The orient, the liberal movement, and the eastern crisis of 1839–41

The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839-41 P.E Caquet The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839–41  P.E Caquet The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839–41 P.E Caquet University of Cambridge Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom ISBN 978-3-319-34101-9 ISBN 978-3-319-34102-6 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-34102-6 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953303 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Cover image: © V&A Images / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland CHRONOLOGY 1839 April June July September October 1840 November December February March May June Mahmud sends army down the Euphrates (21 April) Ibrahim crushes Ottoman army at Nezib (23 June) Mahmud dies Accession of the underage Abdul-Mejid (14 July) Ottoman fleet sails to Alexandria, defects to Mehemet Ali Five-power note to Sultan to mediate solution (27 July) First Brünnow mission to London Palmerston proposes conceding Mehemet Ali hereditary Egypt and south Syria for life (without Acre) Soult insists on hereditary rule in all Syria Reshid Pasha proclaims Hatti Sheriff of Gulhané (3 November) Second Brünnow mission to London Guizot replaces Sebastiani in London Fall of Soult ministry in France Thiers in government (1 March) First news of Damascus Affair published in Europe (13 March) Austro-Prussian proposal to let Mehemet have south Syria for life plus Acre fortress, acceded to by Palmerston Lebanese-Syrian uprising against the Egyptians Austro-Prussians convince Chekib Effendi to make offer encompassing the whole of Syria French dither and fail to answer Death of Frederick William III of Prussia and accession of Frederick William IV (7 June) (continued) v vi CHRONOLOGY (continued) July August September October November 1841 December January February March April June July August Palmerston threatens to resign (5 July) Lebanese-Syrian uprising crushed by Ibrahim Four powers sign Convention of London imposing terms on Mehemet Ali (15 July) News of Convention prompts wave of bellicose rage in France (27 July) Partial mobilisation of French army and navy Twin ultimatums delivered to Mehemet Ali (16 and 26 August) The Pasha plays for time British bombard Beirut, land forces at Juniyah beach (9–12 September) Sultan formally deposes Mehemet Ali (14 September) Nikolaus Becker first publishes Rheinlied (18 September) French approve project to fortify Paris Army size increased again Louis-Philippe’s climbdown Thiers resigns (26 October), replaced by Guizot three days later Werther secretly offers ceasefire plan to Guizot Fall of Acre to coalition forces (4 November) Start of Grolmann-Radowitz mission to mobilise the Bund Ibrahim’s army evacuates Syria Ottoman fleet leaves Alexandria (22 January) Sultan issues firman granting hereditary investiture to Mehemet Ali on restricted terms (13 February) Mehemet Ali rejects it Ottomans renew French religious capitulations Powers sign separate peace protocol in London (15 March) Dismissal of Reshid Pasha Final firman to Mehemet Ali: hereditary rule confirmed in Egypt at price of army limitations and annual tribute Six-power Straits Convention (13 July) Palmerston passes bill establishing Jerusalem bishopric (30 August) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book is derived from research carried out while at the University of Cambridge The Cambridge History Faculty has been a highly stimulating and supportive environment to conduct the several years of work that went into it, and I want to thank the faculty members and staff, who have been incredibly helpful I would especially like to convey my gratitude to Professor Brendan Simms for his invaluable guidance, ideas, and encouragement I also owe a great debt to Professor Robert Tombs, who launched me onto this book’s topic and without whose wise counsel I would never have progressed past the starting blocks Special thanks must also go to Christopher Clark, David Todd, Michael Franklin, and Melissa Calaresu I am further grateful to Tim Blanning, David Brown, John Charmley, Eric Gady, David Gange, Sylvia Kedourie, Sebastian Keibek, Michael LedgerLomas, Philip Mansel, Steven McGregor, Jonathan Parry, Christopher Segar, Astrid Swenson, Stephen Tyre, and Andrew Williams for having taken the time to meet me, hear me out, or provide advice on various aspects of the research project at the origin of this book I would also like to thank the two anonymous readers at Palgrave Macmillan The staff of the Hartley Library of Southampton, of the London Baring archive, and the Hampshire Record Office should be singled out for their helpfulness I can never be sufficiently grateful to my friends and fellow academics Jerry and Anne Toner, who have borne with me unstintingly throughout this book’s gestation Finally, this project would not have happened without the support of my wife Irena, whose patience and confidence in its successful outcome never wavered vii CONTENTS 1 Three Ships Diplomatic Mirages 15 An Egyptian Bonaparte 51 The Age of Turkish Improvement 93 Christian Zionists 135 To Jerusalem 165 The Nile of the West 203 Conclusion 243 ix x CONTENTS Afterword 249 Source Materials and Literature 251 Index 265 LIST Fig 3.1 Fig 3.2 Fig 5.1 Fig 5.2 Fig 5.3 Fig 6.1 Fig 7.1 Fig 7.2 Fig 7.3 Fig 7.4 OF IMAGES Le Massacre des Mamelouks dans la Citadelle du Caire by Horace Vernet L’Expédition d’Egypte sous les Ordres de Bonaparte by Léon Cogniet Mehemet Ali by David Wilkie Jerusalem from the Road Leading to Bethany by David Roberts Joshua Commanding the Sun to Stand Still by John Martin The Departure of the Israelites by David Roberts Erecting the obelisk Napoléon aux Pyramides by Antoine-Jean Gros Statue of Kléber The Hermann Denkmal 58 69 137 151 153 176 206 217 225 225 xi 258 AFTERWORD Pushkin, Alexander, The complete works of Alexander Pushkin (14 vols., Downham Market, 2001) Quinet, Edgar, 1815 et 1840 (Paris, 1840) Quinet, Edgar, ‘Allemagne et Italie’, in Œuvres complètes (11 vols., Paris, 1857) Radowitz, Joseph von, Gesammelte Schriften (5 vols., Berlin, 1852) Rambuteau, Claude-Philibert, Comte de, Mémoires (Paris, 1905) Rauschenplat, Johann, Briefe über Frankreich und Deutschland (Strasbourg, 1840), Rémusat, Charles, Comte de, Mémoires de ma vie (5 vols., Paris, 1958) Reybaud, Louis (ed.), Histoire scientifique et militaire de lexpộdition franỗaise en Egypte (10 vols., Paris, 1830–6) Roberts, David, The Holy Land: Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt & Nubia (3 vols., London, 1842) Röser, Jacob, Tagebuch meiner Reise nach Griechenland, in die Türkei, nach Aegypten und Syrien (2 vols., Mergentheim, 1836) Ross, David, Opinions of the European press on the Eastern Question (London, 1836) Saint-Elme, Ida, La Contemporaine en Egypte (6 vols., Paris, 1831) Salles, Eusèbe de, Pérégrinations en Orient (2 vols., Paris, 1840) Salt, Henry, Essay on Dr Young’s and M.  Champollion’s phonetic system of hieroglyphics (London, 1825) Schlegel, Friedrich von, On the language and wisdom of the Indians (London, 2001) Schön, Theodor von, Aus den Papieren des Ministers und Burggrafen von Marienburg Theodor von Schön (Halle, 1875) Schubert, Gotthilf von, Reise in das Morgenland in den Jahren 1836 und 1837 (2 vols., Erlangen, 1838) Schulz, Wilhelm, Der Bund der Deutschen und Franzosen (Strasbourg, 1841) Schwanke, F. J., Hermann der Cherusker und sein Denkmal (Lemgo, 1841) Scott, Charles Rochfort, Rambles in Egypt and Candia (London, 1837) Scott, Thomas, The Jews a blessing to the nations, and Christians bound to seek their conversion (London, 1810) Simeon, Charles, The conversion of the Jews (London, 1821) Slade, Adolphus, Records of travels in Turkey, Greece (2nd edn., vols., London, 1833) Slade, Adolphus, The Sultan and 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(Paris, 1840) Urquhart, David, The portfolio (London, 1836) Urquhart, David, The Sultan Mahmoud, and Mehemet Ali Pasha (London, 1835) Urquhart, David, Turkey and its resources (London, 1833) Varnhagen von Ense, Denkwürdigkeiten des eignen Lebens (3 vols., Frankfurt, 1987) Verninac Saint-Maur, Raimond de, Voyage du Luxor en Egypte (Paris, 1835) Viator, Sur l’emplacement de l’obélisque de Louqsor (Paris, 1833) Waghorn, Thomas Fletcher, Egypt as it is in 1837 (London, 1837) Walsh, Robert, A residence at Constantinople (2 vols., London, 1836) Wilde, W.R., Narrative of a voyage (London, 1840) Wilkinson, John Gardner, Manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians (3 vols., London, 1837) Wilkinson, John Gardner, Three letters on the policy of England towards the Porte and Mohammed Ali (London, 1840) Wilson, William Rae, Travels in Egypt and the Holy Land (London, 1831) Wolff, Joseph, Journal of the reverend Joseph Wolf in a series of letters to Sir Thomas Baring (London, 1839) Wood, Richard, The early correspondence of Richard Wood: 1831–1841 (London, 1966) Zachariä, Karl Eduard, Reise in den Orient in den Jahren 1837 und 1838 (Heidelberg, 1840) Press Allgemeine Preußische Staatszeitung Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung Athenaeum Blackwood’s Magazine The British and Foreign Review Bulletin de la Société de Géographie The Christian Observer Le Constitutionnel Deutsche Volkshalle The Eclectic Review The Edinburgh Review Evangelische Kirchenzeitung The Foreign Quarterly Review 260 AFTERWORD La France Littéraire The Globe Hallische/Deutsche Jahrbücher für Wissenschaft und Kunst Jewish Expositor and Friend of Israel Jewish Intelligence Journal Asiatique Journal de Saint-Pétersbourg Journal des Savants Le Journal des Débats Kölnische Zeitung The Literary Gazette Magasin Pittoresque The Morning Chronicle The Morning Herald Musée des Familles Le National Neueste Nachrichten aus dem Reiche Gottes The Observer Österreichischer Beobachter La Phalange Le Polonais La Presse The Protestant 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history of the Jewish Question (London, 1919) Yapp, Malcolm, The making of the modern Near East 1792–1923 (London, 1988) INDEX A Abdul Mejid, Sultan of Turkey, 77, 93, 95, 99, 118, 124 Acre, city and fortress of, 54, 180, 195 and diplomatic terms, 24, 34, 42, 210, 226 siege and capture by Egyptians, 16 storming of by coalition, Alexander, Michael Solomon, 190, 194 Algeria, 6, 95, 218 Ashley, Lord, 152–3, 155, 166, 172, 177–8, 189 B Balta-Liman, treaty of, 105, 109–11, 113, 125, 245 Barante, Amable Brugière de, 8, 28, 43, 110, 116, 182 Baring, Thomas, 153–5, 168, 178, 189 Becker, Nikolaus, 203, 222–4, 230–1, 233–4 Beirut, 36, 144, 193 bombardment of, 9, 214, 221 Berlin Society for the Promotion of Christianity among the Jews, 154, 157, 189 Bible, 74, 145–6, 150, 155, 175, 176 Boislecomte, Charles-Edmond de, 23 Bosphorus, 1, 2, 18, 19, 24–6, 39, 100, 101, 145 See also Straits Bourée, Prosper, 36, 143, 144 Bourqueney, Franỗois-Adolphe de, 1834, 190, 226 Bowring, John, 63, 79, 108, 119, 121, 146, 165 Brougham, Lord, 62 Brünnow, Ernst von, 18, 26, 210 mission to London, 25, 31, 115, 118, 157, 181, 245 Bülow, Heinrich von, 156, 185, 210–12, 226 Bulwer, Henry Lytton, 40, 107, 109, 111, 114 Bunsen, Christian Karl von, 155, 184–5, 189–90 and Egyptology, 74 and German Orientalism, 103 Jerusalem bishopric mission, 188–90, 194 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 P.E Caquet, The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839-41, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-34102-6 265 266 INDEX C Campbell, Patrick, 23, 78, 166–8 Canning, Stratford, 22, 104, 115, 245 Champollion, Jean-Franỗois, 67, 705, 77, 205, 244 Chekib Effendi, 156, 210–11 Chesney, Francis, 1, 37 Clarendon, Lord, 37, 63, 108 Clot-Bey, Antoine, 53, 60–1, 82, 96, 119, 216 Cochelet, Adrien, 25, 33, 36, 82, 116, 140–4, 213 Conservatives, Conservatism, 3, 11, 184, 195, 208, 219–21, 224, 227, 230–2, 243–8 and Austro-Prussian policy, 34, 204, 208–13 British Tories, 105, 111, 179 and characterizations of Mehemet Ali, 56, 64–5, 80–1, 83 and Jerusalem, 185–6, 187, 194 and Ottoman legitimacy, 16–20, 23 and Russian policy, 27–8, 30–1 and Turkish reform, 97–9, 104, 117 Crémieux, Adolphe, 136, 140, 142, 143, 156 D Damascus Affair, 10, 135–6, 169, 246 See also Mehemet Ali European reception of, 137–43 evangelical lobbying, 145, 180 French role, 141–4 impact on crisis, 144, 156–8 relationship with Restorationism, 152, 169–70, 175, 194 Davésiès, Lucien, 83n3, 216, 220 De Laborde, Alexandre, 35, 53 Druzes, 120, 181, 193 E Eastern Crisis compromise attempts, 24–6, 34, 209–12, 225–6 and evangelical opinion, 148, 151, 156–8, 169–72, 175–81 historical significance, 1–2, 11, 204, 249 military events, 10, 16, 120 1831-3 prelude, 16, 19–20, 23 religious legacy, 186–8, 194–5 Egypt See also Mehemet Ali as French protégé, 31–7, 60, 66, 75, 82, 204–6, 212–2, 234–5 in German writing, 80, 101, 122 independence, 2, 16, 24, 25, 54, 56, 216, 217 as potential British client, 20–2 reforms, 22, 35, 60–5, 69, 75, 78–9, 82–3, 95, 98, 109 relations with Russia, 17–18, 26, 28, 56 and route to India, 21, 37 trade and monopolies, 5, 21, 62 in travel writing, 64, 77–81 Egyptology, 66, 70, 82, 244 and Egyptian regeneration, 1, 62, 66–70, 75, 216 French dominance of, 74–5 and memory of French expedition, 72, 204–6 Ellice, Edward, 40 Ellis, Henry, 19 Euphrates, navigation on, 1, 21, 37, 163, 183 INDEX F Frederick William IV, King of Prussia, 7, 74, 223, 227, 231 and constitutional demands, 229–30, 232–4 evangelical views, 187–91 French expedition to Egypt, 60, 61, 67–8, 72, 74, 76, 82, 174, 204–6, 216–17, 244 G Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 4, 101 Great Game, 6, 20, 31, 115 Guizot, Franỗois, 6, 323, 36, 40, 122, 157, 188, 21012, 227, 232, 244, 247 homage to Champollion, 73 plans for Jerusalem, 181–4, 186, 190 support for Mehemet Ali, 51, 60, 218 vilified by French left, 246 H Hatti Sheriff of Gulhané, 97, 124, 155, 178, 188, 245 announcement and text, 93, 113 British promotion of, 122–4 elaboration, 112–13 European reception of, 115–17 Hengstenberg, Ernst, 74, 154 Hoffmann, August Heinrich, 204, 223, 233 Holland, Lord, 21, 22, 37–40, 63, 116 Holy Alliance, 11, 18, 57, 83 Holy Land, 10, 152, 155, 158, 169–71, 176, 179–80, 185–7, 190, 194, 203, 246–8 in British Orientalism, 150, 153 in prophecy, 147–9 (see also (Palestine)) in travel writing, 145, 181–2 267 Hugo, Victor, 4, 53, 221 humanitarianism, 6, 120, 122, 124, 146, 157, 172, 194 Hume, Joseph, 41, 62–3 I Ibrahim Pasha, 15, 24, 32, 51, 53–4, 56, 63, 96, 120, 137, 218, 224 J Janissaries, 58, 94, 109 Jerusalem, 16, 151, 155, 169, 171–3, 176, 179, 246 British consulate, 167, 170, 191 in capitulations, 167, 184, 186, 194–5 great-power plans, 180–7, 190 in travel writing, 145, 165 Jerusalem bishopric, 10, 167–9, 187–90, 194–5, 247 Jews, 10, 195, 246 See also Damascus Affair; Restorationism British policy to protect, 167–8, 170–2, 190–2, 194 evangelical notions on, 1458, 1523, 158 and Prussian Pietism, 1545, 1879 Joinville, Franỗois, Prince de, 117, 221 Jomard, Edme-Franỗois, 602, 66, 72, 74, 96, 111, 181, 215, 247 K Keith, Alexander, 146–7, 149, 169 Khosrew, Mehmed, 99 Kochubei, Victor, 17, 28 Kutiah, peace of, 15, 23 268 INDEX L Labouchere, John, 153 Lalande, Julien, 25, 33 Lamartine, Alphonse de, 145, 181, 208, 223–4, 247 Laurin, Anton Joseph, 64, 140–1, 157 Lebas, Jean-Baptiste, 68, 81 legitimism, French, 81, 157, 181, 219 Lepsius, Karl Richard, 74 Lermontov, Mikhail, 29 Liberalism, 3, 11, 18, 40, 54, 71, 79, 106, 109, 124–5, 187, 247 Conservative fears of, 6, 27, 33–4, 56, 208–12, 224–7, 230–5 and French national mission, 204, 207–16, 243–4 and revolutionary contagion, 34–5, 204, 208–9 and support for Egypt, 62–4, 66, 81, 83 See also Mehemet Ali Lieven, Dorothea, Princess, 36, 179, 247 Lindsay, Crawford Alexander, Earl of, 145, 149, 165 London, Convention of, 16, 35, 37, 41, 80, 118, 158, 172, 175, 178, 191, 227–9, 245 French anger at, 39, 183–4, 204–5, 212–15, 234, 244 passage by Palmerston, 38–40 Prussian exception to, 226 London Society for the Promotion of Christianity among the Jews, 152–8, 167–70, 176, 180, 188–91, 193 See also Restorationism Louis-Philippe, King of the French, 34, 57, 219–20 assassination attempt on, 220 cultivation of Napoleonic legend, 68, 204–6 role in war scare, 39, 212, 214 support for Egypt, 32–4, 235, 244 M Madden, Richard, 79, 119, 157 Mahmud II, Sultan of Turkey, 15, 24, 77, 213 reform programme, 94–101, 104, 117, 125, 245 Mamluks, 51, 58–61, 64, 76, 94 Marcellus, Marie-Louis de, 52, 61, 77 Marmont, Auguste, 52–4, 61, 77, 82, 94, 96, 111, 216, 247 Martin, John, 150, 153 McCaul, Alexander, 189, 193 Medem, Pavel Ivanovich, 27, 64, 141 Mehemet Ali Pasha, 11, 17–18, 20–1, 22, 26, 34, 36–41, 67, 70, 94–7, 101–3, 113–16, 122–3, 167–8, 177, 180, 210–11 and Bonaparte, 51–4, 57–61, 78, 174, 216–17 in British literature and press, 82–3, 118–20 Conservative bugbear, 56, 64–6, 245 and Damascus affair, 135–40, 143–5, 156, 157 deposition of, 219, 226 employment of foreigners, 60 evangelical views on, 174–5, 180, 248 French popularity, 5, 25, 32–3, 34–6, 80–3, 107, 181, 207, 212–21, 223, 234–5, 246 (see also (Egypt as French protégé; Mehemet Ali and Bonaparte)) in German literature and press, 79–80, 97–9, 121–2 hereditary rule in Egypt (see (Egypt, independence)) historiography, 9, 76 as Liberal champion (see (Liberalism and support for Egypt)) life and career, 16, 42 military fame (see (Mehemet Ali and Bonaparte)) INDEX monopolies, 108–10 propaganda, 76–83 in prophecy, 148–9, 171 reform programme (see (Egypt, reforms)) treatment of visitors 77–8 (see (Egypt in travel writing)) use of Egyptology, 66–7, 74 Melbourne, Lord, 4, 38, 40, 152, 178, 210 Menshikov, Alexander, Prince., 27–8 Metternich, Clemens, Prince, 6, 19, 24, 26, 97, 98, 100, 117, 247 compromise offer to French, 34, 209–12 fear of revolutionary contagion, 34, 157, 226, 234–5, 246 hostility to Thiers, 207–9 Jerusalem policy, 183–6, 247 support for Damascus Jews, 140–1, 144 views on Mehemet Ali, 34, 57, 64 Mimaut, Jean-Franỗois, 23, 54, 62, 82 Montefiore, Moses, 1356, 142, 156, 157, 178, 189, 192 Münchengratz, Convention of, 3, 18, 23, 28 N Napier, Charles, 41, 122 Napoleon, 28, 51, 52, 64, 78, 82, 216, 231 Napoleonic legend, 51–4, 57, 61, 67, 72, 204–6, 216–17, 224, 243 See also French expedition to Egypt; Mehemet Ali and Bonaparte repatriation of ashes, 207, 221, 224 Nesselrode, Karl von, 17, 26, 30, 55, 99, 110, 156, 194, 234, 245–6 leadership of German faction, 26–7 269 Neumann, Philip von, 185, 209–11, 226 Nezib, battle of, 15, 24, 32–3, 41, 53–4, 57, 81, 96, 119, 219 Nicholas I, Tsar, 2, 17–18, 28, 30, 39, 43, 55–6, 182 Nicolayson, John, 155, 166, 168–9, 180, 189, 193 Nubia, 51, 78–80, 220 O obelisk, 1, 68, 77, 73, 74, 77, 81, 205 Orientalism, 2, 4, 52, 57, 60, 81, 119, 125, 144, 166, 224 and Egyptology, 67, 73 German, 100–3, 187 Oriental Renaissance, 4, 102 in painting, 57, 150 religious aspects (see (Holy Land; Restorationism)) Russian, 28–30 Orlov, Alexei, 28 Ottoman Empire See Turkey P Palestine, 9–10, 81, 147–50, 155, 158, 167, 169–71, 172, 174–82, 184–5, 188–93, 195, 246–7 See also Holy Land; Jerusalem Palmerston, Emily, Lady, 179–80, 195 Palmerston, Henry John Temple, Viscount, 5, 6, 17, 19–22, 30, 31, 34–6, 63, 78, 120–1, 157, 195, 209–11, 226–8, 245, 247 cabinet troubles and resignation, 37–40 cultivation of evangelical opinion, 151–2, 169–71, 174–9, 193–4 and Jerusalem bishopric, 188–9 Liberal engagements, 3, 18, 124–5 270 INDEX opinion of Mehemet Ali, 41, 51, 63, 64, 81 and protection of the Jews, 167, 190–2 role in Damascus Affair, 139–40, 141, 143, 169–71 and Turkish reform, 22, 104–25, 119, 122–4 parliament, 1, 6–7, 9, 11, 40, 41, 51–3, 60, 73, 175, 179 British acts and debates, 19, 39–41, 79, 120–2, 136–7, 171, 189 French debates, 32–3, 35–6, 55, 78, 142, 157, 204–5, 207–8, 216, 219–20, 223 Pieritz, George, 152, 155 Poland, 18, 28, 66, 169, 213–15, 217 Polish mission to Egypt, 56 Ponsonby, John, Lord, 23, 41, 106, 110, 139, 167–70, 175–77, 189–90, 192 arrival in Constantinople, 18 cooperation with Urquhart, 106 and Hatti Sheriff of Gulhané, 112–14, 124 support for Richard Wood, 123, 191–3 press and public opinion and Damascus Affair (see (Damascus Affair, European reception of)) diplomatic leaks, 40–3, 106–7 nature and influence, 8, 35, 80, 207 Prokesch, Anton von, 56, 98 prophecy, 147–9, 154–5, 169, 246 See also Restorationism and Eastern Crisis, 172–3, 175, 179 popularity in Britain, 148–50, 152 Protestant Zionism, 10, 145–8, 158, 176, 178–9, 188, 195, 246 See also Jerusalem bishopric; Restorationism and Damascus Affair, 152–3, 156, 175 lobbying and missions, 152–3, 166–70, 176–8, 190–3 Prussian influence, 154–5, 188–9 Pueckler-Muskau, Hermann von, 54, 77 Pushkin, Alexander, 4, 29 R radicals See also Liberalism British, 38, 41, 62, 78–80, 83, 120, 146, 148 German, 35, 80, 97–8, 104, 157, 232–5 Radowitz, Joseph Maria von, 187, 223, 229–31, 243 Ratti-Menton, Ulysse de, 135, 138–43, 157, 174 Rémusat, Charles de, 25, 32, 207, 218, 221 Reshid, Mustafa, 93, 99, 107, 110, 112–14, 119, 123, 170, 184 Restorationism, 146–52, 154, 166, 169–70, 173–7, 179–80, 185, 188–95 See also Jerusalem bishopric; Protestant Zionism echo in British press, 171–3 and Turkish reform, 177–8, 180 Rhine Crisis, 2, 16, 102, 203, 208, 212–15, 221–9, 244 Prussian military mission, 230 radical aspects, 230–5 Rhodes Affair, 139–40, 142, 152, 157, 170–1, 175, 178, 191 Roberts, David, 150–1, 176 Rose, Hugh Henry, 193–4 Roussin, Albin, 23–5, 112, 143 Russell, John, Lord (cabinet member), 39–40, 42, 122, 247 Russell, William, Lord (ambassador to Prussia), 226 INDEX S saint-simoniens, 81 Salles, Eusèbe de, 145, 165, 180 Schlegel, Friedrich von, 102 Schön, Theodor von, 230 Simonich, Ivan, 29, 30 Slade, Adolphus, 54, 149 slavery and anti-slavery, 64, 79, 119, 125, 157 Société de Géographie, 54, 59, 61–2, 67, 82 Soult, Nicolas, 24, 33–4, 41, 111, 115, 116, 204, 206–7, 220, 244 steamships, 3, 20, 37 Straits, 3, 15–17, 25, 31, 115, 180 See also Bosphorus Straits Convention, 16 Stürmer, Bartolomäus von, 184, 186 Sudan See Nubia Syria, 2, 10, 21, 33–4, 39, 42, 63, 66, 77, 135–6, 146, 150, 152, 214, 235, 245–6 in diplomatic terms, 15, 24–5, 34, 42, 81, 210–11, 225–226 Egyptian conquest, 16, 24, 51, 54 Egyptian rule, 22, 36, 61, 65–6, 77, 119–21, 149 and Hatti Sheriff of Gulhané, 122–4 as site for religious plans, 166, 169–70, 178–85, 186, 193, 195 Syrian and Lebanese revolt, 172, 194, 218 in British and German opinion, 66, 120–2, 125, 139–41, 157, 172 French dismissal of, 36, 143 military role, 9, 120, 191 271 T Tatishchev, V.N., 27 Thiers, Adolphe, 6, 24–5, 32–6, 40–2, 76, 81, 107, 174, 184, 209, 211–12, 219, 227, 231–5, 244, 247 life and career, 206–7 and Napoleonic legend, 59, 68, 207, 214 policy in Damascus Affair, 136–40, 141–4, 156–7, 174 resignation, 181, 219, 227 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 35, 220 Turkey, 9, 15, 23, 38, 43, 55, 62, 97–9, 172–5, 208, 210, 216, 229 as British champion, 19, 22–3, 104–15, 118, 122–4, 177–8, 243–4, 247 comparisons with Egypt, 36, 38, 63, 120–1 fleet, 15, 24–5, 65, 81, 119, 210 reforms, 94–6, 110–18 See also Hatti Sheriff of Gulhané; Mahmud II reform programme relationship with Russia, 17–18, 28–9, 55 and religious plans, 167–8, 177–8, 180, 182–3, 185–6, 190–2, 247 reputation for decline, 33, 94–101, 218 and route to India, 6, 20–1 U Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, 17, 19–20, 25, 26, 118 Urquhart, David, 106–15, 111–13, 115, 120 Uvarov, Sergei, 27, 29 272 INDEX V Vernet, Horace, 54, 57–8 Verninac, Raimond de, 73, 81 Villemain, Abel-Franỗois, 36 W Waghorn, Thomas Fletcher, 21, 37–8, 78–9, 119–20 Walewski, Alexandre, 25, 82 Werry, Nathaniel, 141, 143 Werther, Heinrich von, 6, 211, 226–7, 229–30, 234, 246 Whig, 11, 22, 38–9, 62, 78, 83, 175, 178 Francophilia, 39, 63 reformism and Turkey, 104, 106–8, 111, 113, 115, 122, 125, 245 Wilkie, David, 95, 136, 150, 157 Wilkinson, John Gardner (consul), 139, 143 Wilkinson, John Gardner (Egyptologist), 70, 74 Witkiewicz, Jan, 29–31 Witzleben, Job von, 154–5 Wolff, Joseph, 149 Wood, Richard, 120, 123, 191–3 Y Young, William, 167–8 .. .The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839–41  P.E Caquet The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839–41 P.E Caquet University of Cambridge... service connecting the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 P.E Caquet, The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Crisis of 1839–41, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-34102-6_1... informing the Sultan of their decision to mediate, or rather impose, a solution As events © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 P.E Caquet, The Orient, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern