The Years of Extermination Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945 Saul Friedländer To Yonatan The struggle to save myself is hopeless… But that’s not important Because I am able to bring my account to its end and trust that it will see the light of day when the time is right… And people will know what happened… And they will ask, is this the truth? I reply in advance: No, this is not the truth, this is only a small part, a tiny fraction of the truth… Even the mightiest pen could not depict the whole, real, essential truth —Stefan Ernest, “The Warsaw Ghetto,” written in hiding in 1943 on the “Aryan” side of Warsaw Contents Epigraph Acknowledgments Introduction Part I: Terror (Fall 1939–Summer 1941) One: September 1939–May 1940 Two: May 1940–December 1940 Three: December 1940–June 1941 Part II: Mass Murder (Summer 1941–Summer 1942) Four: June 1941–September 1941 Five: September 1941–December 1941 Six: December 1941–July 1942 Part III: Shoah (Summer 1942–Spring 1945) Seven: July 1942–March 1943 Eight: March 1943–October 1943 Nine: October 1943–March 1944 Ten: March 1944–May 1945 Notes Bibliography Searchable Terms About the Author Praise Other Books by Saul Friedländer Copyright About the Publisher Acknowledgments This work has greatly benefited from the research funds provided by the “1939 Club” chair at UCLA and, in particular, from an incomparably generous fellowship from the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation To the “1939 Club” and to the MacArthur Foundation I wish to express my deepest gratitude I wish, first, to mention in fond memory the friends, all departed now, with whom I shared many thoughts about the history dealt with here: Léon Poliakov, Uriel Tal, Amos Funkenstein, and George Mosse Professor Michael Wildt (Hamburg Institut für Sozialforschung) had the kindness to read an almost final version of the manuscript; I feel very grateful for his comments: He drew my attention to recent German research and mainly helped me to avoid some mistakes, as did Dr Dieter Pohl of the Institute of Contemporary History (Munich) and Professor Eberhard Jäckel (University of Stuttgart) I am equally thankful to Professors Omer Bartov (Brown University), Dan Diner (Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and the Simon Dubnow Institute, Leipzig) and Norbert Frei (Jena University) for having commented on various parts of the text Notwithstanding my recurring doubts, I was encouraged over time to complete this project by many colleagues, particularly professors Yehuda Bauer, Dov Kulka, and Steve Aschheim (all from the Hebrew University, Jerusalem), Professor Shulamit Volkov (Tel Aviv University), Professor Philippe Burrin (director of the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva), and the late Dr Sybil Milton, a wonderful scholar and the most selfless of colleagues, whose untimely passing was a grievous loss Of course, as the formula goes, the responsibility for the (certainly many) mistakes remaining in the text is solely mine I remained dependent throughout this entire project upon a succession of graduate students All should be thanked here in the persons of my most recent research assistants: Deborah Brown, Amir Kenan, and Joshua Sternfeld Both Susan H Llewellyn and David Koral of HarperCollins have applied their considerable linguistic skills to the copyediting of this manuscript I am very grateful to them and, of course, most thankful for the constant attention and encouragement provided by my editor, Hugh Van Dusen The assistant editor, Rob Crawford, has shown patience beyond the call of duty in dealing with my frequent inquiries And, to my agents and friends, Georges, Anne, and Valerie Borchardt, I wish to express again my heartfelt thanks My personal and professional relations with Georges and Anne go back to the publication of my first book in the United States (Pius XII and the Third Reich), in 1966 This work owes more than I can say to Orna Kenan’s emotional and intellectual support; she shares my life The book is dedicated to my newly born fourth grandson Introduction David Moffie was awarded his degree in medicine at the University of Amsterdam on September 18, 1942 In a photograph taken at the event, Professor C U Ariens Kappers, Moffie’s supervisor, and Professor H T Deelman stand on the right of the new MD, and assistant D Granaat stands on the left Another faculty member, seen from the back, possibly the dean of the medical school, stands just behind a large desk In the dim background, the faces of some of the people crowded into the rather cramped hall, family members and friends no doubt, are barely discernible The faculty members have donned their academic robes, while Moffie and Granaat wear tuxedos and white ties On the left side of his jacket Moffie displays a palm-size Jewish star with the word Jood inscribed on it Moffie was the last Jewish student at the University of Amsterdam under German occupation.1 The usual terms of praise and thanks were certainly uttered according to academic ritual We not know whether any other comments were added Shortly thereafter Moffie was deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau He survived, as did 20 percent of the Jews of Holland; according to the same statistics, therefore, most of the Jews present at the ceremony did not The picture raises some questions How, for example, could the ceremony have taken place on September 18, 1942, when Jewish students were excluded from Dutch universities as of September 8? The editors of Photography and the Holocaust found the answer: The last day of the 1941–42 university year was Friday, September 18, 1942; the 1942–43 semester started on Monday, September 21 The three-day break allowed Moffie to receive his degree before the ban on Jewish students became mandatory.2 Actually the break was limited to precisely one weekend (Friday, September 18–Monday, September 21), meaning that the university authorities agreed to use the administrative calendar against the intention of the German decree This decision signaled an attitude widespread at Dutch universities since the fall of 1940; the photograph documents an act of defiance, on the edge of the occupier’s laws and decrees There is more The deportations from Holland started on July 14, 1942 Almost daily Germans and local police arrested Jews on the streets of Dutch cities to fill the weekly quotas Moffie could not have attended this public academic ceremony without having received one of the seventeen thousand special (and temporary) exemption certificates the Germans allocated to the city’s Jewish Council The picture thus indirectly evokes the controversy surrounding the methods used by the heads of the council to protect—for a time at least—some of the Jews of Amsterdam while abandoning the great majority to their fate In the most general terms we are witnessing a common enough ceremony, easy to recognize Here, in a moderately festive setting, a young man received official confirmation that he was entitled to practice medicine, to take care of the sick, and as far as humanly possible, to use his professional knowledge in order to restore health But, as we know, the Jood pinned to Moffie’s coat carried a very different message: Like all members of his “race” throughout the Continent, the new MD was marked for murder Faintly seen, the Jood does not appear in block letters or in any other commonly used script The characters were specially designed for this particular purpose (and similarly drawn in the languages of the countries of deportation: Jude, Juif, Jood, and so on) in a crooked, repulsive, and vaguely threatening way, intended to evoke the Hebrew alphabet and yet remain easily decipherable And it is in this inscription and its peculiar design that the situation represented in the photograph reappears in its quintessence: The Germans were bent on exterminating the Jews as individuals, and on erasing what the star and its inscription represented—“the Jew.” Here we perceive but the faintest echo of a furious onslaught aimed at eliminating any trace of “Jewishness,” any sign of the “Jewish spirit,” any remnant of Jewish presence (real or imaginary) from politics, society, culture, and history To this end the Nazi campaign deployed, in the Reich and throughout occupied Europe, propaganda, education, research, publications, films, proscriptions, and taboos in all social and cultural domains, in fact every existing method of erasure and stamping out, from the rewriting of religious texts or opera libretti tainted by any speck of Jewishness to the renaming of streets carrying the names of Jews, from the banning of music or literary works written by Jewish artists and authors to the destruction of monuments, from the elimination of “Jewish science” to the “cleansing” of libraries, and, as foretold by Heinrich Heine’s famous dictum, from the burning of books to that of human beings I The “history of the Holocaust” cannot be limited only to a recounting of German policies, decisions, and measures that led to this most systematic and sustained of genocides; it must include the reactions (and at times the initiatives) of the surrounding world and the attitudes of the victims, for the fundamental reason that the events we call the Holocaust represent a totality defined by this very convergence of distinct elements This history is understandably written as German history in many cases The Germans, their collaborators, and their auxiliaries were the instigators and prime agents of the policies of persecution and extermination and, mostly, of their implementation Furthermore, German documents dealing with these policies and measures became widely accessible after the Reich’s defeat These immense troves of material, hardly manageable even before access to former Soviet and Eastern bloc archival holdings, have, since the late 1980s, naturally reinforced still further the focus on the German dimension of this historiography And, in the eyes of most historians, an inquiry concentrating on the German facet of this history seems more open to conceptualization and to comparative forays, less “parochial” in other words, than whatever can be written from the viewpoint of the victims or even that of the surrounding world This German-centered approach is of course legitimate within its limits, but the history of the Holocaust requires, as mentioned, a much wider range At each step, in occupied Europe, the execution of German measures depended on the submissiveness of political authorities, the assistance of local police forces or other auxiliaries, and the passivity or support of the populations and mainly of the political and spiritual elites It also depended on the willingness of the victims to follow orders in the hope of alleviating German strictures or gaining time and somehow escaping the inexorable tightening of the German vise Thus the history of the Holocaust should be both an integrative and an integrated history No single conceptual framework can encompass the diverse and converging strands of such a history Even its German dimension cannot be interpreted from one single conceptual angle The historian faces the interaction of very diverse long- or short-term factors that can each be defined and interpreted; their very convergence, however, eludes an overall analytic category A host of concepts have surfaced over the last six decades, only to be discarded a few years later, then rediscovered, and so on, particularly in regard to Nazi policies per se The origins of the “Final Solution” have been attributed to a “special course” (Sonderweg) of German history, a special brand of German antiSemitism, racial-biological thinking, bureaucratic politics, totalitarianism, fascism, modernity, a “European civil war” (seen from the Left and from the Right), and the like Reviewing these concepts would demand another book.3 In this introduction I will essentially limit myself to defining the road taken here Nonetheless, a few remarks regarding two contrary trends in the present historiography of the Third Reich in general and of the “Final Solution” in particular become necessary at this point The first trend considers the extermination of the Jews as representing, in and of itself, a major goal of German policies, whose study, however, requires new approaches: the activities of midlevel actors, the detailed analysis of events in limited areas, specific institutional and bureaucratic dynamics—all meant to throw some new light on the workings of the entire system of extermination.4 This approach has added greatly to our knowledge and understanding: I have integrated many of its findings into my own more globally oriented inquiry The other trend is different It has helped, over the years, to uncover many a new trail Yet, in regard to the study of the Holocaust, each of these trails eventually branches out from the same starting point: The persecution and extermination of the Jews of Europe was but a secondary consequence of major German policies pursued toward entirely different goals Among these, the ones most often mentioned include a new economic and demographic equilibrium in occupied Europe by murdering surplus populations, ethnic reshuffling and decimation to facilitate German colonization in the East, and the systematic plunder of the Jews in order to facilitate the waging of the war without putting too heavy a material burden on German society or, more precisely, on Hitler’s national-racial state (Hitlers Volksstaat ) Notwithstanding the vistas sporadically opened by such studies, their general thrust is manifestly incompatible with the central postulates underlying my own interpretation.5 In this volume, as in The Years of Persecution, I have chosen to focus on the centrality of ideological-cultural factors as the prime movers of Nazi policies in regard to the Jewish issue, depending of course on circumstances, institutional dynamics, and essentially, for the period dealt with here, on the evolution of the war.6 The history we are dealing with is an integral part of the “age of ideology” and, more precisely and decisively, of its late phase: the crisis of liberalism in continental Europe Between the late nineteenth century and the end of World War II, liberal society was attacked from the left by revolutionary socialism (which was to become Bolshevism in Russia and communism throughout the world), and by a revolutionary right that, on the morrow of World War I, turned into fascism in Italy and elsewhere, and into Nazism in Germany Throughout Europe the Jews were identified with liberalism and often with the revolutionary brand of socialism In that sense antiliberal and antisocialist (or anticommunist) ideologies, those of the revolutionary right in all its guises, targeted the Jews as representatives of the worldviews they fought and, more often than not, tagged them as the instigators and carriers of those worldviews In the atmosphere of national resentment following the defeat of 1918 and, later, as a result of the economic upheavals that shook the country (and the world), such an evolution acquired a momentum Third Reich See Nazi Germany Thomalla, Richard, 432 Thomas, Georg, 137–38, 295 Thoms, Albert, 499 Thomsen, Hans, 206 Thracia, 452, 484–85, 487–88 Tijn, Gertrud van, 182 Timoshenko, Semyon, 331 Tiso, Jozef, 80, 231, 373, 486, 606, 640 Tisserant, Eugène, 74–75, 464 Tito, Josip Broz, 228 Tittman, Harold, 465–66, 573–74 Todt, Fritz, 272, 345 Topf and Sons company, 503–4 torture, 27–28, 612 Tory, Abraham, 241–42, 384, 527, 584, 662 tourists, German, 38–39, 160, 435–36 trading of Jews See exchange Jews trains bombing plan Hungary-to-Auschwitz railway line, 625–28 deaths on, 490–95 deportations and, 266–67 transit camps, 283, 310, 351–56, 375–76 See also Theresienstadt transit camp; Westerbork transit camp Transnistria, 226, 594 Treblinka extermination camp, 354, 357, 394–95, 405, 425, 429–33, 441–42, 445, 452, 454, 491, 521–22, 529–30, 557–59 Tresckow, Henning von, 210, 460 Trocmé, André, 421 Trunk, Isaiah, 44, 105–6 Trzebinski, Alfred, 655–56 Trzeciak, Stanislaw, 25 tuberculosis, 533, 655–56 Tuka, Vojtech, 80, 230–31, 373–74, 463, 485–86 Tulp, Sybren, 180, 406 Turkey, 329–30 Turner, Harald, 363–64 typhus, 158, 243, 405, 489, 547, 608–10 Udet, Ernst, 276 Uebelhoer, Friedrich, 266 Ueberall, Ehud, 88 UFA film studios, 19–20, 160–61 Ukraine, 44, 138, 197, 201, 212–19, 224, 259–60, 358–61, 410, 458, 463–64, 534–37 Uniate Catholic Church, 464 Union Générale des Israélites de France (UGIF), 258, 416–18, 551–52, 554–55 Union of Jewish Communities, 226–27 Union of Orthodox Rabbis, 626 United Palestine Appeal, 466–67 United Partisans Organization, 325–26 United States attempted rescue of French children by, 417 awareness in, about exterminations, 392, 460–67 extermination campaign as result of, 281–82 German undeclared naval war on, 269–70 Hitler’s concern about, 130–31, 264–67 Hitler’s declaration of war on, 272, 278–79 immigration to, 84–86 isolationist campaign in, 67, 270–72 Jewish leadership in, 304–5 Jewish political influence in, Jewry in, 83–84 Lend-Lease Bill of, 201 plan of, to bomb railway line between Hungary and Auschwitz, 625–28 Romanian exchange offer and, 594 universities See academic institutions Untermensch pamphlet, 542 Upper Silesia, 12, 34, 38, 154, 510, 649 See also Auschwitz concentration camp uprisings, 126, 348–50, 496, 520–29, 557–59, 629, 639–40 See also resistance USSR See Soviet Union Ustasha movement, Croatian, 71, 227–30, 487 Vaadah (Jewish Relief and Rescue Committee), 620–25 Valenti, Osvaldo, 612 Vallat, Xavier, 172–73, 256, 258 van Daan, Peter, 550 vans, gas, 233–34, 286, 358, 363–64 See also Chelmno extermination site; gassings Vatican See also Catholic Church; Pius XII (pope) awareness of extermination campaign in, 459, 463–67, 516 Croatian mass executions and, 229–30 Pius XI (pope), 58, 72–73 unavailability of documents in, xxiii Veesenmayer, Edmund, 613, 618–19, 621–22, 623–24, 641 Veidt, Conrad, 20 Vendel, Karl Ingve, 459–60 Venice Film Festival, 100 Ventzki, Werner, 266 Verschuer, Otmar von, 505 vested interests, xx–xxi Vichy France See also France anti-Jewish measures in, 108–15, 117–21, 169–78, 190, 256–59, 550–52 Catholic Church in, 71 deportations of Jews from, 550–57, 610–12 deportation of Jews from Germany to, 65–66, 93–94 extermination plan for, 340–41 Pétain and (see Pétain, Henri-Philippe) Vienna, 34–35, 139, 266–67, 308, 640–43 See also Austria Vilna, 24, 44, 219–25 Vilna ghetto, 64, 198, 241, 324–28, 382–84, 436–38, 439, 446, 530–33, 590–91 Vinnytsa, 361–62 visas, 83–87, 90–91, 127, 193–94, 330 Visser, Lodewijk E., 123 Vlaamsch National Verbond, 259 Vleeschouwer, Jopie, 599 Voldermaras, Augustin, 220 Volk, xviii–xxi, xx Völkischer Beobachter, 23, 205, 247, 337–38 Volksgemeinschaft, 14, 658 Volkstumskampf, 11, 12–14 Voss, Hermann, 236–37 Vrba, Rudolf, 614–15 Vught labor camp, 413 Wagner, Eduard, 134, 138, 236–37 Wagner, Robert, 93 Wagner, Winifred, 587 Wallenberg, Raoul, 642, 648 Wannsee conference, 334, 339–45 War Refugee Board (WRB), 596, 626, 647 Warsaw, 3–4, 12, 24 Warsaw ghetto awareness in, of exterminations, 326, 390–95, 521–22 creation of, 38, 104–6, 242–45 cultural life in, 149–53 deportation and extermination of Jews in, 81–82, 426–33, 445, 464–65 Jewish Council in, 37–43, 61–62, 153–54 Jewish Fighting Organization and uprising in, 520–21, 522–27 Jewish perception in, 322 life in, 242–45, 322, 328, 389–95 Oneg Shabat chroniclers, 106, 146, 150, 394, 445, 528 Polish indifference to, 533–34 reaction of, to Eastern Front, 199 Soviet liberation of, 629 starvation in 146–49, 389–90 “Warsaw Ghetto, The,” vii Wartenburg, Yorck von, 635 Warthegau, 12, 14, 30, 35–37, 144, 284, 510–11, 584–86 Wasser, Hersch, 106, 150, 155, 393, 662 Weck, René de, 450 Wehrmacht, 13, 22, 26–30, 134–35, 165, 171, 200–201, 208–12, 246 Weil, Erwin, 308–9 Weill, Julien, 120 Weill-Curiel, André, 611 Weininger, Otto, 278 Weiss, Aharon, 40, 555 Weissenberg, Yitshak Meir, 195 Weissmandel, Michael Dov Ber, 374, 626 Weizmann, Chaim, 10, 623, 627 Weizsäcker, Ernst von, 373–74, 562–64, 565–66 welfare activities, 148, 191–92 Wellers, George, 416 Welles, Sumner, 460–61, 595 Wenck, Walter, 527 Wertheimer, Henny, 371 Wessels, Ben, 608, 662 Westerbork transit camp, 375–76, 413, 438–39, 547–49, 599, 607 Western Europe, 6–8 See also Europe Wetzel, Eberhard, 286 Wetzler, Alfred, 614 White Rose resistance group, 513 Wiernik, Jacob, 558–59 Wilenberg, Shmuel, 557–58 Wilhelm, Hans-Heinrich, 605 Wilkie, Wendell, 67 Wilson, Woodrow, 279 Wimmer, Friedrich, 179 Winant, John, 594 Wippern, Georg, 500 Wirth, Christian, 357 Wise, Stephen, 85–86, 304, 460–61, 462, 595 Wisliceny, Dieter, 80, 231, 374, 487–89, 613, 615, 621, 624, 647 Wisten, Fritz, 97–98 Wittenberg, Itzik, 532 Witting, Rolf, 277 Włodawa, 394–95 Woehrn, Fritz, 519–20 Wolff, Karl, 138, 491 Wolff, Theodore, 84 Working Group, 614–15, 626 working Jews, 95–96, 245–47, 495 World Jewish Congress, 66, 85, 247, 304–5, 460–61, 462–63, 627 Woyrsch, Udo von, 26–27 writers, 117, 206–7, 379 Wurm, Theophil, 202, 300–301, 516–17 Years of Persecution, The, xvii, xviii, xix Yiddishkeit, xiv–xv, Yishuv, 87–90, 305–6, 457–58, 594, 622–23 See also Palestine (Eretz Israel) YIVO research center, 220, 590–91 YMCA, 193 Yom Kippur, 28, 49, 105, 444–47 youth movements, 153, 325, 364–65, 522 Yugoslavia, 6, 88–89, 131, 227–31 Zadri, Boris, 379 Zamboni, Guelfo, 489 Zamość, 233, 358 Zay, Jean, 112, 611 Zegota (Council to Aid Jews), 537–38 Zeitzler, Kurt, 400 Zelkowicz, Josef, 433–35, 632, 662 Zhukov, Georgy, 401 Zhytomyr, 224 Zionism, 10, 19, 48, 63–64, 88, 153, 306, 325, 351–53, 391, 457–58, 522, 532, 595–96, 597 See also Palestine Zloczow, 213–14 ZOB (Zydowska Organizacia Bojowa), 520–29 Zolli, Israel, 560 Zöpf, Willy, 179, 407 Zörner, Ernst, 37 Zuccotti, Susan, 572 Zuckerman, Yitzhak, 318, 326, 328, 391–93 Zukunft, 153, 198 Zweig, Stefan and Frederike Maria, 84 Zygielbojm, Szmuel, 456, 598–99 Zyklon B gas, 236, 458–59, 503–4 Zywulska, Krystina, 508 ZZW (Zydowski Zwiazek Wojskowski), 522, 524 About the Author Born in Prague, SAUL FRIEDLÄNDER spent his boyhood in Nazi-occupied France He is now a professor of history at UCLA and has written numerous books on Nazi Germany and World War II Visit www.AuthorTracker.com for exclusive information on your favorite HarperCollins author ACCLAIM FOR THE YEARS OF EXTERMINATION “[The Years of Extermination] establishes itself as the standard historical work on Nazi Germany’s mass murder of Europe’s Jews… An account of unparalleled vividness and power that reads like a novel… Friedländer succeeds in binding together the many different strands of his story with a sure touch He has written a masterpiece that will endure.” —New York Times Book Review (Editor’s Choice) “Saul Friedländer’s massive history of the Holocaust is a judicious, authoritative, and restrained study But it’s also a stark reminder that lunacy may have been as much a part of Nazism as cruelty.” —Newsweek “The Years of Extermination is one of the most important works of historical writing in recent years, and deserves to live in the company of works by Raul Hilberg, Lucy Dawidowicz, and Leni Yahil as one of the finest comprehensive studies of this darkest subject of all.” —New Republic “The second volume, like the first, lends the impression that ‘you are there,’ a witness with a kaleidoscopic panorama of history that juxtaposes the cries and whispers of ordinary men, women, and children against the sadistic bombast of Hitler, his henchmen, and their many helpers eager to indulge villainous appetites and vicious prejudices These stories are woven together in a tapestry that comes to life (and death) by the vivid recall of eyewitnesses to what they otherwise could not have believed.” —Washington Times “The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews 1939–1945 by Saul Friedländer is a follow-up to his earlier work…together [they] provide a remarkable comprehensive history.” —Jewish Week “The most sophisticated recent studies of the Holocaust itself…[including] the just-published The Years of Extermination, the second and concluding volume of Saul Friedländer’s summa, Nazi Germany and the Jews—inextricably fix the German war on the Eastern Front to the center of their story.” —Atlantic Monthly “It will cement his reputation as one of the most influential and perceptive historians of the Shoah writing today… Friedländer brings to life the words of the victims through their letters and diaries He uses this resource probably more extensively and effectively than any other scholar, helping him write a history with a novelist’s sense of the human aspects of the tragedy Keenly aware that the role of historical knowledge is to smooth away disbelief, to make history seem ordinary, Friedländer provides a remarkable study of the Shoah without eliminating or domesticating the enduring sense of shock or disbelief that must confront any reader.” —Jewish Book World “In this second compelling volume of Friedländer’s history of the Holocaust (see its predecessor, Nazi Germany and the Jews: Volume 1: The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939 ), the author…takes into account recent scholarship on the Holocaust, but avoids bogging down in the intentionalist/functionalist historiographic debate.” —Library Journal “Here he takes a broad view of the war against the Jews The actions of the Nazi state are closely examined, but he also places the Holocaust within the broader context of European politics and racial attitudes He eloquently illustrates the millions of individual tragedies through extensive use of Jewish diaries.” —Booklist “A masterful synthesis that draws on a lifetime of learning and research.” —Publishers Weekly (starred review) Also by Saul Friedländer NAZI GERMANY AND THE JEWS PIUS XII AND THE THIRD REICH KURT GERSTEIN PRELUDE TO DOWNFALL: HITLER AND THE UNITED STATES HISTORY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS REFLECTIONS OF NAZISM WHEN MEMORY COMES MEMORY, HISTORY, AND THE EXTERMINATION OF THE JEWS Copyright THE YEARS OF EXTERMINATION Copyright © 2007 by Saul Friedländer All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this e-book onscreen No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, down-loaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books Mobipocket Reader November 2008 ISBN 978-0-06-177705-9 10 About the Publisher Australia HarperCollins Publishers (Australia) Pty Ltd 25 Ryde Road (PO Box 321) Pymble, NSW 2073, Australia http://www.harpercollinsebooks.com.au Canada HarperCollins Publishers Ltd 55 Avenue Road, Suite 2900 Toronto, ON, M5R, 3L2, Canada http://www.harpercollinsebooks.ca New Zealand HarperCollinsPublishers (New Zealand) Limited P.O Box Auckland, New Zealand http://www.harpercollins.co.nz United Kingdom HarperCollins Publishers Ltd 77-85 Fulham Palace Road London, W6 8JB, UK http://www.harpercollinsebooks.co.uk United States HarperCollins Publishers Inc 10 East 53rd Street New York, NY 10022 http://www.harpercollinsebooks.com Table of Contents Epigraph Acknowledgments Introduction Part I: One: Two: Three: Part II: Four: Five: Six: Part III: Seven: Eight: Nine: Ten: Notes Bibliography Searchable Terms About the Author Praise Other Books by Saul Friedländer Copyright About the Publisher ... be enforced by the League of Nations International guarantees meant little to the exacerbated nationalism of the Poles, the Romanians, and the Hungarians, however: The Jews, like other minorities,... anti-Jewish frenzy at the top of the Nazi system was not hurled into a void From the fall of 1941, Hitler often designated the Jew as the “world arsonist.” In fact the flames that the Nazi leader set... the war years and, of course, since the end of the war Though it did include surveys of the policies of domination and murder, it did so only sketchily The emphasis from the outset aimed at the