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Pollination of crops in australia and new zealand

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  • Foreword

  • Chapter 1 Introduction

    • The process of pollination

      • Flower parts

      • Pollination

      • Self and cross pollination

      • Vectors for pollen movement

      • Free and managed pollinators

      • Pollination and weather

  • Chapter 2 Assessing pollination

    • Potential pollination rates

    • Where and when to assess pollination

      • Assessing pollination during the flowering season

      • Counting pollinators

      • Counting pollen grains

  • Chapter 3 Managed bee species

    • Honey bees

    • Bumble bees

      • Lifecycle

      • Advantages/disadvantages

      • Purchasing bumble bee colonies

      • Feral bumble bee colonies

    • Leafcutter bees

      • Lifecycle

      • Alkali bees

    • Native New Zealand bees

    • Native Australian bees

  • Chapter 4 Honey bee biology and behaviour

    • Feral honey bee colonies

    • Beehives

    • Honey bee castes

      • Queen

      • Drones

      • Workers

    • Water

    • Propolis

    • Nectar

    • Pollen

    • Stinging

    • Swarming

    • Honey bee pests and diseases

      • Varroa

      • American foulbrood

      • European foulbrood

      • Small hive beetle

    • Honey bee foraging

      • Flower utilization by colonies

      • Timing of foraging

      • Weather and foraging

      • Effect of colony size

      • Floral constancy

      • Foraging areas

  • Chapter 5 Obtaining and managing honey bee coloniesfor pollination

    • Grower-owned hives

    • Free hives

    • Hiring hives

      • Rental fees

    • Finding beekeepers

    • Pollination associations and agents

    • Colony strengths

      • Amount of brood

      • Age of brood

      • Position of brood

      • Bee numbers

      • Empty comb

      • Honey stores

      • Queens

      • Swarming

    • Identifying problems with colonies — auditing

      • Auditing to a standard

      • Average colony strengths

      • Problem hives

    • Managing colonies

      • Moving colonies

      • Situating colonies within a crop

    • Pollen versus nectar foragers

    • Sugar syrup feeding

    • Feeding colonies

      • Types of feeders

      • Concentration of the sugar syrup

      • Timing of feeding

      • Amount and frequency of feeding

      • Adverse weather

      • Robbing

    • Pollen trapping and feeding

      • Pollen trapping

      • Stripping frames of pollen

      • Feeding pollen

    • Experienced versus inexperienced foragers

    • Attracting honey bees to flowers

      • Sugar syrup

      • Commercial bee attractants

    • Honey bee stocking rates

      • Colony strengths

      • Competing flowers

      • Attractiveness of the crop

      • Area of the crop

      • Number of flowers in the crop

      • Deciding on hive numbers

  • Chapter 6 Crop management to enhance pollination

    • Conditions within the orchard

      • Landmarks

      • Water

      • Wind

    • Mowing orchards

    • Pesticides

      • Spray drift

      • Fungicides

      • Surfactants

      • Removing beehives before spraying

      • Mowing grass sward

    • Beekeeper/grower co-operation

    • Problems with poor pollinizer distribution or no pollinizers

    • Importing flowering branches

    • Hand pollination

    • Pollen dispensers

  • Chapter 7 Pollination under nets, glass and plastic

    • Plant protection

    • Effect on light conditions

    • Wind

    • Temperature and humidity

    • Distance between the crop and the cover

    • Open tunnel houses

    • Fully enclosed glasshouses and mesh cages

      • Honey bees

      • Bumble bees

    • Nets

    • Disposable colonies

    • Providing food for bees

  • Chapter 8 Crops

    • Almonds

    • Apples

    • Apricots

    • Avocado

    • Blackberries

    • Blackcurrants

    • Blueberries

      • Highbush

      • Rabbiteye

      • Planting designs to facilitate cross pollination

      • Honey bee stocking rates

      • Assessing pollination

    • Buckwheat

    • Carrots

    • Feijoas

    • Field beans and Broad beans

      • Field beans

      • Broad beans

    • Kiwifruit

      • Honey bee pollination

      • Artificial pollination

      • Timing of artificial pollination

      • Rain

      • Replacing bees with artificial pollination

    • Linseed

    • Lotus, Birdsfoot trefoil

    • Lucerne (alfalfa)

      • Increasing the number of pollen foragers

      • Increasing the number of nectar foragers

      • Native foragers

      • Other bees

      • Assessing pollination

    • Macadamia

    • Nashi (Asian pear)

    • Oil seed rape (Canola)

    • Onions

    • Peaches and nectarines

    • Pears (European)

    • Plums

    • Pumpkin and Squash

    • Radishes

    • Raspberries

    • Red clover

    • Strawberry

    • Sweet Cherries

    • Tomato

    • White clover

  • Appendix 1 Draft pollination contract

  • Appendix 2 Active ingredients found in horticultural and broadacre pesticides in Australia and New Zealand known to be toxic to honey bees

  • Glossary

  • References

  • Index

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