The northern sea route as a shipping lane

Tadeusz Pastusiak The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane Expectations and Reality The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane Tadeusz Pastusiak The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane Expectations and Reality 123 Tadeusz Pastusiak Faculty of Navigation Gdynia Maritime University Gdynia Poland ISBN 978-3-319-41832-2 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41834-6 ISBN 978-3-319-41834-6 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016945863 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Cover illustration: Training-research vessel Horyzont II from Gdynia Maritime University at Kinnvika Polar Station, Nordaustlandet, 80 degrees North (2009) Photo by Tadeusz Pastusiak Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland To all researchers, polar explorers, people from the ice reconnaissance, fishermen, seamen and ancient whale and seal hunters, whose hard work and commitment has provided knowledge on navigation in the polar regions Foreword The exceptionally small extent of the Arctic sea ice in September 2007 was both surprising and spectacular, as it occurred during the first year of the International Polar Year (2007–2009), two or three decades ahead of even the boldest scenarios This stirred the imagination of researchers, decision-makers, politicians and—most of all—journalists, who started to write about the Arctic became open to navigation in just a few years Another historic record for the minimum ice extent of 3.39 million km2 in the Arctic Ocean was observed in 2012 (with the average 6.22 million km2 for 1981–2010, according to the National Snow and Ice Data Center— NSIDC data) Expectations to open a regular shipping between Western Europe and Eastern Asia soared After all, the route is shorter by 25–40 % than the route leading through the Suez Canal It is bound to be profitable! There is no doubt that reduction of ice cover in the Arctic Ocean has accelerated recently Moreover, it stimulates the process of climate warming in the region and the northern hemisphere A dramatic difference between the albedo of sea ice (80– 90 %) and open sea water (c 10 %), which means that the latter is intensively heated by solar radiation The absence of sea ice at the beginning of winter results in lack of an insulation layer between the warmer ocean water and cold air Additionally, huge amounts of the latent heat of freezing are released into the atmosphere when the ocean freezes over This contributes to air warming and thus stimulates atmospheric circulation over the Arctic In turn, ice cover undergoes more intensive mechanical disintegration All these processes are parts of the positive feedback between the reduction of sea ice cover and climate warming A phenomenon known as the Arctic amplification is developing As a consequence, one expects the Arctic become easily navigable in summer It is not, however, fully viable On the well-pronounced trend of diminishing of the sea ice cover, interannual variability is superimposed and may exceed ±25 % The first mentions of the Northeast and Northwest Passages being free of ice at the same time appeared in 2008, based on the NSIDC satellite data In 2010, two sailing yachts—the Russian “Peter I” and the Norwegian trimaran “Northern Passage”—circumnavigated the Arctic Ocean They sailed through both Northeast vii viii Foreword and Northwest Passages in one season, becoming the first sailboats ever to this with no icebreaker assistance It is worth to note the overall extent of ice cover was not exceptionally small in the summer season of 2010 The ice was favourably distributed The skipper of the SY “Peter I”, Daniil Gavrilov, informed the media that they sailed through heavy ice floes for approximately one-third of their Arctic voyage (c 3000 nautical miles) The most difficult stage of the cruise was near the Taimyr Peninsula, where the yacht had to find a way through close drift ice This kind of information along with the data on year-to-year and geographical variability of sea ice extent indicates that there is no guarantee that merchant ships cruises along the Northern Sea Route (NSR) will be successfully completed Apart from this uncertainty, there are also political, economic, technical, environmental and safety issues to be kept in mind, as indicated in the Arctic Council reports (e.g The Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment) On such, sketched above background, appear not new but vital questions Will it be possible to conduct regular shipping operations on the NSR? If so, when? These and many other questions are addressed by Dr Tadeusz Pastusiak—a scientist, academic lecturer and Master Mariner—in his book I first met the author several years ago during a voyage to Spitsbergen on the M/S “Horyzont II”, a training research vessel of Gdynia Maritime University which brings supplies to the Polish Polar Station located on the shore of the Hornsund Fjord, southern Spitsbergen, the Arctic In the years 2009–2010, Dr Pastusiak has led three consecutive voyages to Svalbard on MS “Horyzont II” as the captain The most important and challenging of them was a supply voyage for the international IPY expedition to the old Swedish-Finnish-Swiss Kinvikka Station located on the island of Nordauslandet, north-eastern Svalbard, in 2009 The station was constructed in 1957 and re-activated for the IPY Even though the voyage and disembarkation of equipment on almost unknown and uncharted Arctic waters in changeable weather and ice conditions was a serious challenge for the captain, crew and the expedition team, the expedition turned out to be very successful I know that, Tadeusz Pastusiak from his childhood was fascinated by what could be found under the surface of the sea He was especially interested in nature, scuba diving and underwater photography As a teenager, he constructed his own equipment and tested it Later, following in his father’s footsteps, he began to work at sea His fascination with polar regions stemmed from his participation in the historic for Poland expedition on the M/S “Antoni Garnuszewski”, an expedition whose aim was to build an Antarctic research station on King George Island in the archipelago of the South Shetland Islands in 1977 Together with other students of the Gdynia Maritime University, Tadeusz Pastusiak spent three months helping to conduct scientific observations and working on construction of the research station The station was named after Henryk Arctowski, a Polish researcher and member of the scientific team of the famous Belgian Antarctic Expedition on the R/V “Belgica” (1897–1899) Their ship was trapped in ice and was the first to winter in the Antarctic In 1979, Dr Pastusiak took part in a supply voyage to the Polish Polar Station on Spitsbergen, the Arctic, and another voyage to the Arctowski Station Foreword ix Afterwards, while working on merchant vessels in the Barents Sea and Canadian waters, he became more familiar with sea ice and navigational conditions in Northern Seas His scientific interest in the Arctic Ocean, therefore, is anything but random It derives from his passion and life motto, which is “explore the unexplored” Dr Pastusiak has been working for many years as a lecturer at the Faculty of Navigation of the Gdynia Maritime University He has published eighteen original scientific papers and two textbooks for students As a co-worker of the Centre for Polar Studies, University of Silesia he also takes part in scientific projects We have recently been cooperating in studies of marine conditions for the process of iceberg calving from glaciers calving in Spitsbergen It is my pleasure to see this book by Dr Tadeusz Pastusiak completed as result of his scientific inquisitiveness, professional scrupulousness and Master Mariner experience gained since 1997 The book combines information on environmental features, climatic and ice conditions crucial from the point of view of navigation with practical information on transport and maritime infrastructure and technical and economic factors affecting navigation on the Northern Sea Route The author’s ambition was to demonstrate what conditions must be met in order to maximise the use of vessels with low ice classes and without ice strengthening for transit voyages and cargo shipping to ports located along the Northern Sea Route The book will surely prove useful to seamen, sailors, researchers and students as well as ship operators and—most importantly—decision-makers having to plan voyages and to organise regular shipping operations I am glad that the Centre for Polar Studies could assist in the preparation of such a significant publication Prof Dr Jacek A Jania President, Committee on Polar Research Polish Academy of Sciences and Head Centre for Polar Studies, University of Silesia Preface Climate changes which have been taking place in the Arctic in recent years have led to a reduction in the extent and thickness of sea ice This has resulted in an extension of the navigation season for all vessels, including those with low ice classes or even without ice strengthening The prospect of being able to shorten the route between Europe and the Far East by following the Northern Sea Route instead of the route leading through the Suez Canal and regions in danger of terrorism is attracting more and more interest As a result, it is quite understandable that much emotion is being excited by the information noise in the mass media and statements released by politicians and officials claiming that the Arctic Ocean will be completely free of ice during the summer season or that the NSR will in the near future be used as a shipping lane throughout the year Such statements, however, not seem to be well founded, as they are based on the optimistic results of IPCC climate models and totally disregard the more pessimistic results With this in mind, the author of the book, scientist and a licenced Master Mariner with many years of professional experience, has set out to evaluate the functioning of the Northern Sea Route as part of the maritime shipping lane between the ports of Europe and the Far East This evaluation has been conducted for two time horizons: contemporary and future (until the year 2050 inclusive) The book is based on the author’s Ph.D thesis modified and enhanced for the publication The author has systematised the available knowledge and opinions concerning the role of the NSR among other sea and land transport routes in terms of environmental conditions (including the bathymetry of the Russian Arctic seas), climatic and hydrological conditions as well as technical conditions which must be met by vessels navigating on the NSR and their capability to navigate through ice One of the most difficult tasks of decision-makers is making decisions about the future In order to facilitate this task, the author of this publication has systematised the knowledge and opinions regarding climate changes and the resulting changes in the extent of ice cover in the Russian Arctic His analysis of future changes in ice cover based on IPCC models made it possible to determine navigational prospects on the NSR within particular time frames for vessels with different ice-navigation xi xii Preface capabilities His simulation of voyage planning and its realisation based on up-to-date real data on the state of ice cover (obtained by means of remote sensing satellites) and taking into account the economy of maritime shipping in ice is in accordance with the results of climate change and ice cover change analysis based on IPCC models First and foremost this book is aimed at government decision-makers and commercial companies faced with the dilemma whether to engage in trade or shipping on the Northern Sea Route, when and what actions to take, and what range of uncertainty to take into account when making important long-term decisions The book is also aimed at general and vocational education institutions, which instruct new generations of seamen and engineers considering working in polar regions or for the needs of polar navigation Gdynia, Poland Tadeusz Pastusiak Appendix A 203 Table A.1 (continued) (continued) 204 Appendix A Table A.1 (continued) Magenta colour indicates unacceptable depths Green colour indicates depths acceptable for small-draught vessels Cyan colour indicates depths acceptable for deep-draught vessels a The less-than and greater-than symbols refer to numerical values Appendix A 205 Fig A.1 Route grid for the crossing of the NSR (western part) on the basis of IBCAO chart of Jakobsson et al (2012) (polar stereographic projection) Blue points—ordinary points of the route; red points—decision points of the route Compiled by the author 206 Appendix A Fig A.2 Route grid for the crossing of the NSR (eastern part) on the basis of IBCAO chart of Jakobsson et al (2012) (polar stereographic projection) Blue points—ordinary points of the route; red points—decision points of the route Compiled by the author Appendix B See Table B.1 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 T Pastusiak, The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41834-6 207 Approximate position (latitude (°)) 69.4568°N 74.0653°N 77.0125°N 77.9167°N 77.4548°N 76.7077°N 72.6348°N Day — time 250 16:00 251 16:00 252 16:00 253 16:00 254 16:00 255 16:00 256 16:00 164.0258°E 147.1100°E 120.4516°E 92.0141°E 67.7112°E 47.1217°E 34.5337°E Approximate position (longitude (°)) 42.3 R63—part —in MIZ R63—part 179.8 R61 R63—part —in MIZ 63.5 80.9 R53—part 93.7 R53—part 252.3 44.2 R52 R33 R37—part 44.5 R31 156.7 24.8 R29 R37—part 68.9 65.1 R26—part 124.5 174.7 R21 R26—part 12 46.8 R3—part R18 360 360 Segment length (NM) R3—part R3—part Departure from Murmansk Comments/ route numbers 3.4 3.4 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Speed 12.6/15/ 3.4 (kn) 12.44 0.59 11.99 5.39 4.23 6.25 2.95 16.82 10.45 2.97 1.65 4.34 4.59 8.3 11.65 3.12 0.8 24 24 Voyage time per route segment (h) Table B.1 Results of the simulation carried out along recommended routes 123 123 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 Daily fuel consumption (metric tonnes) 63.76 3.02 37.97 17.07 13.4 19.79 9.34 53.26 33.09 9.41 5.23 13.74 14.54 26.28 36.89 9.88 2.53 76 76 Fuel consumption per route segment (metric tonnes) Total voyage time (days) Total fuel cost (USD) Expected charter cost (USD) (continued) Overall voyage cost (USD) 208 Appendix B Approximate position (latitude (°)) 70.6488°N 69.6971°N 68.7558°N 64.4969°N Day — time 257 16:00 258 16:00 259 16:00 260 15:31 174.0275° W 177.2097° W 179.3187°E 172.1295°E Approximate position (longitude (°)) Table B.1 (continued) 3030.8 Total R86 172.7 107.9 70 R70—part R81— Arrival in Provideniya 89 62 R70—part —in MIZ R70—part 58 102.2 R70—part —in MIZ R67—part 28.1 R63—part 83 61.2 R63—part R67—part Segment length (NM) Comments/ route numbers 12.66 15 15 15 15 3.4 3.4 15 15 15 15 Speed 12.6/15/ 3.4 (kn) 239.42 11.51 4.67 7.19 5.93 18.24 17.06 6.81 5.53 1.87 4.08 Voyage time per route segment (h) 76 76 76 76 123 123 76 76 76 76 Daily fuel consumption (metric tonnes) 852.8 36.45 14.79 22.77 18.78 93.48 87.43 21.57 17.51 5.92 12.92 Fuel consumption per route segment (metric tonnes) 9.98 Total voyage time (days) 554,320 Total fuel cost (USD) 74,850 Expected charter cost (USD) 629,170 Overall voyage cost (USD) Appendix B 209 Appendix C See Table C.1 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 T Pastusiak, The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41834-6 211 Approximate position (latitude (°)) 69,4568°N 74,0653°N 77,0125°N 77,9167°N 77,4548°N 76,7077°N 74,6469°N Day — time 250 16:00 251 16:00 252 16:00 253 16:00 254 16:00 255 16:00 256 16:00 168,7099°E 147,1100°E 120,4516°E 92,0141°E 67,7112°E 47,1217°E 34,5337°E Approximate position (longitude (°)) 128.5 44.2 T52 T68 p.115 252.3 T37—część 92.3 156.7 T37—część T53—część 44.5 T33 64.9 15 24.8 T31 T53—część 15 65.1 T29 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 68.9 15 15 15 T26—część 174.7 T21 124.5 46.8 T18 15 15 15 Average speed on a given segment (kn) T26—część 12 360 360 Segment length (NM) T3—część T3—część T3—część Wyjazd z Murmańska Comments/ Route numbers 8.57 6.15 4.33 2.95 16.82 10.45 2.97 1.65 4.34 4.59 8.3 11.65 3.12 0.8 24 24 Voyage time per route segment (h) Table C.1 Results of the simulation carried out in the lightest ice conditions 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 Daily fuel consumption (metric tonnes) 27.14 19.48 13.71 9.34 53.26 33.09 9.41 5.23 13.74 14.54 26.28 36.89 9.88 2.53 76 76 Fuel consumption per route segment (metric tonnes) Total voyage time (days) Total fuel cost (USD) Expected charter cost [USD] (continued) Overall voyage cost (USD) 212 Appendix C Approximate position (latitude (°)) 74,1037°N 70.4098°N 65.2437°N 69.4568°N 64.4969°N Day — time 257 16:00 258 16:00 259 16:00 250 16:00 259 23:12 174.0275° W 34.5337°E 170.6715° W 163.3059° W 169,2930° W Approximate position (longitude (°)) Table C.1 (continued) 3345.0 Total 67 105.7 R81 R81— Arrival in Provideniya 292.9 360 360 139.2 Segment length (NM) R150—part R150—part R150—part T 150— część Comments/ Route numbers 15.00 15 15 15 15 15 15 Average speed on a given segment (kn) 96.00 7.05 4.47 19.53 24 24 9.28 Voyage time per route segment (h) 76 76 76 76 76 76 Daily fuel consumption (metric tonnes) 607.91 22.33 14.16 61.85 76 76 29.39 Fuel consumption per route segment (metric tonnes) 9.29 Total voyage time (days) 459,095 Total fuel cost (USD) 69,675 Expected charter cost [USD] 528,770 Overall voyage cost (USD) Appendix C 213 Index—English Note: Ship names (italic) and geographical names (upright) A Africa, 35 Aker Yards, 104 Ambarchik, 29 Amderma, 115, 120 Anabar, 30, 124 Anadyr, 29, 123 Arctic, 4, 5, 7, 8, 20, 22, 31, 33, 35, 42, 44–46, 53, 55, 58, 59, 62, 64, 72, 76, 84, 104, 106, 109, 127, 132, 133, 164, 182, 185, 188, 190–192 Arctic Aurora, 35 Arctic Cape, 147, 148 Arctic Circle, 42 Arctic Institute Islands, 142 Arctic Ocean, 27, 66, 79, 82, 97, 162, 163, 183, 196 Arctic Yamal Railway, 14 Arkhangelsk, 28, 30, 112, 115, 118, 120, 127, 135 Asia, 15, 17, 22, 36, 44 Atlantic Ocean, 13, 15, 81 Ayon Island, 138 Ayon massif, 82, 119, 170 Ayon polynia, 81 B Baltica, 20, 75, 105, 136 Barents Sea, 14, 16, 17, 30, 43, 47, 48, 50, 53, 58, 60, 67, 85, 86, 112, 114, 115, 125, 135, 136, 146, 147, 170, 197 Bear Islands, 28, 145 Belokamenka, 114 Beluga Foresight, 34 Beluga Fraternity, 34 Bely Island, 47, 67, 137, 139, 142 Bering Strait, 15, 17, 28–30, 45, 59, 62, 65, 67, 79, 91, 93, 94, 105, 123, 125, 127, 133, 135, 139, 149, 183 Bilibino, 119 Bolshevik Island, 136 Bovanenkovo, 115 Busan, 19 C Canada, 21 Cape Anisiy, 149 Cape Billings, 138, 139, 149 Cape Blossom, 149 Cape Chelyuskin, 47, 136, 137, 170 Cape Dezhnev, 105 Cape Kharasavey, 137 Cape Kosisty, 119, 137 Cape Schmidt, 120, 139, 146 Cape Serdtse-Kamen, 139, 146 Cape Shelagsky, 138 Cape Zhelaniya, 43, 50, 55, 76, 85, 105, 135–137, 139, 147 Central Arctic, 15, 23, 45, 56, 58, 145, 186 Central Kara polynia, 81 Central Kara Rise, 43 Chatanga, 30 Chaunskaya Bay, 119 Chersky, 119 Chiba, 116 China, 12, 17, 19, 34, 36, 75, 105, 116, 118 Chukchi Sea, 17, 19, 22, 24, 42, 44–47, 52, 54, 59–62, 64, 65, 67, 75, 76, 78–81, 83, 90, 94, 95, 112, 120, 125, 136, 145, 170, 197, 198 Chukotka, 52, 64, 67, 81, 119 Chukotka Glade polynia, 81 D De Long Strait, 52, 59, 65, 67, 80, 96, 138, 139, 145, 146, 149, 150, 169, 172 Dikson, 28, 47, 114, 117, 120, 122, 124, 137, 139, 142 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 T Pastusiak, The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41834-6 215 216 Dmitry Laptev Strait, 24, 28, 43, 67, 136–138, 143, 144, 148 Dudinka, 31, 36, 114, 117, 118, 120, 122–124, 138 Dvina River, 115 E Eastern Asia, 15 East Novaya Zemlya polynia, 81 East Siberian Sea, 17, 24, 35, 42, 44, 45, 52, 53, 60, 62, 65, 67, 78, 82, 83, 89, 90, 94, 95, 112, 138, 144, 146, 168, 170, 183, 197 Europe, 4, 8, 15, 17, 19, 20, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 36, 118, 196, 198 European Union, 4, 15, 17, 33 F Far East, 4, 8, 15, 19, 20, 27, 36, 115, 118, 167, 196, 198 France, 35 Franz Josef Land, 28 Futtsu, 35 Fyodor Litke, 29 G Gdynia, 30 Germany, 28, 29 Golomianny Island, 47 Gotenhafen, 30 Great Britain, 28, 30 Great Lyakhovsky Island, 136 Gulf of Ob, 33, 65, 116, 120 H Hamburg, 19, 35, 36 Hammerfest, 35 Hercules, 28 Heritage, 105, 136 Honningevag, 21 Huanghua, 35 I Igarka, 14, 118 Indigirka, 30 Iskra, 29 Izvestiy TSIK Islands, 142 J Japan, 17, 19, 33, 35 Joseph Stalin, 30 K Kaganovitch, 30 Kandalaksha, 33, 133 Index—English Kandalaksha Gulf, 115 Kanin Nos, 47, 55 Kapitan Myshevskiy, 133 Kara Gate Strait, 45, 62, 67, 96, 135–137, 142, 147, 157 Kara Sea, 14, 17, 22, 24, 28–30, 42–45, 47, 48, 50, 53, 56, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67, 75, 76, 78, 81, 83, 86, 87, 95, 97, 112, 114, 115, 117, 125, 133, 135, 138, 142, 146–148, 170, 197 Kharasavey, 115, 116, 120, 122 Khatanga, 43, 118, 120, 124, 144 Khatanga Bay, 65 Khatanga River, 118, 122, 143, 144 Kirkenes, 33 Kirov Island, 142 Kobe, 19 Kola Bay, 114, 115 Kolguyev Island, 53 Koluchinskaya Bay, 44 Kolyma, 29, 62, 119, 124 Kolyma River, 29, 119 Kolyuchin Bay, 139 Komet, 29, 30 Komsomolets Island, 42, 43, 148 Korea, 19, 35 Kotelny Island, 42, 47, 148, 149 Krasin, 29 Krasnoy Armii Strait, 43, 147, 148 L Lanshan, 21 Laptev Sea, 17, 22, 24, 28, 35, 42–45, 47, 48, 50, 53, 58–60, 62, 64, 65, 67, 76, 78, 79, 83, 87, 88, 94, 96, 112, 118, 119, 136, 143, 144, 146–149, 168, 170, 197, 198 Le Havre, 21 Lena, 29, 62, 144 Lena, 47 Lena polynia, 81 Lena River, 43 Lena River, 35, 117, 119 Lenin, 29–31 50 Let Pobedy, 19 Liaynang, 21 Little Lyakhovsky Island, 136 Lyakhovsky Islands, 136 Lyamchina Bay, 137, 139 M Map Ta Phut, 20, 21 Matochkin Strait, 30 Melampus, 35, 117 Minina Skerries, 28, 137, 142 Index—English Mitre, 35, 117 Mokhnatkina Pakhta, 114 Monchegorsk, 105, 118 Muostakh Island, 137 Murmansk, 19, 20, 29, 35, 36, 47, 50, 75, 105, 112, 114, 115, 118, 120, 122, 123, 127, 133, 135, 158, 165, 168, 172, 173 Mys Kamennyi, 116 Mys Medvezhiy, 119 N Nadezhda, 105 Naryan-Mar, 30, 123 New Siberian Islands, 20, 42, 44, 48, 65, 96, 127, 133, 136, 143–145, 149, 157, 169, 183 New Siberian massif, 82 New Siberian polynia, 81 Nikolayevsk-on-Amur, 29 Ningbo, 20, 105 Nizhnekolymsk, 29 Nordenskjold Archipelago, 142 Nordic Barents, 19, 34, 136 Nordic Odyssey, 21 Nordic Orion, 21 Nordvik Bay, 65, 119 Norilsk, 14, 104, 110, 118, 138, 187 Norilsk SA-15, 31, 33, 104, 164, 165, 167 Norilsk SA-15 Super, 164 Norilsky Nickel, 31, 36, 104, 110, 118, 164 North America, 15 Northeast Passage, 15, 183, 189 Northern Chukotka Glade massif, 82 Northern Kara massif, 82 Northern Maritime Corridor, 17, 33 Northern Novaya Zemlya polynia, 81 Northern Sea Route (NSR), 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24, 28–30, 32–35, 42, 44, 58, 59, 71, 75, 76, 80, 83, 91, 93, 94, 104, 105, 112, 116, 118, 120, 127, 131, 133, 146, 161, 177, 187, 191, 196, 198, 199 North Pole, 15, 135, 188, 196 Norway, 11, 20, 30, 35 Novaya Zemlya, 17, 30, 42, 43, 50, 53, 62, 67, 79, 82, 105, 123, 127, 135, 139, 142, 147, 157, 168 Novaya Zemlya massif, 82, 142 Novy Port, 116, 120, 138 Novy Urengoy, 118 NSR, 3–9, 16–21, 23, 24, 27–36, 41, 42, 44–67, 71, 72, 76, 78–81, 85, 91, 92, 94–98, 103–127, 131, 133–138, 140–146, 148, 149, 150, 155–168, 170, 172, 173, 177, 183, 186, 187, 189–192, 195–200 NSR Express, 36 217 O Ob River, 14, 30 Ob River, 21, 35 Ob-Yenisey polynya, 81 October Revolution Island, 136, 148 Olenek, 30 P Pacific, 15, 29, 59, 62, 67, 127, 191 Panama Canal, 12, 13, 33 Pioneer Island, 44, 81, 82 Payuta, 116 Pechora Sea, 30, 43, 50, 53, 81, 139 Perseverance, 21, 105 Pevek, 30, 47, 52, 65, 114, 119, 120, 123, 124, 133, 138, 145, 169 Pori, 21 Provideniya, 30, 51, 54, 112, 120, 158, 165, 169, 172, 173 Pskov, 35, 117 Pusan, 36 R Rabochiy, 29 Rossia, 133 Rotterdam, 13, 19, 36 Russia, 4, 14, 15, 17, 23, 33, 112, 118, 125–127, 189, 199 Russian Arctic, 9, 14, 20, 22, 23, 27, 34, 42–45, 48, 53, 55, 57–59, 64–66, 75, 79–82, 84, 95, 96, 105, 114, 115, 118, 122, 124, 126, 133, 134, 156, 170 Russian Federation, 16, 32, 33, 116, 118, 126, 127, 161, 198 Russky Island, 170 S Sabetta, 116, 120, 122, 138 Sakha, 119 Salekhard, 14, 116, 123 Sannikov Strait, 20, 24, 67, 78, 136–138, 143–146, 148, 149 Scandinavian Peninsula, 15 Schmidt Island, 43, 148 Semyon Dezhnev, 30 Semyonovskaya, 43 Severnaya Zemlya, 22, 28, 29, 42–44, 62, 75, 79, 82, 127, 139, 157, 189 Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, 43, 147, 168 Severnaya Zemlya massif, 82, 136, 142, 170 Severnaya Zemlya polynya, 81 Sevmorput, 104, 110 Seyakha, 116 Shanghai, 36 218 Shokalsky Strait, 57, 96, 136, 142, 146–148 Siberia, 29–32, 81, 143 Siberian Shelf, 22, 23 Sibir, 133 Sibiryakov, 28 South Korea, 116, 118 Soviet Union, 29 Stalingrad, 29 St Lawrence Seaway, Stolbovyy Island, 144 St Petersburg, 23 Strait of Belobrov, 43 Strait of Malakka, 19 Suez Canal, 12, 13, 17, 19, 20, 34–36, 198 Sviataya Anna, 28 T Tabata, 21 Talagi, 115 Talakanskoye, 119 Talnakh, 105 Tambey, 116 Taymyr, 64, 82, 117, 119, 143 Taymyr, 28 Taymyr Current, 144 Taymyr massif, 136, 143, 144, 170 Taymyr Peninsula, 17, 64, 144 Taymyr polynia, 81 Teriberka, 30 Thailand, 20, 21 Tiksi, 28, 30, 47, 65, 114, 119, 122–124, 127, 143, 144 Tiksi Bay, 52 Tobata, 35, 116 Transpolar drift stream, 79, 186 Trans-Siberian Railway, 17, 28 Tromso, 28 U Uelen, 48, 57, 77 United States, 30 USA, 15, 30 USSR, 16, 29–31, 104, 164 V Valmet shipyard, 104, 164 Vancouver, 21, 35 Index—English Vanzetti, 29 Vaygach, 28 Vaygach Island, 50, 139, 142 Vega, 28 Veliky Novgorod, 35, 117 Vilkitsky Strait, 23, 24, 50, 53, 79, 80, 96, 136, 137, 142, 143, 147, 148, 168, 170 Visilyevskaya, 43 Vitim, 119 Vitino, 21, 112, 115, 135 Vladimir Tikhonov, 20, 105, 136 Vladivostok, 29, 35, 122 Voronina Island, 142 W Wärtsilä shipyard, 104, 164 West Coast, 30 West Taymyr Current, 67 White Sea, 112, 115, 135 Wrangel Island, 22, 42, 44, 47, 48, 52, 54, 62, 65, 75, 80, 120, 127, 136, 138, 139, 149, 150, 157, 172, 183 Wrangel massif, 82, 145, 146, 170 Y Yakutia, 119 Yamal, 135 Yamal Current, 67 Yamal Peninsula, 17, 31, 33, 115, 138 Yamal polynya, 81, 142 Yamburg, 116, 120, 122 Yana, 30, 82 Yana massif, 136, 144 Yana River, 124 Yenisey Gulf, 65 Yenisey River, 14, 28, 35, 67, 86, 117, 118, 138, 142 Yenisey River, 117 Yesou, 21 Yokohama, 33, 36 Yugorsky Shar Strait, 45, 50, 53, 65, 67, 115, 139, 140, 146, 147 Z Zapolyarny, 105 Zeleny Mys, 119 Zyryanka, 119 Index—Russian Зeлёный Mыc, 119 Ямбypг, 116 cтaмyxи, 135, 144 Hoвый Пopт, 116 Mыc Кocиcтый, 119 Mыc Шмидтa, 120 Mыc Apктичecкий, 147, 148 Ocтpoв Pyccкий, 170 Xapacaвeй, 115 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 T Pastusiak, The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41834-6 219 .. .The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane Tadeusz Pastusiak The Northern Sea Route as a Shipping Lane Expectations and Reality 123 Tadeusz Pastusiak Faculty of Navigation Gdynia Maritime... Areas covered by fast ice and polynyas during the winter season: Northern Novaya Zemlya, East Novaya Zemlya, Yamal, Ob-Yenisey, Central Kara, Severnaya Zemlya, Taymyr, Lena, New Siberian,... of the Kara Sea: a coastal, b sea (middle), c and d northern; and main points on the routes: Kara Gate Strait, Lyamchina Bay, Cape Kharasavey, Dikson, Minina Skerries, Vilkitsky Strait, Cape