Table of Contents Title Page Dedication CAST OF CHARACTERS SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES MEDITERRANEAN SQUADRON, 1801—1806, AND THEIR COMMANDERS GLOSSARY AUTHOR’S NOTE PROLOGUE I - THE “PACIFIST” PRESIDENT II - THE DREADFUL CORSAIRS III - THE NEW NATION AND BARBARY IV - “A GOOD OCCASION TO BUILD A NAVY” V - “WILL NOTHING ROUSE MY COUNTRY?” VI - WAR AND EARLY TRIUMPH VII - THE WAR THAT WASN’T VIII - FRUSTRATION IX - THE PHILADELPHIA DISASTER X - A DARING COUNTERSTROKE XI - PREBLE’S FIGHTING SQUADRON XII - A DESTRUCTIVE SCHEME XIII - PLOTTING A REGIME CHANGE XIV - AMERICA’S LAWRENCE XV - DERNA AND PEACE XVI - AFTERMATH XVII - FULL CIRCLE XVIII - EPILOGUE NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX ABOUT THE AUTHOR Copyright Page For my wife, Pat, and our daughters, Sarah and Ann CAST OF CHARACTERS Americans John Adams: Minister to England, Vice President, President William Bainbridge: Captain of Philadelphia, United States Joseph Bainbridge: Naval officer, William’s younger brother Samuel Barron: Fourth Mediterranean squadron commodore, 1804—5 James Barron: Naval officer, Samuel’s brother James Cathcart: Consul to Tripoli Jonathan Cowdery: Philadelphia ship’s surgeon, diarist Richard Dale: First Mediterranean squadron commodore, 1801-2 George Davis: Chargé d‘Affaires in Tunis, succeeding William Eaton; Consul to Tripoli after Cathcart Stephen Decatur, Jr.: Naval officer James Decatur: Naval officer, Stephen’s younger brother William Eaton: Consul to Tunis, naval agent Albert Gallatin: Jefferson administration Treasury Secretary John Jay: Confederation Foreign Secretary Thomas Jefferson: Minister to France, Vice President, President Henry Knox: Washington administration War Secretary Tobias Lear: Consul General for Barbary, Consul to Algiers, succeeding Richard O‘Brien James Madison: Virginia congressman, Jefferson administration Secretary of State Richard Valentine Morris: Second Mediterranean squadron commodore, 1802—3 Presley O‘Bannon: Marine lieutenant Richard O‘Brien: Consul General for Barbary, Consul to Algiers Edward Preble: Third Mediterranean squadron commodore, 1803-4 William Ray: Philadelphia Marine, diarist John Rodgers: Naval officer and Fifth Mediterranean Squadron commodore, 1805—6 James Simpson: Consul to Morocco Samuel Smith: Jefferson administration Navy Secretary Robert Smith: Jefferson administration Navy Secretary, succeeding his brother Samuel Barbary Hadji Ali: Algerian Dey Hassan Bey: Tripolitan general Mustifa Bey: Governor of Derna Sidi Mahomet Dghies: Tripolitan Foreign Secretary Reis Hammida: Algerian admiral Hamet Karamanli: Exiled Bashaw of Tripoli Yusuf Karamanli: Bashaw of Tripoli, Hamet’s younger brother Ahmed Pasha Khorshid: Ottoman viceroy of Egypt Soliman Ben Mahomet: Moroccan Emperor after Maulay Sulaiman Sidi Soliman Melli Melli: Tunisian ambassador to United States Sidi Muhammad ibn Abd Allah: Moroccan Emperor Bobba Mustapha: Algerian Dey Hamouda Pacha: Tunisian Bey Hassan Pasha: Algerian Dey Murad Reis (Peter Lisle): Grand Admiral of Tripoli, named after a 17th-century Algerian pirate Maulay Muhammed: Moroccan Emperor, succeeding Sidi Muhammed Hadgi Unis Ben Unis: Tunisian Bey’s Sapitapa, or commercial agent Europeans Sir Alexander Ball: British governor of Malta Citizen Beaussier: French Charge d‘Affaires in Tripoli Lord Horatio Nelson: British admiral, Mediterranean fleet Nicholas Nissen: Danish Consul in Tripoli Mathurins: Catholic friar order that redeemed Barbary captives SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES MEDITERRANEAN SQUADRON, 1801—1806, AND THEIR COMMANDERS Squadron 1, 1801—2 President, 44-gun frigate, Commodore Richard Dale Philadelphia, 36-gun frigate, Captain Samuel Barron Essex, 32-gun frigate, Captain William Bainbridge Boston, 28-gun frigate, Captain Daniel McNeill Enterprise, 12-gun schooner, Lieutenant Andrew Sterett Squadron 2, 1802—3 Chesapeake, 36-gun frigate, Commodore Richard Valentine Morris Constellation, 36-gun frigate, Captain Alexander Murray New York, 36-gun frigate, Captain James Barron, Captain Isaac Chauncey John Adams, 28-gun frigate, Captain John Rodgers Boston, 28-gun frigate, Captain Daniel McNeill Adams, 28-gun frigate, Captain Hugh Campbell Enterprise, 12-gun schooner, Lieutenant Andrew Sterett, Lieutenant Isaac Hull Squadron 3, 1803—4 Constitution, 44-gun frigate, Commodore Edward Preble Philadelphia, 36-gun frigate, Captain William Bainbridge John Adams, 28-gun frigate, Captain Isaac Chauncey Siren, 16-gun brig, Lieutenant Charles Stewart Scvurge, 16-gun brig, Lieutenant John Dent, Midshipman Ralph Izard Argus, 16-gun brig, Lieutenant Isaac Hull Vixen, 12-gun schooner, Lieutenant John Smith Nautilus, 12-gun schooner, Lieutenant Richard Somers Enterprise, 12-gun schooner, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, Jr Intrepid, 4-gun ketch, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, Jr., Lieutenant Richard Somers Squadron 4, 1804—5 first amphibious landing force reduced funded importance of in foreign policy Mediterranean force reduced seamen specifications, of ships standardization of operations strategy training See Barbary wars, as training for Naval officers unpreparedness Neale, B J Neapolitans See also Naples Nelson, Horatio New Jersey Medical Society New York Evening Post New York (U S frigate) explosion of in second squadron in third squadron Nicholas, John Nicholas, Wilson Cary Nissen, Nicholas aids prisoners retires Noah, M M Norderling, John Norfolk (U S ship) O‘Bannon, Presley at Derna later life of on march to Derna O‘Brien, Richard as consul to Algiers relationship with Cathcart Observations on the commerce of the American States (Sheffield) officers, as prisoners Olive Branch (U S ship) Omar the Terrible Ontario (sloop-of-war) Ottoman Empire Bainbridge visits battles Holy Roman Empire provinces of “our country right or wrong” Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (Kemp) Pacha, Hamouda demands tribute and Eaton send ambassador to United States threatens war “paper blocade” Parker, Peter Pasha, Ali Pasha, Hassan passports refused Paulina (Tunisian ship) Peace of Paris peace, temporary vs perpetual Peck, Paoli Pentagon, on September 11, 2001, Perry, Oliver Hazard Philadelphia (U S frigate) crew as prisoners See also prisoners cheated by vendors diet of negotiatons for release officers ransomed supplies for treatment of debate over fate of Decatur commands in first squadron French crew members mission to destroy runs aground salvaged by Tripolitans surrendered in third squadron Philadelphia, yellow fever epidemic Philip II, Phoenicians Pickering, Timothy Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth piracy advanced through new technology profits from Pius VII, pope plague Plumer, William Plutarch, Lives polacre Polly (U S merchantman) crew ransomed Porcile, Anna Maria pork-barrel project port, definition Porter, David captains Enterprise serves in War of 1812, serves on Board of Navy Comissioners Portugal, war with Algiers Potomack Company Preble, Edward arrives in Barbary bravery captures Mastico (Tripolitan ship) continues bombardment of Tripoli dies early career health kindness toward Tripolitan soldiers learns of Philadelphia surrender meets with ben Mahomet named squadron commander plans to destroy Philadelphia proposes negotiations relieved of command returns home and shipboard discipline strategy violent nature Preble Hall, U S Naval Academy Preble, Henry Preble’s boys casualties, honored in War of 1812, “Preparations for the Recapture of the Frigate Philadelphia” (silent play) President (U S frigate) discipline aboard in fifth squadron in first squadron surrendered presidential election of 1804, of 1800, prisoners See also Philadelphia, (U S frigate), crew as prisoners labor of maiming medical care ransomed supplies for sympathies of countrymen torture treatment of Tripolitan, of United States privateer, definition privateering, by U S consuls prize court prize court, definition Protector (ship) Prudent (U S ship) psy-ops Pulis, Joseph punishment, of Navy seamen Qattara Depression Q‘ran See Koran Quakers quarantine Quasi-War French ship captured Preble serves in quay, definition Quinn, Robert Quoran See Koran Radich, Lucca Ragusa Ramadan ransom of Anna Marie Porcile of Christians demands escalate of John Dent of Knights of St John and Redemptionists rejected for U S captives rations, shipboard Ray, William Horrors of Slavery: or the American Tars in Tripoli reconnaissance Redemptionists Reis, Murad argues with Yusuf ridicules Bainbridge reparations France requests Tripoli pays United States Tunis pays United States Republicans, vs Federalists and Eaton’s campaign against Lear and spending Retaliation (U S ship) Revolutionary War and Mediterranean trade Preble serves in Robeson, Betsey Roderick, Visigoth king Rodgers, John assumes command returns home sends warships to Tunis Roebuck (British ship) Roman aqueduct repaired round ships Rous, Rais Mahomet Ruyter, Michiel sailors diet discipline drowning shirking in U S Navy sails, as new technology sandstorm Santuari, Gervasso Prodasio See Leitensdorfer, Johan Eugene Schembry, Gaetano schooner, definition Scourge (U S brig) second squadron assembles in Malta burns Tripolitan ships cruises southern Europe Sedition Act September 11, 2001, Serapis (British warship) Seven Years’ War Seward, Edward sexuality, stereotype of Moslem Shannon (British warship) Shay’s Rebellion Sheffield, lord, Observations on the commerce of the American States shells, artillery, dud Sherley, Anthony Shiffield, Ichabod ships, as tribute U S built for blocades building lost at sea shoal, definition Shubrick, John Sicily Sierra Nevada mountains Simpson, James Siren (U S brig) in battle sirocco Skjoldebrand (schooner) slave marts slave trade profits of slaves See also prisoners as capital Christian European labor of living conditions of population of as seamen U S sloop, definition Smith, John Smith, Robert Smith, Samuel Smollett, Tobias, The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker Soliman, Muley Somers, Richard and attack on Tripoli and fireship monument Sophia (U S ship) sorceress, Moroccan Spain defeats the Moors and Louisiana Purchase raided by pirates relations with United States strengthens navy supports Yusuf Karamanli spanker boom Spark (U S ship) speaking trumpet special ops Spitfire (U S ship) Spokane (U S cruiser) Spragg, Edward Spruce, Keith sprung mast, definition spying squadron, definition Stafford, John “Star-Spangled Banner” (song) starboard Stars and Stripes adopted cut down in Tripoli first planted on foreign soil states’ rights See Republicans, vs Federalists stern, definition Sterrett, Andrew in first squadron letter, from Jefferson resigns in second squadron Stewart, Charles in War of 1812, Stoddert, David Straits of Gibraltar strategy struck his flag, definition Suleiman, Sultan Suliaman, Maulay super frigates in War of 1812, Sweden tributes Syracuse tack il Taiib, Sheik Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Tarik Tarleton, Banastre Tars from Tripoli (musical) taxes technological advancement of sails temporary peace Terror, The and European sailing ships pervasive nature of terrorism of Barbary states See also extortion; treaties modern U S third squadron battles Tripolitan fleet bombardment of Tripoli and mission to destroy Philadelphia in Morocco second battle with Tripoli vessels and armaments of Thirty Years’ War Thomas (U S ship) Thorn, Jonathan Tingey, Thomas “To Anacreon in Heaven” (song) Torch (U S ship) torture of Inquisition trade, Mediterranean halted under Rules of Confederation trade routes traitors Transfer (Tripolitan ship) treaties with Barbary states See also extortion; tribute cost of treaty with Algiers, ratified with England with Spain with Tripoli ratified secret clause senate investigation with Tunis Treaty of Ghent Treaty of Mortefontaine tribute See also extortion; treaties annual cost of finances navy formalized Jefferson refuses to pay loans for ships as weapons as Trinitarians Trinity Church, New York City Tripoli captures Franklin (U S sloop) cavalry civil war declares war on United States expands naval force geography negotiates tributes pays reparations prepares for battle relations with United States truce declared U S bombardment of at war with United States Tripoli Prize, or American Tars on an English Shore (play) Tripoli (Tripolitan corsair) Tripolitan prisoners, of United States Tripolitan war, cost of Tripolitano (Tripolitan polacre) Trippe, John Truxtun, Thomas refuses appointment Tunis ambassador visits U S origins of pays reparations piracy reaffirms treaty threatens war treaty with England war with United States war with Algiers Turks invade camp of Hamet Karamanli “turned Turk” 12th Amendment Two Brothers (ship) Ulovix, Luco Unis ben Unis, Hadgi United States economy See economy, United States embargo on foreign trade government, post-Revolutionary War honor affronted Naval Academy Navy See Navy, United States negotiates with Algiers policy, on Barbary states prisoners of war See Philadelphia, crew as prisoners readies for Barbary War ridiculed takes Moroccan prisoners trade with Europe See Britain, and U S trade; France, and U S trade treaties See treaties war with Algiers war with France war with Tripoli See Eaton/Karamanli expedition; Tripoli war with Tunis United States (U S super frigate), in War of 1812, University of Pennsylvania Vacher, Pere Vengeance, La (French ship) Venice, pays tributes Vergennes, count de Vermont House of Delegates Victory (ship) Violet (U S merchantman) Visigoths Vixen (U S schooner) in battle in fifth squadron Voluntaire (French frigate) Wadsworth, Henry and fireship monument War of 1812, War of Independence See Revolutionary War warfare, psychological Washington, George correspondence, dissapearance of death and Tobias Lear watch, definition Wayne, “Mad Anthony” weapons, as tribute weather, inclement Wheeler, Susan (later Susan Decatur) Whitney, Eli Whitten, John Whittier, John Greenleaf Wilson, John Winthrop (Massachusetts Navy ship) women aboard ship in ancient Moorish culture Woodside, Jane World Trade Center attacks Wormeley, Wallace W xebec Ximenes, Cardinal XYZ affair yellow fever ABOUT THE AUTHOR JOSEPH WHEELAN was a reporter and editor for The Associated Press for 24 years in Cheyenne, Wyoming; Denver; Little Rock; and Raleigh, North Caroliona While news editor in the AP’s Denver and Raleigh bureaus, Wheelan directed team, feature and investigative reporting projects and supervised daily news coverage He also reviewed dozens of books for the AP and, among other things, wrote about the Korean War and the continuing battle by its veterans to obtain government benefits for coldweather injuries Before joining the AP, he was a reporter and state editor for the Casper (Wyo.) Star-Tribune Wheelan is a graduate of the University of Wyoming and the University of Colorado-Denver He and his wife, Pat, a research scientist, have two grown daughters and live in Cary, N.C JEFFERSON’S WAR America’s First War on Terror 1801—1805 Carroll & Graf Publishers An Imprint of Avalon Publishing Group Inc 245 West 17th Street 11th Floor New York, NY 10011 Copyright © 2003 by Joseph Wheelan First Carroll & Graf edition 2003 Second printing, September 2003 First Carroll & Graf trade paperback edition 2004 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in whole or in part without written permission from the publisher, except by reviewers who may quote brief excerpts in connection with a review in a newspaper, magazine, or electronic publication; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other, without written permission from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available eISBN : 978-0-786-74020-8 ... by Edward Preble, William Eaton, Stephen Decatur, Jr., Andrew Sterett, and Presley O‘Bannon —was not so different from today’s war on terror In truth, the Barbary War was America’s first war on... Barbary War was an audacious action for a constitutional government scarcely twelve years old and only twenty years removed from its war of independence The war in North Africa marked the first... during the Revolutionary War Not until World War II would there be another Enterprise whose colorful history would rival that of Sterett’s 12-gun schooner During the Quasi -War that had ended in