Was communism doomed

Was Communism Doomed? HUMAN NATURE, PSYCHOLOGY AND THE COMMUNIST ECONOMY SIMON KEMP Was Communism Doomed? Simon Kemp Was Communism Doomed? Human Nature, Psychology and the Communist Economy Simon Kemp Dept of Psychology University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand ISBN 978-3-319-32779-2 ISBN 978-3-319-32780-8 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32780-8 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016951314 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Cover image © Jeffrey Blackler / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland Preface This book originated with a conversation with my friend Friedel Bolle Friedel worked as an economics professor—he is now emeritus—at the Europa University Viadrina from shortly after the German reunification The university is in Frankfurt an der Oder in the most eastern part of present-day Germany I had visited him there twice on lengthy visits sponsored by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation and had been fascinated by the area and the remains of the old German Democratic Republic As Friedel knew well, and as I came to realise, the old communist system there had been very largely a failure To get back to the conversation, for some reason that I have now forgotten, I asked Friedel whether he thought a communist system could ever be made to work He thought not and I agreed I asked him why not, and he gave me two reasons—poor incentives and the coordination problem I too had two reasons, but they were not the same ones: I thought of the lack of psychological ownership and learned helplessness What stuck in my mind, and what led me to write this book, was that they were not the same reasons, and, quite simply, four fatal reasons seemed too many Much of the book discusses these four reasons, and whether they really are fatal Apart from describing the origins of the book, I have another reason for writing about our conversation In my experience of reading books that are based on psychology but also contain a social message, as this book v vi Preface inevitably does, I have noticed that the science of psychology tends to come out in support of the particular political or social objectives that the author approves of I make no claim that I have avoided bias in this book, but I can at least alert you to what my bias is, or, more accurately, what it was when I started to research the book In brief, as you have probably guessed from the preceding paragraph, I thought that communism was a deeply flawed system, and that attempts to implement it were likely to be psychologically damaging to the unfortunate citizens of whatever state tried it Of course, despite this bias, I tried to approach the question fairly If you want to discover whether I have changed my views as a result of the research I did for this book, you will have to read on I have mentioned that sponsorship, by way of renewed fellowships, from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation took me originally to Frankfurt an der Oder and gave me the opportunity to learn something of how the old German Democratic Republic had functioned The Foundation also supported a visit to the Institute for Economic and Social Psychology in the University of Cologne in the spring and early summer of 2015, and I wrote a good part of this book then I am very grateful to the Foundation for all of this support I am also grateful to the University of Canterbury for giving me the time and facilities necessary to write this book In addition, managerial and governance experiences at my university provided many insights into the difficulty of making any reasonably sized organisation function Many people have put up with my talking about aspects of this book, contributed ideas and anecdotes for it, and read drafts of it For some years, my fourth year class in economic psychology at the University of Canterbury has patiently listened to me talk about bits of it, as well as occasionally contributing essays on what might happen if New Zealand elected a communist government The comments of Lena Haarman and a seminar group at the University of Cologne led me to rethink the chapter on psychological ownership My colleagues at the University of Canterbury contributed both ideas and tolerance Friedel Bolle read and commented critically on the middle chapters of the book Three busy people at the University of Cologne—Detlef Fetchenhauer, Jens Klemke, and Olga Stavrova—read through an entire first draft, and I hope I have been able to their sensible suggestions some justice in the final version Preface vii Three anonymous reviewers commissioned by Palgrave Macmillan all gave sympathetic and intelligent criticism on the proposal and some of the chapters Paul Stevens, Nicola Jones, and Sharla Plant at Palgrave Macmillan were consistently encouraging about the book: I was amazed to once get an email reply from Sharla that was sent at 3  a.m UK time This was impressive! I am also grateful to Eleanor Christie, Subramaniyan Bhuvanalakshmi, and the production team Finally, I should like to thank my wife, Cora Baillie, for her never failing interest and enthusiasm for the many aspects of the project that I have talked about with her Christchurch, New Zealand Simon Kemp Contents Introduction The Aims of Communism What Is Success for a Communist Economic System? 29 A Short History of Communism 55 Possible Psychological Flaws in Communism 93 The Coordination Problem 105 Incentives 135 Psychological Ownership 167 Learned Helplessness, Locus of Control, Self-Efficacy 195 ix Bibliography 263 Montefiore, S. S (2004) Stalin: The court of the red tsar London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Montefiore, S. S (2016) The Romanovs: 1613–1918 London: Orion Publishing Naughton, B (2007) The Chinese economy: Transitions and growth Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Niemi, R. G., & Weisberg, H. G (Eds.) 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Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Wade, C., & Tavris, C (1993) Psychology (3rd ed.) New York: HarperCollins Walker, P (2016) Theory of the firm London: Routledge Watts, H.  W., & Rees, A (1977) The New Jersey income-maintenance experiment Vol Labor-supply responses New York: Academic Wegren, S (1998) Agriculture and the state in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Index A abatement of welfare benefits, 152–4 abolition of serfdom, 71, 72 Abramov, Fyodor The, Dodgers, 77 accounting, 17, 115 adaptation to incentives, 140 aggregation and disaggregation, 62, 108 agriculture, 19, 30 collectivization, 43, 58, 74, 75, 94, 182, 254 owner-operator, 182–7 Russian and Soviet, 70–81 Albania, 59, 83 alcohol consumption and alcoholism, 33, 95–7, 101, 195, 203, 207 Alexander II, Tsar, 71 allotments, 211–12 Amalrik, Andrei, 156 Involuntary Journey to Siberia, 78 anarchism, 16 Andropov, Yuri, 64, 96, 233 Ariely, Dan, 46 aristocracy, 8, 74 armaments production in USSR, 31, 61, 66–8, 84 Asch, Solomon, 219, 222, 223, 232, 237 Athens, classes of, 10 attributional style, 203 questionnaire, 203 attribution error, 222 attribution theory, 202, 238 Australia, 27, 121 convict labour, 145, 150 Austria, 56, 142, 204 Austrian economics, 110, 119 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 S Kemp, Was Communism Doomed?, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32780-8 267 268 Index authoritarianism, 195 government, 239, 242, 252–3 autonomy, personal, 34, 36, 46, 98, 141, 148–51, 175, 177, 199, 207, 211, 244–6, 249–51 B Baltes, Paul, 209 Bandura, Albert, 200 Banks Iain M (Culture novels), 21 Baumeister, Roy, 222 Evil: Inside human violence and cruelty, 217 Bay of Pigs, 87, 231 Beaglehole, Ernest, 170–2 belief in free will, 196, 201, 202 Belk, Russell, 171–2 Belorussia, 58 Beria, Lavrentiy, 215, 227 Berlin, East and West comparison, 209–10 Wall, 41, 43, 208 Berry, John, 34 biological yields, 76 blood donation, 150 Boeing, 111, 112, 121 Bojilova, Alexandrina, 144 Bolshevik government, 20, 57, 73–4 party, 20, 56–8, 229 revolution, 43, 61, 71 boom and bust cycles, 14, 19, 103, 244 bourgeoisie, 8, 9, 14–17, 74 Brezhnev, Leonid, 78–9, 158 Britain nineteenth century, 6, 12, 56 health system, 128 twentieth century, 56, 73, 238, 254 British Labour Party, 108 Brown, Archie, 32 The Rise and Fall of Communism, 21 Brown, Christopher Ordinary men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the final solution in Poland, 225 Bulgaria, 39, 40, 42, 59, 70, 196 bureaucracy, 15, 61, 80, 87, 158, 228, 235, 242, 252 bystander effect, 168 C capitalism, 6–19 monopoly, Carnegie, Andrew, 142 cartels, 11, 61–2 Casola, Luca, 224 Castro, Fidel, 87–8 Castro, Raúl, 88 Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 215 Central committee of the USSR, 64 central planning, 49, 57, 67, 86, 87, 90, 93, 107–10, 119, 120, 244 and central management, 243 China, 6, 22, 41, 56, 59, 87–91, 216, 231, 250 corruption, 206, 234–7 Cultural Revolution, 89, 228 economic growth, 89–91 Great Leap Forward, 89, 232 influence on USSR, 64, 81–2 Socialist market economy, 91, 242–3 Churchill, Winston, 59 civic pride, 95 class struggle, Index clothing manufacture, 64, 121–2, 140, 161 Coase, Ronald, 111, 253 codetermination, 170 cognitive complexity, 34 cognitive evaluation theory, 148–51 collapse of communism, 1, 22, 23, 56, 81–7, 119, 183, 234 collectivism, 8, command economy, 4, 22, 34, 36, 40–1, 61–8, 82, 94–5, 130–1, 145, 159, 190, 191, 205, 235–9, 243–5, 248–52 in China, 81, 88, 91 communes in USSR, 70–81 communism definitions of, 20–3 communist and market systems, comparison and convergence, 60–1, 102–3, 254–5 Communist International, 58 community pride, 95–6 compliance, 63, 221, 223 computers, 118–19 conformity, 219, 222, 232 consciousness, 8, 20 activity, 25–6 class, 15 false, 43 conspicuous consumption, 137, 140 consumer goods, 64, 88, 120–2, 140 in USSR, 67–8, 74–5, 84, 122, 130, 157, 162, 205, 244 contingency, 36 contradictions in capitalist society, 14 cooperatives, 73, 88, 185 coordination games, 114–16 269 coordination neglect, 120 coordination problem, 93, 105–34, 241, 243, 247 of aims, 131 Cornell University coffee mugs, 173 corporations, western, 12, 69 correlational research, 100–1 correlation and causation, 100–2 corruption, 91, 158, 206, 217, 234–7, 239 cricket, 121 Crimean war, 71 crowding out, 146 Cuba, 33, 56, 60, 87–8, 158, 231, 250 missile crisis, 87 Czechoslovakia, 32, 59, 70, 250 invasion, 70, 232 D dairy farming, 182–7, 248 Darwin, Charles, 141 death penalty, 33 Deci, Edward, 97–9, 148 democracy, 15, 20, 23, 39, 49, 108, 110, 126, 131, 167, 205, 251, 253 direct, 126–8, 131 democratic centralism, 16, 21 Deng Xiaoping, 68, 81, 90 depression clinical, 143, 203–4 great, 142 De Tracy, Destutt, 12 dialectical philosophy, dictatorship of the proletariat, 15, 17, 20, 231 diffusion of responsibility, 169 270 Index discipline, 20, 57, 142, 229–31, 239, 250 plan, 63–4 discrimination of pitch, 26 distributional justice, 109 division of labour, 10–11, 13, 16, 186, 226 division of labour time, 13 man-days, 76 E East Germany, 33, 59, 70 emigration, 41–3 intelligence in, 35, 37 marriage in, 159 New Economic System, 67 (see also (German Democratic Republic, Germany, East and West, Stasi)) economic cycles, 18, 19 economic efficiency, 105–31 economies of scale in Marxist theory, 11 in agriculture, 77, 79, 182–6 education, 18, 26, 27, 32, 38, 44, 56, 69, 88, 234, 244 government provision, 123–8 incentives, 150, 153 locus of control, 209–11 efficiencies of scale, 11, 77 See also economies of scale Eichmann, Adolf, 221 elections in Eastern Europe, 42, 48 electricity consumption, 29–30 emigration, 48 empathy, 45 endowment effect, 173–4 Engels, Friedrich, 6, 7, 231 Manifesto of the Communist Party, 6, 10 The origin of the family, private property and the state, 9–10 entrepreneurs, 160–3 envy, 168 escalation of commitment, 179–80 Eurobarometer, 37 evaluation research, 48–9 evil, 94, 100, 215–9, 242, 244, 254 leaders, 230–3 private property, 237–8 experimental economics, 115–17 principal-agent theory, 150–1 experimental research, 26, 100 extended self, 171–2 F factories, 2, 14, 18, 61, 63, 77, 116, 117, 206 Falk, Armin, 151 famine, 215 China, 89, 228 USSR, 32, 58, 75, 144 farm ownership, 181–7 five-year plan, 62 Flynn Effect, 35–7 Flynn, Jim, 35–6, 45 focusing bias, 49 Fonterra, 185 Ford, Henry, 121 foreign trade, 70, 84, 87, 91, 106 France, 60, 96, 172 franchise, 10 Frankfurt an der Oder, 70, 211 Frank, Robert, 137 Index freedom of serfs, 71–2 Freinkman, Lev, 86 fundamental attribution error, 222 Fundamentals of Marxism-Leninism, 7–27, 50, 246 G Gaidar, Yegor, 65–6 Galen, Claudius, 45 Galton, Francis, 24, 27 Gates, Bill, 142 GDP, 29–31, 37 General Electric, 11 General Motors, 247 genocide, 224, 225, 234 Genovese, Kitty, 168 Gerasov, M. I., 64 German Communist Party, 59, 250 German Democratic Republic, 21, 65, 102, 211, 250 German invasion of the USSR, 31 German social market economy, 91 Germany, cartels, 61 East and West comparisons, 50 happiness, 260 life satisfaction, 40 locus of control, 38, 218–19 peace with Russia, 57 reunification, 208, 228 Global Financial Collapse, 249 Global Financial Crisis, 120, 238 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 7, 64–5, 70, 82, 96, 102, 162, 216, 233 end of communism and USSR, 83–7 Order of the Red Banner of Labor, 76–7, 157 271 Gosplan, 61–2, 108 governance control, 176–7, 190, 245 government provision of services, 120–8 paradox in provision, 124 grain, 65, 70–81 imports to USSR, 84–5 Greece, 39–40 greed, 1, 238 gulag, 46, 94, 227, 239 H happiness, 34, 37–41 and unemployment, 143–4 Hanson, Philip, 79, 129 Hardt, Michael Empire, 249 Hayek, F. A., 105–31 The road to serfdom, 106–9, 120 Use of knowledge in society, 110–11 Heath, Chip, 113–15 hedonic treadmill, 140 Hegel, George, Heider, Fritz, 202 Hiroto, Donald, 197 history of communism, 55–89 Hitler, Adolf, 233 Hofstede, Geert, 173 Honecker, Erich, 70 Hong Kong, 90 corruption, 236–7 Horowitz, Anthony, 217 Human development, 36 human nature, 2, 248 adaptability or changeability, 3, 8, 24–7, 43–7, 99 Hungary, 59, 67, 155, 184 invasion, 70 hyperinflation, 112 272 Index I ideology, communist, 5, 27–47, 74, 84, 94, 95, 97, 216, 238 evil, 229, 231, 236, 239 (see also Marxist ideology) immunisation, 123 impoverishment of working class, 13 in-and out-groups, 220–1 incentives, 23, 93, 101, 102, 135–63 adaptation to, 139–40 agricultural, 76–7 in communism, 155–63, 253 income inequality, 31, 155–6 incomplete contracts, 112 indicators, 29–51 behavioral, 41–2 economic, 29–31 objective social, 31–3 psychological, 33–40 inflation, 112, 129 informers, 227–9, 234 inheritance, 9, 219 initiative (psychological), 176, 195–6, 208, 210, 246 innovation in USSR, 66, 160, 195 institutional failure, 95 intelligence and IQ tests, 34–44 internal passports, 41, 68, 77 internet, in USSR, 118–19, 237 intrinsic motivation, 94, 136, 144–51, 159, 178, 251 See also undermining of motivation investment financial in USSR, 67–8, 79, 80, 91, 117, 130 psychological, 174–5 Ireland, 13 iron curtain, 59 Israel, 85, 141 Italy, 60 J Jackson, MI, 39 Jahoda, Marie, 142 job appraisal, 147 job performance, 199, 207 job satisfaction, 39, 170, 180, 181, 187, 191, 199, 200 Jussila, Iiro, 170, 172, 174, 175, 188 K Kádár, János, 70 Kalashnikov, Mikhail, 66, 160 Kampuchea, 216, 227 Kanazawa, Satoshi, 36 Kantorovich, Leonid The best use of economic resources, 116–18, 120 Kaznacheev, A. G., 72 Keizer, William, 119 Kerensky, Alexander, 56 Keynes, John Maynard, 18, 107, 129 KGB, 215 Khmer Rouge, 216, 227, 229 Khrushchev, Nikita, 68, 69, 102, 233 agriculture, 30, 77–8 kolkhoz, 75–80, 156, 187, 206 Kornai, János, 63, 67, 86, 129, 130, 155, 238, 243 Kosfeld, Michael, 151 kulak, 9, 74, 75, 227, 230 Index L labour market in USSR, 68–9, 161–3, 245 labour time, 13, 116, 117 land ownership in USSR, 72–80 Lane, Robert, 205–6 The market experience, 33–7, 199 laissez-faire, 106–7 Law of effect, 138, 144 learned helplessness, 94–8, 195–212, 241, 244, 251, 253 in experimental psychology, 196 legal and psychological ownership, 170–3, 187 Lenin, V. I., 12, 14, 15, 17, 19, 43, 115, 130, 216 Imperialism, the final stage of capitalism, 11 as ruler, 57 What is to done?, 20, 231 Leontyev, A. N., 25–6 liberalism, 106–8 life expectancy, 32–3, 50, 95, 159, 208 life satisfaction, 37–40, 48, 144, 247 Lindberger, Ulman, 209 literacy, 32, 33, 50 Little, Todd, 209 locus of control, 34, 36, 37, 94, 195–212 lottery win, 141 Louis XIV of France, 172 Luria, A. R., 24–5 M Machine Tractor Stations, 77, 78, 105 machinery, 11, 13, 18, 61, 69, 117, 171 agricultural, 79–81 273 MacLehose, Governor of Hong Kong, 236 magnitude gap (in evil), 218–19 Maier, Steven, 198 managers in the USSR, 60, 63, 69, 75, 101 incentives, 160–3 salary, 63, 155–6 Mao Zedong, 88, 94, 232, 250 marginal tax rates, 1513 marginal utility, 125, 152 Marienthal, 142, 204 market economy, 22, 36, 39, 65, 88, 106, 112, 116, 129–31, 145, 190, 207, 210, 236, 237, 252 in China, 90–1 comparison with command economy, 60–1 Martens, Andy, 224 Marx, Karl, 6–27, 51, 103, 106, 117, 130, 160, 171, 174, 231, 244, 247, 255 Capital, 6–19, 56, 97, 249, 254 Manifesto of the Communist Party, 6, 10 Marxist ideology, 21, 24, 84 See also ideology, communist Marxist party, 15, 16 Marxist psychology, 24–7 Marxist theory 16, 24, 50, 56 Maslach, Christina, 220 Maslow, Abraham, 98 hierarchy of needs, 136 material balances, 62 in China, 90 materialist philosophy, McClelland, David The Achieving Society, 29–30 meaning of work, 141 274 Index meat consumption and production, 30 medical practice, 159 meta-analysis, 149 Mielke, Erich, 215 Milgram, Stanley, 220–4 military expenditure, role in fall of USSR, 85 Milton, John Lycidas, 136 Ministry for State Security, 42 See also Stasi mir, 71–2 Moldova, 184 monarchy, 131 money, 45, 120, 121, 131, 152, 161, 173, 179, 235, 252, 254 as incentive, 139–45, 149 monogamy, monopoly capitalism, 11 Montefiore, Simon Sebag, 216 moral incentives, 158 moral socialization, 27 Morgan, Lewis, motivation, 44, 136–40 Mozhin, V., 64 multiple regression, 100, 143 myth of pure evil, 217–22, 238 N Nazi, 22, 27, 59, 109, 187, 225–6, 237 concentration camps, 219 needs in psychology, 98–9, 136–8 to each according to his, 17, 22 Negri, Antonio Empire, 249 New Economic Policy, 58, 73, 74 New Jersey Negative Income Tax Experiment, 153 new man, 43–7 New Zealand, 23, 110, 157, 190, 237 dairy farming, 182–6 Nicholas II, Tsar, 56 NKVD, 215, 227 Nobel Prize, 116, 160 nomenklatura, 65, 68, 157, 160 North Korea, 59, 231 North Vietnam, 59–60 Nove, Alex, 79 Novocherkassk, 85 O objectively determined evaluation, 116 October Revolution, 57 Oettingen, Gabriele, 209 oil, 63, 70, 79, 81, 84, 85, 180 Okey, Robin, 82 operational control, 177 optimal planning, 116 ownership, 167–191, 237, 239, 242, 245–6 P parasite, 19 parasitism, 68, 78, 156 party membership, 60, 65, 86, 142, 156, 157 See also Soviet communist party passivity, 195, 196, 198 paternalism, 195 peasant, 13, 15, 34, 43, 56, 71–9, 89, 182, 230 farming, 12, 19 per capita electricity consumption, 29–30 per capita meat consumption, 30 Index performance appraisal, 147 Peterson, Christopher, 198 Peter the Great, Tsar, 96 Phelps Brown, Henry, 155–6 Pierce, Jon 170–5, 188 Pinker, Steven The Better Angels of our Nature, 44–6 Pipes, Richard 47 Communism: A brief history, plan discipline, 86 planned economy, 18, 23, 48, 55, 86–118, 122, 205, 244, 252 Poland, 42, 59, 70, 225, 227 Pol Pot, 94, 215 poverty, 13, 34, 89, 142, 153, 182 prejudice in Eastern Europe, 47 prices, 61–2 agricultural, 77, 80 in coordination, 106 oil, 84, 85 shadow, 116 principal-agent relations, 151, 189 Prisoner’s Dilemma, 114 product matrix, 62 See also material balance production quotas, 61, 68, 69 agriculture, 79 industry, 130 productive forces, 7-, 24, 50 productive relations, productivity, 10, 11, 13, 18, 19, 50, 63, 137, 229 agricultural, 78–81, 168, 182–4 labour, 69, 154, 157, 160–2 profitability, 61 pseudo-equality, 76 Pskov, 39 275 psychological nutrients, 98, 99 psychological ownership, 94, 97–101, 167–91, 241, 244, 245, 247, 248, 251 public goods, 123–4 public ownership, 252 R Rawdon, Vicky, 208 Red Army, 58, 59, 74, 76 vodka ration, 96 Red Guards, 89–90 reinforcement (psychological), 138, 139, 148 remuneration, 136 in communist economies, 155–6 in western economies, 145–7, 155–6 repression, 32, 64, 82, 85, 227, 233, 234, 239 resource curse, 85 responsibility (psychological), 97, 147, 168–9 revolution, 8, 13–15, 23, 74, 88 Bolshevik, 43, 56, 57, 61, 71 cultural, 89, 228, 232, 243 effects on government, 250–1 Robbers Cave, 220 Romania, 47, 59 Rotter, Julian, 198 Rummel, Rudolph, 216 Russian agriculture, 71–80 Russian Civil War, 32, 58, 74, 231 Russian Federation, 65, 80, 86, 96 Ryan, Richard, 97–9, 148 Ryzhkov, Nikolay, 64 276 Index S sadism, 218–9 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 171 secrecy in the Soviet Union, 20, 119, 188, 231, 239, 250 self control, 45, 218 self-determination theory, 97–9, 148 self-efficacy, 195, 212 self-esteem, 181, 218 Seligman, Martin, 196–7 Seneca, 45 serfs, 71–2 Sève, Lucien, 24, 26, 98 shadow price, 116 sharemilking, 186 Shcheniko experiment, 161–3 school leaving age, 244 Schrebergarten, 211 Schwartz values, 46 Shenzhen, 90 Sherif, Muzafer, 220–2 Singapore, 23 slavery, small businesses, 167 Smith, Adam Wealth of Nations, 10 pins 10 social output, 31 social welfare, 80, 107, 123, 127 effect on work motivation, 151–5 socialism, approval for, 42 Socialist Revolutionaries, 57 Socialist Unity Party, 21, 42, 70, 208, 209, 228 sovhoz, 73–80 Soviet Army, 58, 83, 227, 231, 232 Soviet communist party, 19, 83, 84, 87, 108, 130, 230 Soviet psychology, 3, 24–7, 34 Stalin, 58, 60, 63, 64, 68, 77, 86, 102, 156, 233, 244 collectivization of agriculture, 71, 74, 75, 182 evil, 94, 215, 216, 218, 230, 232, 233, 238 Stanford prison experiment, 220 Star Wars, 84 Stasi, 42, 64, 215, 227–9, 234, 236, 254 statistics in the USSR, 49, 64, 74–6, 96 Staudenmeyer, Nancy, 113, 115 Stavropol, 65, 76 steel, 31, 61, 62, 65, 89, 90, 105, 107, 161 Stolypin, 73 storming, 69 Subbotskii, E. V., 26 subjective well-being, 38 comparisons of communist and market systems, 40–1 success or failure of societies, 29–48 sunk costs, 179 Sunstein, Cass Nudge, 46 surplus labour, 13 T taxation, 252 effect on work motivation, 154 technology, 7, 8, 56, 66–7, 159, 176, 177 Thaler, Richard Nudge, 45–6 Thatcher, Margaret, 252 theory of the firm, 106, 112 Thorndike, Edward, 138 tolerance of minorities, 47 totalitarian, 2, 64, 109, 242 Index Transcaucasia, 58 transfer payments, 123–4 Trotsky, Leon, 115 trust and mistrust, 24, 31, 124, 151, 235 Turkey, 184 type A and type B personality, 199 U Ulyanov, Vladimir Ilyich, See also Lenin Ukraine, 58, 72 undermining of motivation, 94, 97, 136 by control, 149 by incentives, 148, 154 unemployment, 19, 154 attributions, 203 in communism, 48, 66, 208, 254 effects of, 39, 99, 142–3, 206 USA, 6, 30, 38, 39, 50, 66, 78, 129, 156, 159, 188 economic control in WW2, 245 farm productivity, 184 internet, 118 lend-lease, 58 locus of control comparisons, 208–11 relations with Cuba, 87–8 rescue of private enterprise, 245 social psychology, 219 Soviet exports to, 66 strategic defence initiative, 84–5 US corporations, 12, 69 USSR break-up, 83 USSR founding of, 58 Utopian ideal, 21 277 V Veblen, Thorstein The Theory of the Leisure Class, 137, 144 violence workers, 227 vodka, 96 volost, 71 von Mises, Ludwig, 110, 115, 119 Vygotsky, L. S., 24 W Warsaw Pact, 69, 70 waste in capitalism, 17, 18, 103, 118, 125 in communism, 65–7, 80 weak-link game, 114 why people work, 140–4 women, status of, woodlice, 224 work brigades, 80, 163 World War One, 27, 56, 106, 107, 226, 252 World War Two, 32, 44, 58–60, 96 economy in, 60, 76, 107, 121, 245 and study of evil, 219, 221, 225–7 Y Yasin, Yevgenii, 82 Yeltsin, Boris, 65, 86 Yerkes-Dodson Law, 100 Yugoslavia, 47, 59, 67, 70, 144 Z Zimbardo, Phillip, 220 ... 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