Politicization of Sexual Violence From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping Carol Harrington Politicization of Sexual Violence Gender in a Global/Local World Series Editors: Jane Parpart, Pauline Gardiner Barber and Marianne H Marchand Gender in a Global/Local World critically explores the uneven and often contradictory ways in which global processes and local identities come together Much has been and is being written about globalization and responses to it but rarely from a critical, historical, gendered perspective Yet, these processes are profoundly gendered albeit in different ways in particular contexts and times The changes in social, cultural, economic and political institutions and practices alter the conditions under which women and men make and remake their lives New spaces have been created – economic, political, social – and previously silent voices are being heard North-South dichotomies are being undermined as increasing numbers of people and communities are exposed to international processes through migration, travel and communication, even as marginalization and poverty intensify for many in all parts of the world The series features monographs and collections which explore the tensions in a ‘global/local world’, and includes contributions from all disciplines in recognition that no single approach can capture these complex processes Forthcoming titles in this series Contours of Citizenship Women, Diversity and Practices of Citizenship Edited by Margaret Abraham, Esther Ngan-ling Chow, Laura Maratou-Alipranti and Evangelia Tastsoglou ISBN 978-0-7546-7779-6 Federalism, Feminism and Multilevel Governance Edited by Melissa Haussman, Marian Sawer and Jill Vickers ISBN 978-0-7546-7717-8 Previous titles are also listed at the back of the book Politicization of Sexual Violence From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping Carol Harrington Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand © Carol Harrington 2010 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher Carol Harrington has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company Wey Court East Suite 420 Union Road 101 Cherry Street Farnham Burlington Surrey, GU9 7PT VT 05401-4405 England USA www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Harrington, Carol, 1965Politicization of sexual violence : from abolitionism to peacekeeping (Gender in a global/local world) Rape victims Legal status, laws, etc. History Anti-rape movement Third-wave feminism Women-Crimes against Prevention International cooperation Women and the security sector History I Title II Series 362.8'83-dc22 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Harrington, Carol Politicization of sexual violence: from abolitionism to peacekeeping / by Carol Harrington p cm (Gender in a global/local world) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-7546-7458-0 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-4094-0193-3 (ebook) Rape Political aspects Sex crimes Political aspects Rape Prevention Sex crimes Prevention International cooperation I Title HV6558.H37 2009 362.883 dc22 ISBN 9780754674580 (hbk) ISBN.III) 2009038691 Contents List of Abbreviations Acknowledgements Series Editors’ Preface Introduction vii ix xi Documenting Sexual Violence as a Problem of Individual Freedom 11 2 Unspeakable Outrages and Expertise on Women’s Problems 31 3 Atrocity Propaganda, International Organizations and the Science of Peace 51 Silence on Sexual Violence? World War II and the United Nations Women’s Bureaucracy 73 Pathologizing Unfreedom: Western Cold War Models of Human Rights and Public Mental Health 97 6 The Medicalization of Peacekeeping and Government of Sexual and Gender-based Violence 121 Gender Experts and Gender Police: Policing the Peacekeepers and Empowering Women? 145 Knowledge and Techniques for Governing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) 169 Conclusion 195 Bibliography Index 199 227 Dedicated to Frances Ryman for insisting that I go to university List of Abbreviations CATW Coalition Against Trafficking in Women CID Criminal Investigation Division (US Army) CSCE Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DoD Department of Defense (US) ECOSOC Economic and Social Council of the United Nations IAW International Alliance of Women (formerly IWSA) ICW International Council of Women ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ICWPP International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace IOM International Organization for Migration ISTSS International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies IWSA International Women’s Suffrage Alliance MSF Médecins Sans Frontières NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NGO Non Governmental Organization (including international NGOs) NOW National Organization of Women OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services OHCHR Office of the High Commission for Human Rights OSCE Organization for Social and Economic Cooperation in Europe PKO Peacekeeping Operation PSO Peace Support Operation PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder SEA Sexual Exploitation and Abuse SGBV Sexual and Gender-Based Violence SORO Special Operations Research Office UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia Herzegovina UNMIK United Nations Mission in Kosovo USAID United States Agency for International Development viii VoT WIDF WHO Politicization of Sexual Violence Victim of Trafficking Women’s International Democratic Federation World Health Organization Acknowledgements I began research for this book, although I did not know it at the time, while working on a paper entitled “Feminism and Reflexivity” for the 2002 Critical Sociology Conference in Tbilisi, Georgia Thanks to Ayman Salem for his energy and initiative in organizing this conference and inviting me to give the keynote address I developed most of this text at the Central European University and would like to thank my colleagues in the Political Science Department for their encouragement and support I am especially grateful for the academic leadership of the program heads during my time at CEU, János Kis, Nenad Dimitrijević, Gábor Tóka and Dorothee Bohle My CEU reading group colleagues, Erin Jenne, Nitsan Chorev, Sonja Amadae, Elissa Helms and Karl Hall provided astute and patient feedback on my early efforts and draft book proposals Thanks also to Michael Merlingen for discussing the project with me and alerting me to Vanessa Pupavac’s work I am grateful to the organizers of the History of Human Rights Workshop hosted by the Center for the Study of History and Memory and the Department of History, Indiana University, Bloomington, in March 2006 This workshop alerted me to the important work of Kenneth Cmiel, as well as for the opportunity to have focused discussion with scholars from a range of disciplines who shared my academic interest in the history of human rights Thanks to all the participants, I am particularly grateful to Rosemary Foot for recommending Stephanie Kuttner’s unpublished thesis after discussing my research with me I completed this text while teaching at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, where Deborah Jones, Jo Smith and Teresia Teaiwa kindly invited me to join their writing group and offered astute advice on polishing the final draft Finally thanks most of all to my dear partner and colleague, Alexander Maxwell, who read and provided detailed criticism of innumerable drafts Alexander’s knowledge of history and languages has left its mark on every chapter of this book 224 Politicization of Sexual Violence UNTV United Nations Television 2009 Women in Peacekeeping the Power to Empower Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vAuFQj9xBYc [accessed September 2009] Vandenberg, M 2005 Peacekeeping alphabet soup, and violence against women in the Balkans, in Gender, Conflict, and Peacekeeping edited by D Mazurana, A Raven-Roberts and J Parpart Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 150–167 — 2007 Peacekeeping and rule breaking: United Nations anti-Trafficking policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in Human Trafficking, Human Security, and the Balkans edited by H.R Friman and S Reich Pittsburgh PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 81–95 van Drenth, A and de Haan F 1999 The Rise of Caring Power: Elizabeth Fry and Josephine Butler in Britain and the Netherlands Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press Vigarello, G 2001 A History of Rape: Sexual Violence in France from the 16th to the 20th Century, translated by J Birrell Cambridge: Polity Press Voeltz, R.A 1992 The antidote to khaki fever? The expansion of the British Girl Guides during the First World War Journal of Contemporary History 27(4) October 1992, 627–638 VTVPA 2000 Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Public Law 106–386–Oct 28, 2000 Available at: http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/10492.pdf [accessed September 2009] Waldrep, C 2000 War of words: The controversy over the definition of lynching, 1899–1940 The Journal of Southern History 66(1), 75–100 Walkowitz, J.R 1980 Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class and the State Cambridge: Cambridge University Press — 1994 City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late Victorian London London: Virago Press Wallerstein, J.S and Lewis, J.M 2004 The unexpected legacy of divorce: Report of a twenty-five year study Psychoanalytic Psychology 21(3), 353–370 Warburton 1993 EC Investigative Mission into the Treatment of Muslim Women in the Former Yugoslavia: Report to EC Foreign Ministers Released by Udenrigsministeriat Ministry of Foreign Affairs Copenhagen Available at: http://www.womenaid.org/press/info/humanrights/warburtonfull.htm#Mandat e%20of%20the%20Mission [accessed September 2009] Ward, J and Marsh, M 2006 Sexual Violence Against Women and Girls in War and Its Aftermath: Realities, Responses, and Required Resources A Briefing Paper Prepared for Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Beyond June 21–23 Brussels: UNFPA [United Nations Population Fund] Warshaw, R 1988 I Never Called it Rape New York: Harper and Row Wayne, L 2002 America’s for profit secret army, New York Times, Sunday, October 13 Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/13/business/yourmoney/ 13MILI.html?pagewanted=5 [accessed September 2009] Weigand, K 2001 Red Feminism: American Communism and the Making of Women’s Liberation Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press Bibliography 225 Whitney, J 1954 Women: Russia’s second class citizens Look November 30, 114 Whittick, A 1979 Woman into Citizen London: Athenaeum with Frederick Muller Ltd Willetts, P 1996 Consultative status for NGOs at the United Nations, in “The Conscience of the World,” The Influence of Non-Governmental Organisations in the UN System edited by P Willetts London: Hurst and Company, 31–62 Williams, M.B and Sommer, J.F 2002 Simple and Complex Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Strategies for Comprehensive Treatment in Clinical Practice New York: Haworth Press Willoughby, J 1998 The sexual behavior of American GIs during the early years of the occupation of Germany The Journal of Military History 62(January), 155–174 WILPF 1934 Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, resolutions of the eighth congress, Zurich September 3–8, 1934 Available at: http://www wilpf.int.ch/resolutions/1934.htm [accessed September 2009] — 1946 International Headquarters Geneva, Switzerland International Circular Letter No To WILPF National Sections, International Members and Subscribers to PAX “From France.” Available at: http://www.wilpf.int.ch/history/hindex htm [accessed September 2009) —— 2009 Peacekeeping Watch Available at: http://www.peacewomen.org/un/ pkwatch/aboutpkwatch.html [accessed September 2009] Women’s Hall of Fame 1996 Women of the Hall, Charlotte Ann Bunch Available at: http://www.greatwomen.org/women.php?action=viewone&id=30 [accessed September 2009] Women in the Law Project of the International Human Rights Law Group 1994 No justice, no peace: Accountability for rape and gender-based violence in the former Yugoslavia Hastings Women’s Law Journal 5(1), 89–128 Woodeson, A 1993 The first women police: a force for equality or infringement? Women’s History Review 2(2), 217–232 Yellen, J.F 1981 “Written By Herself:” Harriet Jacob’s slave narrative American Literature 53(3), 479–486 — 2004 Harriet Jacobs: A Life Cambridge, Mass: Basic Civitas Books Yoshimi, Y 2000 Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II, translated by S O’Brien New York: Columbia University Press Young, A 1995 The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder New Jersey: Princeton University Press Zine, J 2006 Between orientalism and fundamentalism: Muslim women and feminist engagement, in (En)gendering the War on Terror: War Stories and Camouflaged Politics edited by K Hunt and K Rygiel Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 27–50 Zoglin, K 1986 United Nations action against slavery: A critical evaluation Human Rights Quarterly 8(2), 306–339 This page has been left blank intentionally Index acute stress disorder 114 Addams, Jane 55 Afghanistan 104, 136 Africa 19, 23, 81, 67, 73, 81, 92, 100, 157, 174, 183 African American 6, 11, 13, 17, 24, 67, 129, 159 see also black Agger, Inger 125, 128, 130 Albright, Madeleine 137, 148 Algeria 142 AIDs 95 Allen, Charlotte Vale 107 Allen, Mary 62, 63 America, Central 100, 101 America, United States see United States Americas Watch 101 American Statistical Association 101, 102 Amnesty International 8, 100, 102, 103, 106, 123, 146, 154, 155, 158 Danish Medical Group 103 Andrew, Elizabeth 44 Angola 135 Annan, Kofi 163, 164 Anthony, Susan B 41 Arcel, Libby 128 Argentina Statistical Office 101 Arizona Market 154 Armenia 53 Armstrong, Louise 107, 118–19 Ashby, Margery Corbett 63 Asian Women’s Human Rights Council 130 Association of South East Asian Nations 92 Australia 82, 108, 109, 117, 124, 136 Austria 48, 80, 87 see also Vienna Bangladesh 93, 136, 159 Barry, Kathleen 94–95, 148 Bassiouni, Cherif 127 BBC 152, 157, 161, 165 Beijing, World Conference on women in 130, 148 Belgium 48, 52, 53, 57, 59, 88, 136 Benedict, Ruth 82 Bengali women 93 Benito, Elizabeth Odio Judge 130, 132 Berlin 55 Berlin Wall Berlin, Woman in see “Woman in Berlin” Bernstein, Robert 101 Beulig, Max Oswald 77 Biderman, Alfred 98–99, 103, 105 Bijeljina 153 Binz Dorothea 77 Bushnell, Katherine 44 black (race) 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 48, 59, 61, 67, 74, 80, 81, 91, 157 see also African American black market 135, 168, 172 black widow, Chechnya 166 Blair, Tony 136, 137 Borneo 82 Bosnia Herzegovina 128, 135, 136, 137, 142, 166 and trafficking in women 10, 145, 150–162, 169, 171, 176, 178, 185–190, 193 Boyle, Nina 56, 59, 62, 66 brainwashing 8, 97, 98, 99, 111, 112 Brando, Marlon 111 Brent, Linda 15 see also Jacobs, Harriet Breuer, Joseph 38 Britain see United Kingdom British Girl Guides see Girl Guides British National Council of Women 70 British Union of Fascists 63 British Women’s Freedom League 42 Broh, Mary 166–167 Brooklyn Psychological Association 122 Brown, John 28 Brownmiller, Susan 1, 93, 105, 107, 112 228 Politicization of Sexual Violence Brumfield, Major William 81 Brussels 33, 48 Bryce report 53, 56 Buchenwald concentration camp 75, 77, 88 Budapest 177–178 Bunch, Charlotte 122, 123 Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands 19–21 Burma 82, 123 Bush, President George W 2, 118, 137, 149 Bushnell, Katherine 44 Butler, Josephine 32, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 49, 195, 196 Cairo 82 Cambodia 135 Campus Crusade for Christ 149 Canada 15, 88, 107, 108, 109, 117, 136, 183 Canning, George 23 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 122 Carter, President Jimmy 101 Catt, Carrie Chapman 55 censorship 81, 100, 183 Center for Strategic and International Studies 176 Center for Women’s Global Leadership 122–123, 130, 149 Central America 100, 101 Central Intelligence Agency 91, 98, 99, 111, 112 Charcot, Jean-Martin 38 Chicago New Voice 45 Chicago Women’s Club 43 Child, L Maria 15, 16 Childs, Major General B.E.W 59 Chile 100, 103, 125, 130 China 78, 98 Chong-ok, Yoon 79 CIA see Central Intelligence Agency (US) citizen 17, 110 citizen’s organizations 57 citizenship 6, 18, 56, 68, 90, 193 Clinton, President Bill 136, 137 Clinton, Hilary 148, 149 crime victimization surveys 108, 109 Coalition against Trafficking in Women (CATW) 149 collaboration, women World War II 87 Commission on International Labor Legislation 64 Commission on the League of Nations 64 Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe 160 Commission on Training Camp Activities (US) 57, 62–64 Committee of Correspondence 91 Committee of Experts on the Legal Status of Women 70, 71, 90 Committee on Scientific Freedom 101 Common Cause 61 communist 8, 70, 91–92, 97, 100, 101, 104, 141 see also socialist anti-communist 86, 91, 97, 98–99, 101, 103–5 post-communist 115 community mental health 111 Congo, Democratic Republic of 135, 139, 151, 156, 174 consciousness-raising 106 Contagious Diseases Acts 36, 43–45, 59 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1949) 93, 94 see also international convention Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women 95 Coote, William 47–48 Côte d’Ivoire 155, 157 Council for the Representation of Women in the League of Nations 69 Crafts, Wilbur 46 Croatia 126, 128, 129, 134, 135, 154 Cross, Tim 147–148 Czechoslovakia 88 Czech Republic 182 Czech underground (World War II) 76 Dachau 77, 99 Damascus 82 Dani 151 Danieli, Yael 129 Index Dawson, Margaret Damer 62 Defence of the Realm Act 58, 60 Denmark 48, 125, 165 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 112–14 documentation of atrocity and outrages in general 11, 12, 14, 19–21, 28, 53, 68, 78 by human rights organizations 8, 100–102, 120, 121, 124, 135, 143, 163 of rape and violence against women 1, 6, 7, 9, 11, 42, 47, 48, 49, 52–54, 71, 76, 78, 82, 85, 86, 93, 94, 103, 104, 109, 121–128, 137, 145, 150, 151, 154, 156, 161, 195 of trauma 113, 130 Dolly Boys 76 Douglass, Frederick 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 27, 28 DynCorp 152, 153, 156, 157, 162, 182 East Timor see Timor Leste Eckstein, Harry 99 Eichman, Adolf 87 Eisenhower Administration 98 Elmy, Ben 40 Elmy, Elizabeth Wolstenholme 40 Engels, Friedrich 92 Englishwomen 56 Equal Rights International 65 Eritrea 81 Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission 149 European Union 126, 128, 136, 148, 149, 156, 174 Federal Bureau of Investigation (US) 66, 111 Ford Foundation 99, 101, 174 Ford, President Gerald 101 Fox News 150, 157 France 11, 32, 33, 35, 48, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 67, 70, 71, 74, 80, 83, 81, 82, 87, 88, 91, 94, 124, 136 see also Paris Frankel, Nat 80–81 fraternization 84, 85, 87–88, 167, 181 229 Freidan, Betty 112 French resistance 91 Freud, Sigmund 38 Freudian 106–107, 114 Gardner, Augustus 40 Garner, Margaret 24 Garrison, William Lloyd 15, 16, 17, 18, 27 gay see homosexual Georgia (US) 28 Georgia, Republic of 140 Gender, policing of 9, 143, 145, 146, 167 Geneva 64, 96 Genocide 1, 86, 137, 166 see also Holocaust Germany 48, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 67, 80, 87, 88, 89, 136 see also Berlin Ginsberg, Allen 111 Girl Guides (British) 57 Global Alliance against Trafficking in Women (GAATW) 149 Global Tribunal on Accountability for Women’s Human Rights 130 Global Tribunal on Violations of Women’s Human Rights 123 Greece 171, 103 Greek philosophy 23 Grey, Alfred E 82–83 Griffin, Susan 105 Governmentality 4, 5, 10, 196 Guam 89 Guinea 152 Gutman, Roy 137 Hague, the 55 Hague Conventions 52, 54, 58 hair clippings (World War II) 87 Haiti 100, 135, 155, 157 Hak-Soon, Kim 79 Hale, Sir Matthew 16 Halley, Janet 131 Hawaii 45 Helsinki Watch 101 Heritage Foundation 149 Herman, Judith 114, 134 Hesselgren, Kerstin 70 Heydrich, Reinhard 74 Himmler, Heinrich 74, 75 230 Politicization of Sexual Violence Hirohito, Emperor 131 Hiroshima 112 Hirtz, John David 153 Hitler, Adolf 63, 78, 89 Hoggart, Richard 121 Holland see Netherlands Hollis, Brenda 131, 132 Holocaust 73–78, 87, 128 homosexual 75, 76, 110, 111, 112 Horowitz, Mardi 112 Hughes, Donna 160, 163 human rights 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 70, 86–88, 90, 93–94, 96–98, 100–103, 109, 120–128, 130–135, 137–138, 142–143, 145–146, 148–149, 151–153, 156–161, 163–165, 177, 186, 193, 195, 196 Human Rights Watch 8, 101, 123, 137, 153, 154, 156, 158, 160, 185, 186, 188 see also Americas Watch and Helsinki Watch Hume-Rothery, Mary 40 Hungary 33, 86, 178 Hunter, Edward 98 Hussein, Saddam 137 India 44, 60, 81, 100, 149 Queen’s Daughters in India 44 Indonesia 82, 89, 93 International Abolitionist Federation 32, 94 International Agreement for the Suppression of White Slavery 48 International Alliance of Women 64, 65, 66, 70, 83, 94 see also International Women’s Suffrage Alliance International Bureau for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children 48 International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone 78 International Committee for the Welfare of Women and Girls Taken for Forced Labor in Europe 88 International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace 51, 55 International Conference on White Slave Traffic 66 International Convention on Traffic in Women and Children (1921) 66 see also Convention International Convention on Transnational Organized Crime 148–49 International Council of Nurses 65 International Council of Women 33, 34, 51, 55, 63, 64, 65, 70 International Council of Women of the Darker Races 65 International Criminal Court 131, 164 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 131 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 129, 130, 131–33 International Federation of University Women 65 International Guild of Service for Women 47 International Human Rights Law Group 123 International Labor Organization 64, 65, 70, 71, 96 International Monetary Fund 136 International Organization for Migration 154, 176, 186, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193 International People’s Tribunal on Atrocities in Vietnam 130 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies 124 International Women’s Liaison Commission 90 International Women’s Suffrage Alliance 33, 55, 63, 64 see also International Alliance of Women Institute on Religion and Democracy 149 Iran 100 Ivory Coast see Côte d’Ivoire Jacobs, Harriet 15, 17, 18, 25, 26, 27 Janet, Pierre 38 Japan 7, 45, 67, 73, 74, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 91, 128, 131, 157 and comfort women 7, 74, 78–80 Jensen, Søren 125, 128, 130 Jews 47, 48, 73, 74, 86, 99 Index Jewish Association for the Protection of Girls and Women 47, 48 Jex-Blake, Sophia 40 Johnson, William B 45 Johnston, Ben 152–153, 56, 57 Joint Standing Committee of Women’s International Organizations 65, 69 Jus Suffragii 66 Kako, Senda 79 Kaldor, Mary 135 Karup, Druško Dženana 151 Ka-tzetnik 135633 86 Kenyan, Dorothy 70 Ker, Alice 40 Kerner Commission (US) 111 khaki fever 57, 61 Kooijmans, Peter 123 Korea, North 100 Korea, South 79, 82, 93, 98, 100, 145, 150, 157, 160, 177, 181, 182, 183, 184 Korean Special Tourism Industry Association 150 Kosovo 10, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 145, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 158, 161, 162, 169, 170, 176, 183, 184,185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191–193 Kuwait 124 Lait, Jack 104 Lamb, David 156, 160 Laska, Vera 76 Lasswell, Harold 68 League of Nations 1, 7, 51–52, 64–66, 68–71, 90 Women’s Liaison Committee see Liaison Committee Leidholdt, Dorchen 149 Lemaire, Jean-Marie 142 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 92 lesbian see homosexual Liaison Committee of Women’s International Organizations 65, 70, 90 Liberia 138, 146, 152, 155, 157, 165, 174 Lifton, Robert 112 Limanowska, Barbara 154, 186 231 Lippmann, Walter 67–68 Lipset, Seymour Martin 99 Lloyd, Ann 107 Lloyd-Roberts, Sue 152 London 28, 47, 78 World Anti-Slavery Congress in 33 Lowndes, Mary 56 Luisi, Paulina 66 Lvov 74, 77 MacArthur, General Douglas 46, 84, 157, 196 McDonald, Gabrielle Kirk 129, 131 Macedonia 135, 156, 178 Mackay, Angela 140 McKinney, Cynthia 159–60 Mackinnon, Catherine 148 Malcolm X 112 Manchester Guardian 78 Manila 45–46 Marx 92 Mauthausen concentration camp 75 Médecins Sans Frontières 102, 147 Mendelson, Sarah 156, 161–162, 176–179, 182–183 Mexico 94 migration 1, 2, 47, 48, 49, 64, 66, 93, 145, 148, 149, 150, 151, 154, 169, 182, 185, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192 Mill, John Stuart 41 Moldova 152, 154, 178 Molotov note 76, 77 Moro 45 Morris, Madeline 179 Mortimer, Lee 104 Mott, Lucretia 33 Mladjenovic, Lepa 131 Nagasaki 113 Namibia 138 Nanjing, Rape of 78 Nanking, Rape of see Nanjing narrative 4, 9, 86, 103, 137, 138, 166 peacekeeping intervention 141, 143, 167 sexual violence 107, 115–117 slave 11, 12–18, 20, 25, 26, 27, 28 trauma and recovery 133, 196 232 Politicization of Sexual Violence victims of trafficking 185, 189 West German 85–86 white slavery 47, 48 National Organization of Women (US) 149 National Union of Women Workers (UK) 61–62 NATO 4, 135, 136, 137, 157, 163, 168, 176, 177, 183, 195 Nazis 7, 67, 73–78, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 113, 118 Netherlands, the 48, 87 New Caledonia 83 New York 44, 57, 105, 122, 127, 137, 149 New York Express, the 28 New York Radical Feminists 105, 106, 117 New York Times, the 78, 128, 129, 157 Nichols, Major W.A 45 Niederland, William 113 Nixon, President Richard 101 Nobel Peace Prize 100 Non-governmental Organization Coalition on Women’s Human Rights 131 Non-governmental Organization Working Group on Women Peace and Security 138 Nordic 136 Noriega, Carlos 101 Norway 48 Nuremburg War Crimes Tribunal 76 Omarska Camp 132 O’Meara, Patricia 157 Open Door International 65 Open Society Institute 174 Oprah Winfrey Show 183 Organization of African Unity 92 Ottoman Turks 129 Oxfam 147 Pakistan 93, 136, 159 Palestine 82, 165 Pankhurst, Christabel 56–57 Paraguay 100 Parent-Duchâtelet, A.J.B 35 Paris 33, 35, 83 peace conference 64, 67 Parker, Sir Gilbert 52 Parsons, Talcott 99 Patton, General George 80 peacekeeping 4, 5, 9, 10, 121, 134–136, 138–141, 145–148, 150, 168, 196 female peacekeepers 164–167, 173–174 research about and gender training of peacekeepers 170–184 and sexual violence, exploitation and abuse 151–164, 166, 169, 185, 186, 187, 195 Philippines 45, 60, 93, 100 see also Manila Pimlott, Annie E 58 Poland 53, 74, 88 police 6, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 60, 61, 74, 75, 108, 109, 117, 130, 135, 139, 140, 145, 151, 174, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189 matrons 44 and peacekeeping 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 180, 186 policewomen 44, 51, 57, 61, 62, 63, 139, 146, 164, 165, 166 women volunteers 62 Post, Amy 16, 26 post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 3, 4, 9, 10, 97, 105, 110, 195 and international organizations 124, 128 and model of recovery and freedom 114, 115, 116, 119, 132, 134, 185, 196 and prostitution 184, 185, 191, 192, 196 and psychosocial intervention 134, 138, 141, 142 and sexual violence and domestic violence 115, 116 and Testimony method 131, 132 and The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 112, 113, 114 and torture 118 in Report of UN Commission of Experts Investigation of Yugoslavia, 125, 126 Index President’s Interagency Council on Women 148 Prince, Mary 12–13, 14–15, 16, 25 propaganda 1, 2, 7, 51–54, 56, 58, 61, 67, 68, 71, 87, 89, 91, 98 prostitution 2, 6, 7, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 51, 54, 55, 60, 61, 66, 69, 70, 73, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 115, 123, 149, 150, 171, 176, 195 see also trafficking in women; white slavery; sexual exploitation and abuse and anti-trafficking programs for “at risk” girls and women 185–193 and anti-trafficking training for peacekeepers 181–184 and comfort women 78–80 and Nazi brothels 74–78 and nineteenth and early twentieth century social reformers 43–49 and peacekeeping 145, 151–163 and World War II Allies 80–86 psychological warfare 82, 104, 130 Ramić, Suada 132 rape crisis centers 107, 117, 118 Rather, Dan 93 Ravensbrück concentration camp 77 Reagan administration (US) 108 Recreation and Amusement Association 82, 84, 85, 89, 91, 104, 128 Red Army 73, 84 Red Cross and Red Crescent 33, 102, 147 Rees, Madeleine 158, 161, 186 Rehn, Elisabeth 138 Reilly, Niamh 123 Remond, Sarah Parker 24 Report of the Committee on Alleged German Outrages see Bryce Report Rhineland 67 Ricchiardi, Sherry 156–157 Rockefeller Foundation 66, 174 Romania 152, 154 Roosevelt, Eleanor 89 Roosevelt, President Theodore 46 Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana 160 Rush, Florence 105, 106, 118 Russell, Dianne 105–106, 107, 108, 115 233 Russia 48, 104, 150, 152, 154 Ruzkenski, A.A 74 Rwanda 1, 128, 131, 139, 166 San Francisco 98 San Francisco Bar Association 126 Saphira, Miriam 107, 108 Sarajevo 186, 188 American Embassy 157, 158, 159 Save the Children UK 152, 155 Saward, Jill 108 Schwable, Colonel Frank 98 Schwimmer, Rosika 33 Scottboro, Alabama 91 Security Council Resolution 1325 138 Seldes, George 68 Serbia 53, 127, 129, 137, 151, 154, 156, 187 sex tourists 79, 93, 170, 175, 176, 177, 184 sex work 2, 95, 148–150, 184–185, 189–191 see also prostitution, trafficking in women sexual and gender-based violence 3, 5, 9, 10, 140, 142, 157, 167, 168, 170, 195 sexual exploitation and abuse 5, 9–10, 145–146, 164, 167–170, 179–182, 193, 195, 196, 197 Shanghai 78 Sheepshanks, Mary 55 Shuhsi, Hsü 78 Sierra Leone 151, 152, 174, 175 Singapore 82 Sirleaf, Ellen Johnson 138–139, 146, 151–152, 165–166 Smolensk 77 socialist 2, 65, 73, 86, 91 Yugoslavia 124 Somalia 135 South African Native Labour Contingent 61 Soviet Union 2, 3, 7, 9, 86, 97, 101, 104, 122, 124, 128, 136, 145, 148, 195 speak-out 106, 107, 130 Spitzer, Robert 112 Srpska, Republika 153 Stalin Joseph 89, 92 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady 33, 41 234 Politicization of Sexual Violence Stars and Stripes 183, 184 statistics 6, 32 and human rights 109 see also documentation and international women’s organizations 34–36 and propaganda 53, 54 and rape 104, 108, 109, 119 and trafficking 48, 178 Status of Women Commission (UN) 70, 90, 92, 94 Stephen, Judge Ninian 132 Stiglmayer, Alexandra 137 Stone, Lucy 41 Stowe, Harriet Beecher 12, 18, 28, 69, 92 Sudan 155 suffrage 43, 55, 57, 62–64 see also International Women’s Suffrage Alliance National American Woman Suffrage Alliance 34 press 7, 34, 42, 52, 56, 61 US National Women’s Suffrage Association 33, 46 Suffragette 57 Suffragette, The 56 Summerfield Derek 3–4, 134, 142 Swanwick, Helena 55–56 Sweden 48, 170–172 Switzerland 48, 83, 136 Syria 82 Tadić Dŭsko 129, 131, 132 Taft, William Howard 46 Taiwanese 82 Terrell, Mary Church 67 Testimony 13, 16, 17, 25, 53, 54, 77, 79, 87, 90, 98, 100, 125, 131, 133, 158, 161, 163 Testimony Method 130, 132 Thailand 82 Thomas, Dorothy 123 Times, The 14, 18–19, 24, 28, 62 Times Literary Supplement 54 Time 84, 150 Timor Leste 93, 135, 136, 139, 151 Timperley, Harold John 78 Tokyo, Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal 131 torture 8, 57, 98, 99, 100, 105, 118, 125, 130, 134, 137, 141–142, 178 activism against 9, 13, 24, 67, 97, 100–101, 103, 105–106, 109, 115, 120, 122, 123–124, 132, 141 trafficking in women 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 33, 47, 48, 50, 51, 64, 65, 66, 70, 71, 93, 94, 95, 123, 141, 145, 195, 196 see also prostitution; white slavery; sexual exploitation and abuse and anti-trafficking training 182–184 and peacekeeping 151–163, 166, 169, 170, 176, 177, 185, 186, 187 and self-identification as a victim 189–193 and International Convention on Transnational Organized Crime/ US Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act 148–150 Victim of Trafficking (VoT) 5, 10, 158, 169, 184–193, 195, 196 Tripoli 82 Tubman, Harriet 17 Twain, Mark 46 Ukraine 152, 154, 182 Union Mondiale de la Femme pour la Concorde Internationale 65 Union of International Associations 64 United Kingdom 7, 11, 15, 23, 24, 35, 38, 43, 44, 48, 53, 57, 54, 59, 61, 62, 63, 80, 88, 89, 109, 117, 136, 147 United Nations 3, 8, 70, 136, 152, 157 and anti-trafficking activity 2, 94, 149, 154, 185, 186 Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 128 Commission of Experts on War-Crimes in Yugoslavia 124–127, 133 Commission on Human Rights 70, 94, 98, 123 Declaration on Human Rights (1948) 8, 98 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) 123 Index Economic, Social and Cultural Organization 94, 121 founding of 1, 86, 89, 98 and gender training 134, 164, 179–181 High Commission for Refugees 128 and human rights 8, 86, 93, 97, 98, 122 Office of Internal Oversight Services 152, 155 peacekeeping and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations 135–141, 145–146, 150–161, 163–169, 174, 176, 180–181, 183, 196–197 Population Fund 139 and psychosocial programs 121, 122, 124, 128, 129 University 135 War Crimes Commission (World War II) 77 and women 8, 9, 51, 64, 70, 71, 73, 86, 89, 90, 93–96, 97, 121–124, 148–149 United States 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 32, 94, 107, 114, 118, 124, 125, 129, 136, 137, 165, 174, 179, 181, 184, 197 abolition of slavery 11–16, 19–21, 24, 25, 28, 33 and anti-trafficking activity 48, 66, 149–150, 176 see also Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act Armed Forces organization of prostitution 45–46, 51, 59–60, 81–84, 157–163, 176–179, 182–183 Congress 100, 150, 159 Department of Defense 99, 161, 162, 176, 177, 183 Special Operations Research Office 99 House of Representatives 25 Hearings, Committee on Foreign Affairs 159 and human rights 97–105 and military contractors 145–146, 152–154 National Center for the Prevention and Control of Rape 108 235 National Institute of Mental Health 108, 111 and peacekeeping 147 and psychosocial policy 110–111, 141 Senate Foreign Relations Committee 162 State Department 8, 89, 91, 100, 183 Human Rights Bureau 101, 102, 103 Office to Combat and Monitor trafficking 149, 176 USAID 136, 186 and women’s activism and organizations 33, 41, 42, 43, 44, 55, 66–67, 70, 73, 90–93, 108–109, 117, 168, 195 and World War I 52, 53, 57–63, 67 and World War II 77, 80–84, 87–89 Uruguay 66, 100 Vandenberg, Martina 153, 156, 158, 160, 161, 164 Venereal Disease 7, 31, 32, 36, 40, 45, 51, 60, 61, 63, 66, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 196 Verba, Sidney 99 Vienna 38, 84, 96, 122, 130 Program of Action 123 Tribunal on Women’s Human Rights 123, 130 Vietnam International People’s Tribunal on Atrocities in 130 protest against 1, 93, 124, 130 rape and trafficking in women during 93, 94 rape propaganda 104 veterans 112–113, 124, 125, 128 Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (VTVPA) 149 Virginia 20 Vote, The 42, 56, 59 Warburton Report 126–127 Warner, Kevin 153 Washington DC 33, 100, 123, 156, 157, 158, 161, 176 war crime 52, 53, 77, 78, 87–89, 121, 125–126, 131, 132, 133, 135, 159 236 Politicization of Sexual Violence Nuremburg Tribunal 76 UN Commission 77 West, Togo 179 white slavery 31, 47, 48, 49, 62, 66, 185, 195 see also trafficking in women; prostitution; sexual exploitation and abuse Wilkinson, J.J Garth 39, 44 William II 56 Wilson, Henry 49, 195 Wilson, President Woodrow 67 Windhoek Declaration 138 Witt, Hans Christian 77 “Woman in Berlin” 84, 87, 88, 196 Women against Pornography 148 women and development 8, 92, 93, 96 Women’s Christian Temperance Union 46, 65 Women in Black against War 134 Women’s Infoteka 134 Women’s International Democratic Federation 91 Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom 51, 55, 65, 67, 68, 83, 89, 94, 155 Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery 131 women’s peace congress at the Hague, (1915) 55 women’s refuge 107 women, policing of 7, 10, 51, 57, 60, 61, 62 women, police see policewomen women police volunteers 62 women patrols 61–62 World Bank 136 World Federation for Mental Health 124 World Health Organization 95, 128 Wroughton, Brigadier General K 59 Yayori 79 Yohei, Kono 79 Yoshimi, Yoshiaki 79 Young Women’s Christian Association 65 Yugoslavia 1, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 134, 159, 185 Yun Chung-ok 79 Zagreb 134 Zeid, Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein 163, 164 Zeid Report 164, 167, 181 zero tolerance 145, 163, 164, 167, 180, 181, 184, 197 Zetkin, Clara 92 Zurich 33 Gender in a Global/Local World Also published in this series Development in an Insecure and Gendered World The Relevance of the Millennium Goals Edited by Jacqueline Leckie ISBN 978-0-7546-7691-1 Empowering Migrant Women Why Agency and Rights are not Enough Leah Briones ISBN 978-0-7546-7532-7 Gendered Struggles against Globalisation in Mexico Teresa Healy ISBN 978-0-7546-3701-1 Encountering the Transnational Women, Islam and the Politics of Interpretation Meena Sharify-Funk ISBN 978-0-7546-7123-7 The Gender Question in Globalization Changing Perspectives and Practices Edited by Tine Davids and Francien van Driel ISBN 978-0-7546-3923-7 (hbk) / ISBN 978-0-7546-7322-4 (pbk) (En)Gendering the War on Terror War Stories and Camouflaged Politics Edited by Krista Hunt and Kim Rygiel ISBN 978-0-7546-4481-1 (hbk) / ISBN 978-0-7546-7323-1 (pbk) The Price of Gender Equality Member States and Governance in the European Union Anna van der Vleuten ISBN 978-0-7546-4636-5 Women, Migration and Citizenship Making Local, National and Transnational Connections Edited by Evangelia Tastsoglou and Alexandra Dobrowolsky ISBN 978-0-7546-4379-1 Transnational Ruptures Gender and Forced Migration Catherine Nolin ISBN 978-0-7546-3805-6 ‘Innocent Women and Children’ Gender, Norms and the Protection of Civilians R Charli Carpenter ISBN 978-0-7546-4745-4 Turkey’s Engagement with Global Women’s Human Rights Nüket Kardam ISBN 978-0-7546-4168-1 (Un)thinking Citizenship Feminist Debates in Contemporary South Africa Edited by Amanda Gouws ISBN 978-0-7546-3878-0 Vulnerable Bodies Gender, the UN and the Global Refugee Crisis Erin K Baines ISBN 978-0-7546-3734-9 Setting the Agenda for Global Peace Conflict and Consensus Building Anna C Snyder ISBN 978-0-7546-1933-8 ... condemnation of sexual violence Carol Harrington’s Politicization of Sexual Violence: From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping, the 15th volume in the series, offers a provocative interpretation of this... atrocities of the Vietnam War The rapes of World War II and the issue of sexual violence were ignored by the architects of international human rights standards Yet in the Post-Cold War world, sexual violence. .. the form of PTSD PTSD theory became established wisdom and provided scientific authority for the growth of public policy on sexual violence as an aspect of public mental health Yet sexual violence