Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics At Pearson, we have a simple mission: to help people make more of their lives through learning We combine innovative learning technology with trusted content and educational expertise to provide engaging and effective learning experiences that serve people wherever and whenever they are learning From classroom to boardroom, our curriculum materials, digital learning tools and testing programmes help to educate millions of people worldwide more than any other private enterprise Every day our work helps learning flourish, and wherever learning flourishes, so people To learn more please visit us at www.pearson.com/uk Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics The Challenge of Complexity to Ways of Thinking about Organisations Seventh edition Ralph D Stacey and Chris Mowles Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk First published under the Pitman Publishing imprint 1993 (print) Second edition published 1996 (print) Third edition published 2000 (print) Fourth edition published 2003 (print) Fifth edition published 2007 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print and electronic) Seventh edition published 2016 (print and electronic) © Ralph D Stacey 1993, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2007 (print) © Ralph D Stacey 2011, 2016 (print and electronic) The rights of Professor Ralph D Stacey and Professor Chris Mowles to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and the publishers’ rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-1-292-07874-8 (print) 978-1-292-07877-9 (PDF) 978-1-292-07875-5 (eText) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stacey, Ralph D., author Strategic management and organisational dynamics : the challenge of complexity to ways of thinking about organisations / Ralph D Stacey and Chris Mowles — Seventh edition pages cm ISBN 978-1-292-07874-8 Strategic planning. Organizational behavior. I Mowles, Chris, author. II Title HD30.28.S663 2016 658.4’012—dc23 2015026419 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 19 18 17 16 Print edition typeset in 10/12.5 Sabon LT Pro by 76 Printed in Slovakia by Neografia NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION Brief contents List of boxes xiii List of tables xiv Prefacexv Strategic management in perspective: a step in the professionalisation of management Thinking about strategy and organisational change: the implicit assumptions distinguishing one theory from another 28 Part Systemic ways of thinking about strategy and organisational dynamics The origins of systems thinking in the Age of Reason 48 Thinking in terms of strategic choice: cybernetic systems, cognitivist and humanistic psychology 66 Thinking in terms of organisational learning and knowledge creation: systems dynamics, cognitivist, humanistic and constructivist psychology 100 Thinking in terms of organisational psychodynamics: open systems and psychoanalytic perspectives 128 Thinking about strategy process from a systemic perspective: using a process to control a process 150 A review of systemic ways of thinking about strategy and organisational dynamics: key challenges for alternative ways of thinking 176 Extending and challenging the dominant discourse on organisations: thinking about participation and practice 202 vi Brief contents Part The challenge of complexity to ways of thinking 10 The complexity sciences: the sciences of uncertainty 238 11 Systemic applications of complexity sciences to organisations: restating the dominant discourse 266 Part Complex responsive processes as a way of thinking about strategy and organisational dynamics 12 Responsive processes thinking: the interplay of intentions 302 13 The emergence of organisational strategy in local communicative interaction: complex responsive processes of conversation 338 14 The link between the local communicative interaction of strategising and the population-wide patterns of strategy 362 15 The emergence of organisational strategy in local communicative interaction: complex responsive processes of ideology and power relating 388 16 Different modes of articulating patterns of interaction emerging across organisations: strategy narratives and strategy models 416 17 Complex responsive processes of strategising: acting locally on the basis of global goals, visions, expectations and intentions for the ‘whole’ organisation over the ‘long-term future’ 456 18 Complex responsive processes: implications for thinking about organisational dynamics and strategy 486 References 519 Index545 Contents List of boxes xiii List of tables xiv Prefacexv Strategic management in perspective: a step in the professionalisation of management 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The origins of modern concepts of strategic management: the new role of leader 1.3 Ways of thinking: stable global structures and fluid local interactions 1.4 Outline of the book Further reading Questions to aid further reflection Thinking about strategy and organisational change: the implicit assumptions distinguishing one theory from another 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The phenomena of interest: dynamic human organisations 2.3 Making sense of the phenomena: realism, relativism and idealism 2.4 Four questions to ask in comparing theories of organisational strategy and change Further reading Questions to aid further reflection 2 15 21 26 26 28 28 29 33 39 41 41 Part Systemic ways of thinking about strategy and organisational dynamics The origins of systems thinking in the Age of Reason 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Scientific Revolution and rational objectivity 3.3 The eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant: natural systems and autonomous individuals 3.4 Systems thinking in the twentieth century: the notion of human systems 48 49 51 52 57 viii Contents 3.5 Thinking about organisations and their management: science and systems thinking 3.6 How systems thinking deals with the four questions 3.7 Summary Further reading Questions to aid further reflection Thinking in terms of strategic choice: cybernetic systems, cognitivist and humanistic psychology 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Cybernetic systems: importing the engineer’s idea of selfregulation and control into understanding human activity 4.3 Formulating and implementing long-term strategic plans 4.4 Cognitivist and humanistic psychology: the rational and the emotional individual 4.5 Leadership and the role of groups 4.6 Key debates 4.7 How strategic choice theory deals with the four key questions 4.8 Summary Further reading Questions to aid further reflection Thinking in terms of organisational learning and knowledge creation: systems dynamics, cognitivist, humanistic and constructivist psychology 59 63 64 64 64 66 67 68 74 82 86 87 91 96 98 98 100 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Systems dynamics: nonlinearity and positive feedback 5.3 Personal mastery and mental models: cognitivist psychology 5.4 Building a shared vision and team learning: humanistic psychology 5.5 The impact of vested interests on organisational learning 5.6 Knowledge management: cognitivist and constructivist psychology 5.7 Key debates 5.8 How learning organisation theory deals with the four key questions 5.9 Summary Further reading Questions to aid further reflection 101 102 105 111 116 117 120 122 125 126 126 Thinking in terms of organisational psychodynamics: open systems and psychoanalytic perspectives 128 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Open systems theory 6.3 Psychoanalysis and unconscious processes 6.4 Open systems and unconscious processes 6.5 Leaders and groups 6.6 How open systems/psychoanalytic perspectives deal with the four key questions 6.7 Summary Further reading Questions to aid further reflection 129 129 132 137 140 143 147 148 148 Contents ix Thinking about strategy process from a systemic perspective: using a process to control a process 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Rational process and its critics: bounded rationality 7.3 Rational process and its critics: trial-and-error action 7.4 A contingency view of process 7.5 Institutions, routines and cognitive frames 7.6 Process and time 7.7 Strategy process: a review 7.8 The activity-based view 7.9 The systemic way of thinking about process and practice 7.10 Summary Further reading Questions to aid further reflection 150 151 151 154 158 159 161 163 165 170 174 174 175 A review of systemic ways of thinking about strategy and organisational dynamics: key challenges for alternative ways of thinking 176 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The claim that there is a science of organisation and management 8.3 The polarisation of intention and emergence 8.4 The belief that organisations are systems in the world or in the mind 8.5 Conflict and diversity 8.6 Summary and key questions to be dealt with in Parts and of this book Further reading Questions to aid further reflection 177 178 188 191 195 199 200 200 Extending and challenging the dominant discourse on organisations: thinking about participation and practice 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Second-order systems thinking 9.3 Social constructionist approaches 9.4 Communities of practice 9.5 Practice and process schools 9.6 Critical management studies 9.7 Summary Further reading Questions to aid further reflection 202 203 205 216 220 223 226 228 228 229 Part The challenge of complexity to ways of thinking 10 The complexity sciences: the sciences of uncertainty 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Mathematical chaos theory 10.3 The theory of dissipative structures 238 239 241 244 546 Index Boden, D 348–9 Bogner, W.C 45 Bohm, D 112–13 Boids simulation 252–3, 319–20, 322 Boisot, M 284 Boje, D.M 430, 434–5 Booker, C 481 Borgatta, E.F 140 Boston Consulting Group 10, 79 Boulding, K.E 58 boundaries in communities of practice 221 boundary judgements 212–13 bounded rationality 151–4 bureaucracy and dominant coalitions 153–4 Bourdieu, P 430–2, 436 Boyne, A.G 185 Brandenburg, G 13 Braverman, H 227 Brews, P.J 181 Briner, R.B 184 Broad, C.D 258 Brown, J.K 11 Brown, J.S 118, 121, 165, 220, 434 Brown, S.L 278–9 Brundin, E 169, 173 Bruner, J.S 218, 435–6 Burawoy, M 227 bureaucracy and dominant coalitions 153–4 Burgelman, R.A 182, 284 Burke, R 192 Burton-Jones, A 118 Bush, George W 314 business planning on innovation 181–2 business process re-engineering (BPR) 185 butterfly effect 242 Caldart, A.A 283 camera obscura 474 Cameron, D 315 Campbell, A 85 Campbell-Hunt, C 181, 283 capitalism 226 Cardinal, L.B 181 Care Quality Commission 310 Carley, K.M 286 Carlisle, Y 282 Carr, W.A 139 Cartwright, S 187 case studies 180 Caudron, S 196 causal duality in critical systems thinking 215 causality circular 72 in complexity 256–7 efficient 304, 307 formative 55, 304, 307 if … then 51, 55 in learning organisations 115–16 nature of 37–8 rationalist 56, 303–4, 307, 331 teleological 55, 56 theories and strategic choice theory 92–4 transformative 256, 306, 307, 324 cellular automata 16 central processing unit (CPU) 253 Centre for Quality of Care Research (Netherlands) 184 Chakravarthy, B.S 45, 163, 166 Chandler, A.D 13, 45, 79 change in conversation 354–5 cultural, in long-term plans 80–1 in responsive processes theory 497–504 chaos 318 edge of 270–1, 277–8, 283–5, 290–1 fractal or mathematical 318 chaos theory 241–4 and industry 268 and responsive processes theory 317–19 Checkland, P.B 207, 209–11 Chia, R 190, 205, 224, 225–6 Chia, R.C.H 513 Child, J 158 choice and freedom 52 Chomsky, N 82 Christensen, C.R 14 Churchman, C.W 207, 208–9, 210, 212 circular causality 72 classical approach 46 classification of schools of strategic thinking 45–6 Clinton, H 314 Club of Rome 12 Clutterbuck, D 183 Coase, R 216 cognitive frames of reference 159–61 cognitive psychology 82–3 cognitive school 45, 46 cognitive science 82–3 cognitivism 57 and open systems theory 144 cognitivist psychology 105–11 Cohen, M.D 155, 171 Coleman, H.J 282 collegial use of power 116–17 Collingridge, D 155 Collins, E.B 182 Collins, J 85, 182 commercial banks 466 commitment in critical systems thinking 215 communication as conversation of gestures 366–76 sender–receiver model 82–3 as social act 341–8 communicative interaction 338–59 communities of practice 220–2 abstractions 222 managers as 7–8 competitive advantage of technology 471 competitive interaction 269, 270 complex adaptive systems 247–57 and analogies 323–5 and chaos 317–19 environmental information in 259–60 fitness landscapes in 250 with heterogeneous agents 321–2 with homogeneous agents 319–25 organisational interpretations 320–1 individuals in 280 inherent patterning capacity 249–50 moving across the fitness landscape 251–2 nonlinear models in 260–1 organisational interpretations 320–1 organisations as 280–2 self-organisation of 280 shape of the fitness landscape 250 simulating populations with homogeneous agents 319–25 of interacting heterogeneous agents 321–2 studies of 249 complex responsive processes theory see responsive processes theory complex systems industries as 267–76 and chaos theory 268 fitness landscapes for 268–72 in learning organisations 103–4 methodology 290–1 organisations as 276–89 Beinhocker on 281–2 Brown and Eisenhardt on 278–9 Lewin and Regine on 280 Morgan on 277 Nonaka on 277–8 Pascale on 280–1 Thietart and Forgues on 276–7 Wheatley on 279 pressure points in 104 complexity interpretations of 257–63 Gell-Mann on 259–60 Goodwin on 262 Holland on 260–1 Kauffman on 261–2 Langton on 259 Prigogine on 262 and organisations 18 complexity sciences, analogies from 380–4 computer industry, growth and development 268–70 Index 547 computer simulations configuration school 45 conflict 195–6 explorative 370–1 negotiation of 370–1 polarised 370–1 conflicting constraints 252 congruence in long-term plans 78 conscious organisations 428–9 consciousness 342–3 constitutive ideas 53 constructionism 35 constructivist psychology 107–8, 206 consultants 139 contingency view of strategy 158–9 contradictions and learning organisations 124 nature of 38–9 open systems theory 146–7 in strategic choice theory 95 control and control systems in long-term plans 79–80 managers in 505–7 performance improvement and 507 strategy and 505–7 controlling leaders 142 conversation 341 and anxiety 356–7 dynamics of 355–7 emergence of themes 421–9 fluid 355, 357 kinds 349–50 leadership 358–9 by managers, quality of 500–1 in organisations 348–55 intention 351–2 rhetoric 352–4 strategy and change 354–5 thematic patterning 350–1 turn-taking/turn-making 348–50 participation in 348 repetitive 355–6, 358 as strategy 354–5 conversation of gestures 341–8 consciousness 342–3 feelings 343–4 generalised other 345 human communication as 366–76 language 343–4 by leaders 381, 383 processes of self 345–8 and sender–receiver model 344–5 as significant symbols 342, 343 conversational shadow themes 425 Cooper, C.L 187 Cooperrider, D 218 548 Index Coopey, J 121 Copernicus 51 Coronado, G 283 corporate planning 11, 12 corporate strategy 11 Coser, L.A 195 cost-accounting systems counteracting forces in chaos 276 creativity 191 ‘credit crunch’ (2007) 467 critical management studies (CMS) 226–8, 492, 494 critical systems 62, 64 critical systems thinking 212–16 boundary judgements in 212–13 holism 214 multiple realities in 213 participation in 213 systemic intervention in 212–13 critical theory 198 Crook, T.R 182 cult values 365, 372, 390–3 narrative form of 430, 433 technology as 472–4 cultural change in long-term plans 80–1 cultural school 45, 46 cultural strand 211 cybernetic systems 58, 61 and causality 72–4 in strategic choice theory 68–74 equilibrium 68–9 goal-seeking adaptation 70 and human action 69–70 negative feedback 69–70 regulators 71–2 theory Cyert, R.M 153, 158 Dalal, F 407 Dalton, D.R 181 Damasio, A.R 342 D’Aveni, R 90 Davenport, T.H 118 David, J R 181 Dawkins, R 442 De Geuss, A 183 de Waal, F 342 Deal, T.T.A 405 Dean, H 314 Dechant, K 196 decision making as programmatic activity 412 responsive processes perspectives on 411–12 in Soft Systems Methodology 211 techniques 10 see also strategy processes Deetz, S 219 defence routines in organisations 110–11 deliberately emergent strategy processes 160 Delmar, F 181 dependence in groups 135–6 Descartes, R 51, 52 descriptive schools 45, 46 cognitive school 45, 46 cultural school 45, 46 entrepreneurial school 45, 46 environmental school 45, 46 learning school 45, 46 power school 45, 46 Design School 189 design school of strategy 45, 46, 188–9 desires 393–6 first-order 393 second-order 393 detached leaders 142 detached participation 348 determinism 239 deviance, importance of 425 Dewey, J 34, 376, 389, 393–5, 419 dialogue 112–13, 114 in relational co-constructionism 218 dichotomy 38 Dickerson, A 187 dilemmas 38 Dimaggio, P.J 159, 217 direct macro interventions 226 displaced conflict 196 dissipative structures 244–7 and complex adaptive systems 319, 321 distribution chains in learning organisation 103 diversity defined 272 management 197 and managers, quality of 501–2 in organisations 196–9, 272–5 Dobbin, F 216 dominant coalitions 153–4 Donaldson, A 473 Dopson, S 403 double-loop learning 110–11 Dougherty, D 157 Downs, A 283 Doz, Y 45, 159, 163, 166 duality 38–9 of relative and realist knowledge 52–3 in systems thinking (Kant) 56, 306 Duguid, P 121, 165, 220, 434 Dunphy, D.C 141 dynamic equilibrium 69 dynamic phenomena 30–1 degrees of detail 31–2 idealism 34 Index 549 paradoxical phenomena 31 realism 33 relativism 34 Easterby-Smith, M 121 Eccles, M 185 Edelenbos, J 284 education for management 8–12 models of management efficiency in scientific management 60 efficient causality 304, 307 Eikeland, O 513 Eisenhardt, K.M 278–9 Elias, N 258, 305, 310, 316–17, 322–4, 389, 390–2, 426, 430, 436, 468–73 on conversation 347, 348 on desires 394 on gossip 408 on norms 394 on power 402–6 on responsive processes 307–17 on social order 308–9 Ely, R.J 197 emancipation in critical systems thinking 215, 216 emergence in complex adaptive systems 248–9, 280–2 conflicting constraints on 364 conversation as 338–59 in dissipative structures 245 and intention 316–17 of novelty 271 and social order 308–9 in strategic decision making 155, 160 and intention 188–91 of themes in narrative patterning of ordinary, everyday conversation 421–9 emotional conflict 196 enactment in learning organisations 108–9 vs representation 120 endogenous or strong process and responsive processes thinking 327–34 and systemic process 327–34 Entrepreneurial School 189 entrepreneurial school of strategy 45, 46 environmental school 45, 46 episteme 512 error, search for 155–6 error-controlled regulators 71 Eskildson, L 185 ethics and leadership 399–402 Etzioni, A 85 European Foundation for Quality Management 185–6 evidence-based management 183–5 evolutionary approach 46 exclusion, dynamics of 406–8 emotional aspects 409–10 shame and panic in 410–11 experience in learning organisations 124–5 narrative patterning of 430–4 in open systems theory 147 role of narrative and storytelling 434–6 second-order abstracting 436–42 in strategic choice theory 95–6 experience curves in long-term plans 78–9 expert behaviour 109 explicit knowledge 118–20, 121, 477 explorative conflict 370–1 Ezzamel, M 186 Facebook development of 311–14 and national politics 314 and social media 314–16 facilitation as the exercise of disciplinary power 450–1 failure work 194 Fayol, H 59 feasibility of long-term strategic plans 77 feedback in learning organisations 104–5 lag in 104 limits to growth 105 see also negative feedback Festinger, L 87 Fiedler, F.E 86 fight/flight in groups 136 finance, teaching of 12–13 financial performance and long-term strategic plans 76 financial resources complex responsive processes theory on 467 for long-term strategic plans 77 as social object 467 in strategic choice theory 465–9 Finkelstein, S 163 firms analysis of 181–2 and TQM 185 first-order desires 393 first-order systems thinking 205 fishing industry 275 fitness landscapes 250 industries exploration of 268–72 moving across 251–2 shape of 250 Flood, R.L 207, 209, 212 Floyd, S.W 163 Fonseca, J 425 550 Index forecasting as second-order abstracting 442–53 in strategic management 442–53 foresight 365–6 Forgues, B 276–7 formal organisations 427–8 formative causality 55, 304, 307 in learning organisations 108, 112 and self-organisation 256 systems in 191 Forrester, J 58, 102, 103 Foulkes, S.H 347, 355, 358–9 foundationalism 33–4 fractal or mathematical chaos 242, 318 frames of reference, rhetoric as 353 Frankfurt, H 393 Frankfurt School 441 Frederickson, J.W 181 Freeman, J 190 Freudian drive theory 144 Friesen, P.H 160 Friis, P 378 Fuerza Latina 311 Fulmer, R.M 11 Gabriel, Y 434 Galbraith, J.R 80 Gallese, V 342 game, preoccupation in 430–1 garbage-can decision making 154–5, 171 Gardner, H 57 Garfinkel, H 348 Garven, D.A 118 Gell-Mann, M 248, 259–60, 262 general systems 58 general systems theory 129, 131 and organisational dynamics 132 generalised articulations of activity as strategy 364 generalised other 345, 366 attitude of 367–70 generalising in human communication 366–76 generative dialogues 115 Gergen, K.J 35, 217–18, 219, 430, 495 The Germans (Elias) 390, 405 Gershenson, C 283 Ghobadian, A 181 Giddens, A 172, 223 Gilbert, J.A 196 Gilmore, F.F 13 Ginsberg, A 159 Glasl, F 195 Gleick, J 241 goal-seeking adaptation to environment 70 Goffman, E 348 Goldsmith, W 183 Goldstein, J 257, 258, 283 ‘good enough holding’ 357 Goodwin, B 54, 257, 259, 262 Goodwin, R.M 58, 102 Goold, M 181 gossip 408–9 governance 457–9 Grant, D 434 Grant, R.M 181 Greenley, G.E 181 Greiner, L.E 116–17, 160, 162 Griffin, D 56, 125, 259, 279–81, 286–7, 291, 304, 399–401 Grimshaw, J.M 185 Grint, K 219 Grol, R 184 Groot, N 370 group think 112 groups and the individual 36–7 vs individuals 120–2 and infantile mechanisms 135–6 relevance of 86–7 in strategic choice theory 86–7 as systems 56 Grove, A.S 182, 284 Guba, E.G 179 Guth, W.D 14 habitus 225, 430–3 Hamel, G 88–9 Hannan, M.T 190 hard systems thinking 205 Hardwick, C.C.T 14 Harvard Business School 13 Haspeslagh, P.C 11 Hayes, N 12 Haynes, P 282 Hazy, J.K 286 healthcare, and ideology 398–9 Hegel, G.W.F 39, 191–2, 304–5, 332 on responsive processes thinking 306–7 Henderson, B.D 79 Hendricks, K.B 185 Hernes, T 164, 328–32 Heron, J 179 Hersey, P 86 Herzberg, F 84 Herzberg, H 83 heterogeneous agents, simulating populations of 253–6 heterogeneous complex adaptive agents 256 Hewlett-Packard 186 hidden transcripts 426–7 high-dimensional chaos 241 histrionic leaders 142 Hodge, B 283 Hodgson, G.M 257, 258 Hofer, C.W 75, 78 holism 214 Holland, J 248, 259, 260–1, 262 Holmes, J 422, 432 Holt, R 190, 205, 224–6, 513 Holton, E.F 182 Holwell, S 212 homeostasis in systems 58 homogeneous agents, simulating populations of 252–3 Honneth, A 410, 441 Hope Hailey, V 86 Hosking, D.M 218 Huff, A.S 45 Huff, J.O 159 human action 493–5 human capital 286 human communication as conversation of gestures 366–76 human nature and choice 92–4 in complex systems 289–90 and learning organisations 122–3, 492 in open systems theory 143–5 in responsive processes theory 492 and strategic choice theory 91–2, 492 and systems 304 human psychology 490–3 learning organisation theories and 491 nature of 490–3 human resource management (HRM) 186 and diversity 197 evolution of roles 470 for long-term strategic plans 77, 80 in strategic choice theory 469–71 human resources and competences 469–71 human systems 57–8 humanistic psychology 83–6 in learning organisations 111–16 methodology of 491 Hume, David 52 Hunt, M.R 181 Huselid, M.A 186 Huselid, N.A 186 Hussey, D.E 80 Hyde, P 186 hyper-competition 90 IBM 269–71 idealism 34 identity in communities of practice 220 identity narrative, strategy as 483–4 ideology 398–9 and healthcare 398–9 in institutions 459, 481–2 Index 551 legitimate themes in 422–3 and power 402–6 values and 396–7 if … then causality 51, 55 in cybernetic systems 70 imaginative constructs 376–7 IMD (Switzerland) 11 ‘I-me’ dialectic 346 IMEDE (Switzerland) 11 IMI (Switzerland) 11 immersing and abstracting activities 441–2 in strategy processes 432–4 immersing in strategy processes abstracting activities, interaction with 441–2 implementation science 184 improvement in critical systems thinking 215, 216 inclusion, dynamics of 406–8 emotional aspects 409–10 shame and panic in 410–11 individuals and the group 36–7 vs groups 120–2 relationship to organisations 85 industries as complex systems 267–76 and chaos theory 268 evolution of 272–6 fitness landscapes for 268–72 infantile mechanisms 133–5 groups and 135–6 informal organisations 427–8 information systems in long-term plans 79–80 Ingham, H 187 inherent patterning capacity 249–50 innovation business planning on 181–2 processes 157–8 unofficial 425–6 INSEAD (France) 11 institutional conflict 196 institutional theory 216 institutions and legitimate structures of authority 479–83 as social objects 467 instrumental conflict 196 Intel 269 intentions conversation as 351–2 and emergence 188–91, 316–17 interplay of, in the National Health Service 309–11 interacting heterogeneous agents, simulating populations of 253–6 552 Index interaction 239, 493–5 in complex adaptive systems 249–50 in complex systems 290 in learning organisations, nature of 123–4 in open systems theory 145–6 within organisms 54 rules of in complex adaptive systems 261–2 in strategic choice theory 92–4 interaction models 16–17 interactive planning 207–8 interpretive view 159 intersubjective themes in conversation 350 investment capitalism 13 investment decisions, strategy of 444–6 involved participation 348 irrationality, defined 152 Isaacs, W 113, 121 iteration 317, 319, 321, 326, 332 Jackson, M.C 207, 212–15 Jacques, E 139 James, W 393 Jarzabkowski, P 168, 171–2 Jefferson, G 348 Joas, H 346, 393–4 Johannessen, S 472 John Laing 11, 12 Johnson, G 160, 165 Johnson, P.E 179 joint action in relational co-constructionism 218 joint enterprise in communities of practice 220 joint stock companies Kant, E 34, 95, 105, 192, 205, 209–10, 239, 256, 303–6 autonomous individual 55–6 on ethics 400–1 formative causality 55 key concepts 57 noumenal 52 phenomenal 52 self-organising systems 53–5 Karreman, D 179 Katz, A.M 352–3 Kauffman, S.A 54, 248, 250, 257, 261–2 Kazanian, R.K 80 Kelsey, D 243, 244 Kennedy, A.A 405 Kerry, J 314 Kets de Vries, M.F 141–2 Khurana, R 7, 9, 516 King, D.R 187 Klein, M 133, 134, 144 Kleiner, A 118 Knights, D 217, 226, 227 knowledge explicit 477 and organisations 477–8 knowledge creation 277, 477–8 knowledge management 117–20, 477 Kono, T 11 Kudla, R.J 180 labour process theory 192, 198–9 LaForge, R.L 180 Landuyt, B.F 13 Langley, A 164, 166, 224 Langton, C.G 248, 259, 262 language 343–4 Lannemann, J.W 219 Larsen, H 378 Latour, B 223 Lave, J 121, 220 Lawler, E.J 116 Lawrence, B 169, 173 Lawrence, P.R 131 leaders/leadership 13 aggressive 142 in complex systems 272, 279–82, 285–6 controlling 142 and conversation 358–9 defined 115 detached 142 in dominant coalitions 381–2 ethics and 399–402 histrionic 142 knowledge management in 118–20 masochistic 142 narcissistic 142 neurotic forms 141–3 in open systems 140–1 paranoid 142 passive–aggressive 142 roles of 384–6, 513–16 in strategic choice theory 86–7 Learmonth, M 179 Learned, E.P 14 learning organisations 61 blockages in dialogue 113 causality 115–16 constructivist psychology in 107–8 defined 121 dialogue in 112–13, 114 enactment in 108–9 evidence on 182–3 humanistic psychology in 111–16 and human nature 122–3 knowledge management in 477 mental models 476 and organisational learning 120–2 personal mastery in 105–7, 476 as second-order abstraction 476–8 shared vision 476 single- and double-loop learning 109–11 system dynamics 102–5 archetypes of feedback processes 104–5 nonlinearity 102–3 principles 103–4 production and distribution chains 103 systems thinking 476 team learning 111–16, 476 shared models in 112–13 and vested interests 116–17 learning process 82–3 learning school 45, 46 legitimate themes 422–7 deviance, importance of 425 equal opportunities 423–5 public and hidden transcripts 426–7 unofficial innovation 425–6 Leibniz, W 51, 52 Leonard, D 118 Levy, D 268 Lewes, G 257 Lewin, R 280, 281, 283 libido 133 Lichtenstein, B.B 285 life cycle theory of time 162–3 Likert, R 60 Lincoln, Y.S 179 Lindblom, L 154–5, 505 linear programming linear relationships and causality 37–8 living systems 286–7 local interactions 220 between agents 364 central role of 488 links to population-wide social patterns 376–84 analogies from the complexity sciences 380–4 imaginative constructs 376–7 organisations as social objects 378–80 spontaneity 377–8 in markets 475 strategic planning in 462–4 strategising in 458 and technology 472–4 Locke, J 52 logical analysis 211 logical incrementalism 156–7 in strategic choice theory 90 logically incremental strategy 251 London Business School 11 long-term predictions 268 long-term strategic plans Index 553 complex responsive processes theory on 464 evaluating 76–9 acceptability 76–7 criteria for 75 feasibility 77 suitability or fit 77–9 formulating 74–5 implementing 79–81 impossibility of 268 plans and planning 74 prediction 75 Lorsch, J.W 131 low-dimensional chaos 242 MacIntosh, R 283 MacIntyre, A 389, 392, 407 MacKay, R.B 190, 224 Mackey, A 181 MacLean, D 283 macro interventions 226 macro view of strategy processes 170–1 Maitlis, S 169, 173 management alternative methods of research into 509–12 education for 8–12 evidence-based 183–5 as particularising 380 as science 7, 59 status of knowledge for 512–13 management science 10, 59–61 evidence for 178–88 statistical analysis in 179–80 managerial cognition, process of 159 managerial interpretations, as process 159 managers anxiety, quality of 500–1, 506–7 as community of practice 7–8 control by 505–7 frames of reference of 159–61 improvement by 507 participation by 499–500, 514 reflection, need for 497 roles of 513–16 thinking about, as participants rather than observers 498–500 training 9–10 unpredictability and paradox 502–4 March, J.G 153, 158, 505 Marion, R 268–72, 282, 290, 291 markets negative feedback in 69 and resource-based view of strategy 88–9 in strategic choice theory 474–6 Marquis, J.P 197 Maslow, A 83, 85 554 Index masochistic leaders 142 Mastenbroek, W.F.G 195–6 mathematical chaos theory 241–4, 318 Maturana, H.R 35, 107 Mayr, E 258 MBAs, standardisation of 10 McCain, J 314 McCleod, J 436 McCulloch, W.S 57 McKenna, C.D 10 McMillan, E 282, 283 McNamee, S 218, 219 Mead, G.H 34, 305–6, 317, 326, 445, 472, 475 on communicative interaction 340–8 and population-wide strategies 365–6, 369–84 on cult values 390–2 on ethics 401 meaning in communities of practice 220 measuring, in strategic management 442–53 Meek, J 282, 284 Melin, L 169, 173 mental models 476 Menzies Lyth, I 139 mergers and acquisitions 186–7 metaphysics 434 The Methodology of Social Sciences as Ideology (MacIntyre) 392 métis 513 Mezrich, B 311, 313 micro view of strategy processes 171–4 microcomputers, growth and development 268–70 Microsoft 269, 270 MICS 269 Midgley, G 207, 212 Miller, C.C 181 Miller, D 45, 160 Miller, E.J 61, 137–8 Miller, G 186 Mingers, J 212 Mintzberg, H 45–6, 90, 101, 151, 160, 170, 181, 188–91, 431, 506 misattributed conflict 196 Mitleton-Kelly, E 283 modelling 446–9 quantitative 451–3 as second-order abstracting 446–9 in strategic management 446–9 Moore, D.G 13 moral practice 208 morbido 133 Morgan, C.L 258 Morgan, G 277, 278 morphological field 262 motivation in organisations 84–5 Motorola 269 muddling through 154–5 multiple realities in critical systems thinking 213 mutual engagement 220 narcissistic leaders 142 Narendra, D 312 narrative features of 435–6 role of 434–6 narrative patterning of conversation 421–9 of experience 430–4 role of storytelling 434–6 National Health Service (NHS) and ideology 398–9 interplay of intentions in 309–11 public and hidden transcripts in 427 responsive processes on 371–2 second-order abstracting 439 national politics and Facebook 314 negative feedback in chaos theory 241 in open systems theory 130–1 in strategic choice theory 69–70 equilibrium 68–9 and human action 69–70 stability and instability 69–70 negotiation of conflict 196, 370–1 Nelson, R.R 45, 166 network analysis neurotic forms of leadership 141–3 Newbert, S.L 182 Newman, W.H 13 Newton, T 51, 405–6 Nicolini, D 223–4 Nicolis, G 246 Nonaka, I 118–20, 121, 277–8 non-institutionalised conflict 196 nonlinearity and false information 273 in learning organisations 102–3 in organisations 38 Nordqvist, M 173 norms 393–6 and ideology 396–7 and values 393–7 noumenal reality (Kant) 52 novelty 55–6, 191, 249, 252, 255, 257–8, 261, 271, 290 Obama, Barack 314 Olsen, J.P 505 oneness in groups 136 Ong, W.J 473 open systems theory 129–32 boundary in 129, 137–8 conflicting subsystems 131–2 experience in 147 human beings, nature of 143–5 infantile mechanisms 133–5 groups and 135–6 interaction, nature of 145–6 leadership in 140–1 neurotic forms 141–3 methodology in 146 negative feedback in 130–1 paradox 146–7 psychosocial subsystems 130 technical subsystems 130–1 unconscious processes 132–3, 137–40 O’Regan, N 181 organisational dynamics and general systems theory 132 main points on 132 unconscious group processes 137 organisational learning 120–2 defined 121 methodology and 124 vested interests on 116–17 organisational psychodynamics and responsive processes theory 493 organisational science evidence for 178–88 statistical analysis in 179–80 organisational strategies 458–9 organisational structure, long-term 79 organisations alternative methods of research into 509–12 as complex systems 276–89 conscious and unconscious 428–9 conversation in 348–55 intention 351–2 rhetoric 352–4 strategy and change 354–5 thematic patterning 350–1 turn-taking/turn-making 348–50 defence routines in 110–11 formal and informal 427–8 as goal-seeking systems 70 knowledge and 477–8 management of nonlinearity in 38 as patterns of interaction 364–5, 369 problem with ‘living systems’ and ‘simple rules’ as a theory of 286–7 relationship to individual 85 research papers applying complexity science to 282–6 as social objects 378–80 status of knowledge for 512–13 as systems 38, 56 organised anarchy 154–5 Index 555 organising themes in conversation 349, 350–2 Ortner, S 223 pairing in groups 136 panic 410–11 paradox in complex systems 290–1 managers and 502–4 in strategy processes 432–4 paradoxical phenomena 31 paranoid leaders 142 paranoid–schizoid position 134 participation 209, 213 in communities of practice 221 in conversation 348 by managers 499–500, 514 particularising in human communication 366–76 Pascale, R.T 12, 85, 280–1, 283 passive–aggressive leaders 142 Pearce, J.A 181 Peat, F.D 112 Pedersen, J.S 216 Pei-Chun Lai 185 Peirce, C.S 34 performance appraisal as cybernetic system 61 performance improvement managers and 507 period two attractor 241 Perrow, C 158 personal mastery 105–7, 476 persuasion, rhetoric as 353 Peters, E.E 243 Peters, T.J 12, 14, 45, 74, 83–4, 182–3 Pettigrew, A.M 45, 166 Pfeffer, J 81, 158, 183 Phelan, S 209 phenomena in strategic choice theory 94–5 phenomenal reality (Kant) 52 Philips, A.W 58, 102 phronesis 367, 500, 512–13 Pitts, W 57, 82 Planning School 189 planning school of strategy 45, 46 Plato 367 pluralism in critical systems thinking 215 poiesis 512 point attractor 241 Polanyi, M.M 118, 119, 121, 258 polarised conflict 370–1 policy, origins political behaviour and long-term plans 81 Poole, M.S 164, 224 populations of organisations 30 dynamic phenomena 30–1 degrees of detail 31–2 paradoxical phenomena 31 556 Index population-wide social patterns links to local interactions 376–84 analogies from the complexity sciences 380–4 imaginative constructs 376–7 organisations as social objects 378–80 spontaneity 377–8 strategic planning in 462–3 Porras, J 85 Porter, M 45, 74, 75, 78 positioning school of strategy 45, 46 positive feedback 241–2 postmodernism 34 potential transformation in conversation 355 Powell, W.W 159, 217 power authoritarian use of 116 collegial use of 116–17 and conversation 348, 357–9 and decision making 411–12 and ideology 402–6 in relational co-constructionism 219 power differentials 407, 409 power law 270–1, 278 power school 45, 46 power vacuums 117 power/dependency conflict 196 practice schools 223–6 practice theorising 223 practice turn 223 Prahalad, C.K 88–9 praxis 168, 512 prediction 444–6 preoccupation in the game 430–1 prescriptive schools 45, 46 design school 45, 46 planning school 45, 46 positioning school 45, 46 presencing in dialogue 114 pressure groups and long-term strategic plans 76–7 pressure points in complex systems 104 Prigogine, I 257, 259, 262, 270–2, 320, 327 on dissipative structures 243, 246 process schools 223–6 process vs content in strategic choice theory 90 processes of self 345–8 processualists 46 product life cycle in long-term plans 78 product portfolio in long-term plans 79 production chains in learning organisation 103 Prosch, H 119, 121 Prusak, L 118 psychosocial subsystems 130 public organisations, TQM in 185 public transcripts 426–7 public-sector consultancy 62–3 purposive development 54–5 quality management as cybernetic system 61 quantitative modelling 451–3 in strategic management 451–3 queuing theory Quinn, J.B 118, 156–7 Quinn, J.J 181 Rajagopalan, N 163 Rapoport, A 195 rational objectivity 51–2 rational processes bounded rationality 151–4 error, search for 155–6 trial-and-error action 154–8 rationalist causality 56, 271, 290, 303–4, 307, 331 rationality, defined 151 Ray, T.S 253, 383 realism 33 realist knowledge 53 contradiction with relative knowledge 53 realistic conflicts 196 reality nature of 51 noumenal and phenomenal 52 as sensation 52 reason 51–2 Reason, P 36, 179, 495 reasoning as first-order abstracting 442–53 Reay, T 179, 184 reductionism 239 reflection 434–6 reflective dialogues 115 reflexivity 35–6 Regine, B 280, 281, 283 Regner, P 167–8 Regner, R.K 45 regulative ideas 53 regulators in cybernetic systems 71–2 complexity of 71–2 reification in communities of practice 221 Reilly, E.W 13 relational co-construction 217–19 relational–responsive form of understanding 352 relative knowledge 53 contradiction with realist knowledge 53 relativism 34 repetition in conversation 355–6, 358 representation vs enactment 120 requisite variety, law of 72, 74, 90 Rerup, C 167, 173 research evidence base for 508–9 methods 509–12 status of knowledge 512–13 resource-based view of strategic choice 88–9 evidence on 182 resources in strategic choice theory 465–74 financial resources 465–9 human resources and competences 469–71 technology 471–4 responsive processes theory 305–17 analogies in 323–5 and chaos theory 317–19 and complex adaptive systems 319–25 contradiction and paradox, dealing with 496–7 control and performance improvement 505–7 conversation in 338–59 on decision making 411–12 Elias on 307–17 entities in 319–21, 323, 327–9 Hegel on 306–7 human action and interaction, nature of 493–5 human psychology, nature of 490–3 iteration in 317, 319, 321, 326, 332 key features of 487–97 methodological position 495–6 NHS example 371–2 norms, values and ideology 396–7 and organisational dynamics 486–517 performance improvement 507 and quantitative modelling 451–3 research on 507–13 on strategic management 461–2 strategy in 363 strategy and change 497–504 and systemic processes 327–34 and time 326–7 on ‘whole’ organisation 456–85 retributive conflict 196 reward systems as cybernetic system 61 Reynolds, C.W 252, 319, 320 rhetoric 352–4 ploys 353 Rice, A.K 61, 137–8 rich picture 210 Richard, O 197 Robertson, D.A 283 Robinson, G 196 Romanelli, E 160 Roth, G 118 Rousseau, D.M 183, 184 Rue, L.W 11 rules in complex adaptive systems 261 Rumelt, R 166 Sacks, H 348–9 Salvato, C 166–7, 173 Samra-Fredericks, D 169, 173, 353 Sanders, T.I 283 Index 557 Sarbin, T.R 436 Saverin, E 311–14 scepticism 34, 52 Scharmer, C.O 114–15 Schatzki, T.R 223 Schein, E.H 84, 85 Schein, V.E 116, 117 Schendel, D 75, 78, 163–4 Schermerhorn, R 196 Scholes, P 207, 211 Schön, D 109, 110, 118, 121 Schreiber, C 286 scientific management 59–61 Scientific Revolution 51–2 Scotson, J 406, 408, 409 Scott, J.C 426–7, 432, 436, 438–40 Scott, W 217, 225 second-order abstraction 436–42 and human psychology 492 learning organisation as 476–8 methodology of 495 and the modern state 438–41 in strategic choice theory 459–76 markets 474–6 resources 465–74 role of strategic planning 462–5 on strategic management 461–2 second-order desires 393 second-order systems thinking 205–16 Churchman on 208–9 and critical systems thinking 212–16 defined 205–6 interactive planning 207–8 learning levels 206 and Soft Systems Methodology 209–12 second-ordering principle 261 Seddon, J 194 self, processes of 345–8 self-organisation 227 and causality 256 in complex adaptive systems 248–9 in complex systems 277–8, 282–5, 290, 380, 383 in dissipative structures 244–5 and social order 309 self-organising systems 53–5 self-regulation in systems 58, 61–2 Selznick, P 13, 45 sender–receiver model of communication 82–3 and conversation of gestures 344–5 Senge, P.M 101, 104, 112–13, 118, 121, 192, 462, 476 sensitivity analysis 78 Sewell, G 227 shadow themes 422–7 deviance, importance of 425 equal opportunities 423–5 public and hidden transcripts 426–7 558 Index shadow themes (Continued) unofficial innovation 425–6 shame 410–11 Shane, S 181 Shannon, C 57, 83 Shapiro, E.R 139 shared repertoire in communities of practice 220 shared vision 476 Shaw, P 354, 447–8, 450 Shegloff, E.A 348 Short, J.C 181 Shotter, J 108, 169, 218, 352–3, 430 Simon, H.A 82, 102, 153 simple rules of interaction 277, 280, 286–7 simulating populations of homogeneous agents 252–3 of interacting heterogeneous agents 253–6 Singhal, V 185 single-loop learning 109–10 Six Sigma 186 Skoldberg, K 179 Smith, D 410 smoking, and attitude of generalised other 367–8 social act, communication as 341–8 social capital 286 social conflict 196 social constructionism 35 social constructionist approaches 216–22 institutional theory 216–17 organisational fields 217 relational co-construction 217–19 social control 373–6 social media and Facebook 314–16 social objects 371–3 as cult value 372 financial resources as 467 key points 374 markets as 475 narrative form of 430 organisations as 378–80 physical object and 371 reading and writing as 473 social control and 373–6 technology as 472–4 as tendency to act 371–3 social order emergence of 308–9 and self-organisation 309 social participation 220 social practice 220 social structure in conversation 355–6 The Society of Individuals (Elias) 405 society as system 56 soft systems 62 Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) 209–12 interventions 211 phases of 210 strands 211 Soltani, E 185 Sommer, S.C 284 spontaneity 377–8 Springett, N 353 Srivastva, S 218 stability in scientific management 60 stable instability 240, 242, 247 Stacey, R 55, 56, 259, 280, 288, 306, 472 stakeholders 76–7 Stapley, L.F 357, 495 Steier, F 35 Stengers, I 244, 246 Stewart, I 241 storytelling 434–6 strange attractors 242, 318–19 strategic choice theory causality theories and 92–4 cognitive psychology 82–3 cybernetic systems 68–74 evidence base for 180–2 experience 95–6 and human nature 91–2, 490–2 humanistic psychology 83–6 and imaginative constructs 460 interactions 92–4 interactive planning in 207–8 and limitations of choice 89–90 long-term strategy see long-term strategic plans and measurement 461 methodology of 495 and paradox 95 phenomena 94–5 process vs content 90 resource-based view 88–9 as second-order abstraction 459–76 markets 474–6 resources 465–74 role of strategic planning 462–5 uncertainty 89–90 on ‘whole’ organisation 456–85 strategic decision making 154–7 investment decisions 444–6 strategic logic to long-term plans 77–8 strategic management 12, 461–2 forecasting 442–53 measuring 442–53 modelling 446–9 prediction and investment decisions 444–6 quantitative modelling 451–3 reasoning 442–53 strategic plan documents 464 strategic planning 180–1 role of 462–5 strategising 458 strategy 458 and control 505–7 conversation as 354–5 and change 354–5 as generalised articulations of activity 364 as identity narrative 483–4 leaders and 358–9 origins as patterns of joint activity 458–9 and responsive processes theory 497–504 as ‘whole’ 417–21 strategy content 296 strategy process research 159 strategy processes activity-based view of 165–9 cognitive frames of reference in 159–61 contingency view of 158–9 as deliberately emergent 160 growth phases 162 interpretive view of 159 paradoxical nature of 432–4 rational processes in 151–8 review of 163–4 systemic thinking about 170–4 macro view 170–1 micro view 171–4 and time 161–3 Strauss, S 118 Streatfield, P 506–7 Strong, M 481–2 Stubbe, M 422, 432 substantitive conflicts 196 subsystems in open systems theory conflicting subsystems 131–2 infantile mechanisms 133–5 psychosocial 130 technical 130–1 suitability of long-term strategic plans 77–9 Summers, L 313 Sun Tzu Surie, G 286 surveys 180 Sutton, R 183 Sveiby, K.E 118 Sword, L.D 285 SWOT analysis 78 system dynamics 102–5 archetypes of feedback processes 104–5 nonlinearity 102–3 principles 103–4 production and distribution chains 103 Index 559 system models 210 System of System Methodologies (SOSM) 214 systemic approach 46 systemic intervention in critical systems thinking 212–13 systemic processes entities in 327–9 and responsive processes thinking 327–34 systems 191–5 different meanings of 192–3 and human nature 304 as management tool 194 as ‘wholes’ 417, 421, 434 systems analysis systems dynamics 58 systems theory systems thinking 61–2, 476 dualistic (Kant) 56 first-order 205 hard 205 and human systems 57–8 in organisations 59–61 second-order 205–16 tacit knowledge 118–20, 121, 477 Takeuchi, H 118, 119–20, 121, 277–8 Taleb, N 243 task systems 138–9 Tawady, K 85 Taylor, C 367, 436, 483 Taylor, F 59 Taylor, J 402 Taylor, W.A 185 team learning 111–16, 476 shared models in 112–13 techne 512 technical rationality 156, 159, 442–3 technical subsystems 130–1 technology competitive advantage of 471 physical objects of 472–4 social object of 472–4 in strategic choice theory 471–4 teleological causality 55, 56 tendency to act, attitude as 367–8 thematic patterning of conversation 350–1 themes dynamics of 429 emergence of in conversations 421–9 legitimate and shadow 422–7 deviance example 425 equal opportunities example 423–5 innovation example 425–6 public and hidden transcripts 426–7 theory of autopoiesis 225 Thiel, P 313 560 Index Thietart, R.A 276–7 Thomas, D.A 197 Thomas, H 45 Thompson, J.D 158 Tichy, G 187 Tilles, S 13 time and responsive processes 326–7 in strategy processes 161–3 Tolbert, P.S 159 total quality management (TQM) 185–6 Total Systems Intervention (TSI) 214–15 Tourish, D 516 Townley, B 152, 227 transformation in conversation 355–6 in learning 114 transformative causality 256, 306, 307, 324, 490 Hegel on 306 modelling in 451–3 and responsive processes 306, 324 trial-and-error action 153, 154–8 innovation processes 157–8 logical incrementalism 156–7 Trist, E.L 130–1, 137 Truss, C 186 Tsoukas, H 119, 164, 224, 434 Tuden, A 158 Turkle, S 315–16 turn-taking/turn-making in conversation 348–50 Turquet, P 136 Tushman, M.L 160 Tustin, A 58, 102 Twomey, D.F 283 uncertainty in nature 240 in strategic choice theory 89–90 in strategic decision making 155 unconscious organisations 428–9 unconscious processes 132–3, 137–40 in organisational psychodynamics 137 unofficial innovation 425–6 unpredictability managers and 502–4 unstable stability 240 value chain analysis 78 value work 194 values 393–6 and ideology 396–7 and norms 393–6 Van de Ven, A.H 157, 164, 166, 179, 224 Varela, F.J 35, 107, 225 Veblen, T 258 Venkatraman, N 159 vested interests on organisational learning 116–17 authoritarian use of power 116 collegial use of power 116–17 power vacuums 117 von Bertalanffy, L 58, 129 von Clausewitz, K von Foerster, H 206 von Glasersveld, E 218 Vroom, V.H 86 Vygotsky, L.S 168, 218 Walker, R.M 185 Waterman, R.H 12, 14, 45, 74, 83–4, 182–3 Waters, J.A 45, 101, 151, 506 Weaver, W 57, 83 Webster, G 54 Weick, K 107, 121, 159, 191 Wenger, E 7, 121, 220, 221–2 Wensing, M 184 Wernerfelt, B 88 Westphal, J.D 181 Wheatley, M.J 279, 280–1, 283 Wheeler, W 258 White, W.J 219 Whitehead, A.N 258, 327–8, 331 Whittington, R 46, 165–6, 168, 171, 173 ‘wholes’ as systems 417, 421, 434, 494 Wiener, N 58, 68 Wilkinson, B 227 Williamson, O.E 216 Willmott, H 217, 226, 227 Winklevoss, C 312–14 Winklevoss, T 312–14 Winnicott, D.W 144 Winter, S.G 45, 166 Wolfram, S 16 Wood, D.R 180 Wooldridge, B 163 Wright, G.H 185 Yetton, P.W 86 Zucker, L 217 Zucker, L.G 159 Zuckerberg, M 311, 316 ... Strategy by Ansoff, an engineer at Rand Corporation, and Business Policy: Text and Cases by Learned, Christensen, Andrews and Guth from Harvard Business School After this, strategic management. .. professionalisation of management Thinking about strategy and organisational change: the implicit assumptions distinguishing one theory from another 28 Part Systemic ways of thinking about strategy and organisational. .. organisational learning and knowledge creation: systems dynamics, cognitivist, humanistic and constructivist psychology 100 Thinking in terms of organisational psychodynamics: open systems and