65, 679, 695 applicants 659 applying for 659 assessment of 663–4, 663–5 contact 660 effect of 662–3 grounds for 660–1 grounds for special guardianship order 660–1 parental responsibility 662–3 variation and discharge of 663 welfare principle 660 specific issues orders (SIOs) 523 circumcision 451 father’s identity 413, 414, 416 removal from UK 561 surname 450, 451, 556 sperm bandits 406 spouse reasonable financial provision 740–1 squatters 322 standard of living child support 206, 207, 208 divorce 220, 221, 224, 240, 245, 281, 285, 294 needs, obligations and responsibilities 243–5, 250–1 pre-nuptial agreements 277 standard of proof balance of probabilities 11, 336, 644–5 beyond reasonable doubt 81, 336 821 www.downloadslide.net Index state interaction with families 23, 79–80 children, support for 202–4, 208, 213 divorce: state’s interests 225–8 domestic violence 348 integrating family and state care 720 pre-nuptial agreements 279–80 state paternalism 607 statistics 7–8, 11 abuse 13 children 700, 701 adoption 666–7, 687–8, 694–5 annulment 98 average cost of raising 206 child protection 577, 611–12 children 7, 116, 118, 126 abuse 700, 701 in care 697–8 child support 209 divorce 166 poverty 202 children’s rights 487–8 civil partnership 109, 110, 114 cohabitation 7, 116, 124, 126 birth registration 360–2 same treatment as spouses/civil partners 124, 126, 127, 128 divorce 7, 117, 137–8, 139, 152, 153 children 166 Family Law Act 1996 156 domestic violence 303–5, 345 children abusing parents 344–5 civil remedies 330 employment 171, 220 gender recognition certificate 108 legal aid 43, 44, 47 litigation 47 marriage 7, 8, 73, 77–8, 88, 98, 114 forced 98, 100 same treatment as spouses/civil partners 124, 126, 127, 128 same treatment for cohabitees 126 mediation 50, 57, 58 older people 7, 714, 715, 716, 717 parental responsibility orders 368–71 paternity 359–60 payments from non-resident fathers 208 poverty 202, 266 religion 31–2 single parents 7, 124, 126, 202, 207 special guardianship 659 students 308 statutory duty, breach of 705 stepfamilies 1973 Matrimonial Causes Act child of the family 218 adoption 665, 690–1 822 child of the family 381, 382 child support 214, 218 child support and 204 contact 568 marriage: prohibited degrees 85 social parent 383, 690 step-parents 383, 690 step-parents 383 contact 581 and hostility 581 sterilisation 419–20, 662 students 214 substantive law 335–6 succession tenancies: statutory 122 suicides 487 supervision orders 633–58, 709 applicants 633 care orders or 637–8 care vs 637–8 effect and purpose of 635–7 effect of 635–7 grounds for 638–53, 638–55 better than no order 540 child beyond parental control 647–53 harm attributable to care given 639–40, 647–53 promote welfare of child 654–5 role of threshold criteria 653, 654 significant harm 640–2, 644–7 welfare test 654–5 interim 655–7, 656, 657 purpose of 635–7 section 37 directions subject of supervision proceedings 633–4 subjects of 633–4 threshold criteria 638–53 surnames see names surrogacy 368–76 arguments over 374–6 arrangements breaking down 373–4 commercial 372–3 local authorities 381 parental orders 368–71 reform 374–6 Sweden 417, 515, 547 Switzerland 417 talaq divorce 31 taxation 110, 121, 124 tenancies home rights 197 occupation orders and rent 319 order under s 15 Children Act 1989 214 statutory succession to 122 testing, parental 362–3 circumstances for ordering 411–14 consent 414–15 www.downloadslide.net Index refusals and adverse inferences 415 welfare of child 410, 418 theft 119 therapeutic intervention model 53 time limits adoption 673, 677, 686, 691 care proceedings 658 child arrangements orders 521–3 children in care 702 death and marriage 166–7 divorce 144–5, 148–9 Family Justice Review 158 Family Law Act 1996 153–4, 155, 156 domestic violence domestic violence orders 336 non-molestation orders 308 occupation orders 321, 322, 323 emergency protection orders 624–7 family assistance orders 592 gender recognition certificate 106 nullity, decree of 96–7 parental orders: surrogacy 370, 376 police protection 623–4 registration of birth 556 special guardianship 659 surrogacy 370 tort 120, 306, 332 local authorities 705–6 negligence 231, 705–6 transracial adoption 672 transsexual people 95, 105–8 trust constructive 180–8 discretionary 242 express declarations of 176 family home held on trust for child 273 resulting 180, 190, 196, 242, 313 sale of family home: enforcing 198–9 unconscionability 184, 189, 223 undertakings 267, 329 undue influence 101, 274, 275, 279, 293, 734 unemployment 126 UNICEF 487 United Kingdom (UK) 487–8 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 361, 461, 476, 508, 511, 512, 534, 681 United States 80 unity, doctrine of 122–3 unjust enrichment 190, 195, 196, 223 unmarried couples see cohabitation fathers see under fathers unpaid work 587–8 unregistered land: home rights 197 unsoundness of mind 93–4, 112 valuation 290 variation court orders on divorce/dissolution 285–8 family assistance orders 592 pre-nuptial agreements 278 venereal disease 95, 113, 114 views of child adoption 670, 678 children in care 702, 704 divorce 165–6 Family Law Act 1996 157 genetic origins right to know or not to know 361–2, 406, 411, 414 judicial review 704 mediation 61 medical treatment 16- and 17-year-olds 490–1 parental responsibility orders 368–71 representation voluntary accommodation: local authorities 613–16 violence domestic see separate entry honour-based 99 virtue as part of welfare 466 void marriages 81–8 age 86 bigamy 87–8, 98 formalities 86–7 grounds 84–8 legitimacy 97 marriages entered into abroad 88 prohibited degrees 85–6 public policy 84, 88, 94 vs voidable marriages 83–4 voidable marriages 84, 98, 99 bars to relief 95–7 grounds 84, 88–95, 108 vs void marriages 83–4 voluntary agencies child support agreements 210 voluntary assumption by parents 442 voluntary services 612–19 accommodation 613–16 children in need 617–19 family assistance orders (FAOs) 619 vulnerability 26 litigants in person (LIPs) 47 vulnerable adults 714, 732 forced marriage 101 wardship 692 child protection 599, 629–30 children of asylum seekers 599 father 599 financial order under s 15 Children Act 1989 214 823 www.downloadslide.net Index wardship (continued) inherent jurisdiction 599 medical treatment 599 parental responsibility 384, 405, 599 private disputes over children 598–600 warning notices, contact 591 welfare meaning of 455 nature of 457–9 relationship-based 465–6 virtue as part of 466 welfare principle 33, 37 adoption 670, 672, 674, 677–83, 688, 690, 694 alternatives to 474–5 letting the child decide 474–5 non-legal solutions 475 presumptions 474 tossing a coin 475 children’s rights 455–67 application 459 case involving two children 462–3 Children Act 1989 455, 463 child’s upbringing 459–60 conflict of interests 463–7 express statutory provision 460 outside the context of litigation 460 paramount, meaning of 456 welfare, meaning of 455 welfare, nature of 457–9 cohabitation: sale of family home 198 controversy, issues of contact 566–98 cultural background disabled parents 555 employed parents 554–5 internal relocation 565–6 mothers 548 names 556–60 natural parent presumption 549–51 presumptions, use of 545 824 religion 552–4 relocation 561–5 shared residence 546–8 siblings residing together 551–2 criticisms of 472–4 children’s rights 473–4 increased costs 473 law’s narrow perception of welfare 472 smokescreen 473 uncertainty 472–3 unfairness 473 unrealistic 473 divorce or dissolution 219, 239–41, 286 guardians 380 human rights and 33 local authorities 654 maintenance during marriage 177 no delay principle 543–4 no order principle 544–5 occupation orders 325 order under s 15 Children Act 1989 216 parental responsibility application to end 404 orders 368–81 presumptions 474 religious court 67 reproduction, assisted parental orders 368–81 shared parental involvement presumption 543 special guardianship 660 statutory checklist 535–45 termination of guardianship 380 testing, parental 410, 418 welfare reports 509 wills 733–4, 736, 739–44 inadequate provision 733–4 witnesses 120 expert 49–50, 473 work, unpaid 587–8 work pressures 139 ... law defines families H The Government’s definition of family I New families? Should family life be encouraged? A Proposing new visions for families Approaches to family law A What is family law? ... examine family law Current issues in family law A How the state interacts with families B Privatisation of family law C Autonomy D The decline in ‘moral judgements’ E Sending messages through the law. .. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Herring, Jonathan, author Title: Family law / Jonathan Herring, Exeter College, University of Oxford Other titles: Family law (Treatise) Description: Eighth