The scientist’s guide to cardiac metabolism

THE SCIENTIST’S GUIDE TO CARDIAC METABOLISM Edited by Michael Schwarzer and Torsten Doenst Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena Jena, Germany AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an Imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125, London Wall, EC2Y 5AS, UK 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with 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injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-802394-5 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/ Publisher: Mica Haley Acquisition Editor: Stacy Masucci Editorial Project Manager: Shannon Stanton Production Project Manager: Julia Haynes Designer: Matt Limbert Typeset by Thomson Digital List of Contributors Christophe Beauloye Université catholique de Louvain, Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Pole of Cardiovascular Research, Brussels, Belgium; Université catholique de Louvain, Cliniques Universitaires Saint Luc, Division of Cardiology, Cardiovascular Intensive Care, Brussels, Belgium Miranda Nabben  Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Jessica M Berthiaume  Department of Physiology & Biophysics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA Bernd Niemann Department for Adult and Pediatric Cardiac Surgery and Vascular Surgery, University Hospital Giessen and Marburg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Rudolf Buchheim Strasse, Giessen Tien Dung Nguyen  Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany Luc Bertrand  Université catholique de Louvain, Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique, Pole of Cardiovascular Research, Brussels, Belgium Moritz Osterholt  Department of Internal Medicine, Helios Spital Überlingen, Überlingen, Germany David I Brown McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Linda R Peterson Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA Torsten Doenst Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany Susanne Rohrbach  Institute for Physiology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Aulweg, Giessen Andrea Schrepper  Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany Jan F.C Glatz  Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Paul Christian Schulze  Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York Louis Hue  Université catholique de Louvain, de Duve Institute, Protein Phosphorylation Unit, Brussels, Belgium Michael Schwarzer  Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany Peter J Kennel  Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York Marc van Bilsen  Departments of Physiology and Cardiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands Terje S Larsen  Cardiovascular Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway Christina Werner  Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany Craig A Lygate  Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK    ix x List of Contributors Monte S Willis McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA   Martin E Young Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA Foreword find out which investigative methods have been used in the past and which are currently applied to further develop the field Having read this book you will know “what the experts in the field are talking about” and develop a solid base for quick understanding of the sometimes dry appearing but indeed highly interesting publications in this field We are certain it is worth your while If you consider yourself a scientist already or want to become one and you have found interest in investigating cardiac metabolism but are lacking the fundamentals, you need The Scientist’s Guide to Cardiac Metabolism Reading this book will provide you with the basic and, therefore, often timeless information required to get a flying start in any good cardiac metabolism lab You get the chance to refresh your basics on biochemistry, cell biology, physiology as well as the required methodology to investigate new areas You will be familiarized with fundamental principles relevant to cardiac metabolism, learn regulatory mechanisms and pathways and also Michael Schwarzer, Torsten Doenst Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany xi C H A P T E R Introduction to Cardiac Metabolism Michael Schwarzer, Torsten Doenst Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany In order for the heart to sustain its regular heartbeat, it needs a constant supply of energy for contraction [1] This energy comes primarily from the hydrolysis of ATP, which is generated within the cardiomyocyte by utilizing various competing substrates and oxygen, which again are supplied by coronary flow [2,3] Cardiac metabolism therefore comprises all processes involved in the biochemical conversion of molecules within the cell utilizing energy substrates In addition, cardiac metabolism comprises all biochemical processes of the cell aimed at the generation of building blocks for cell maintenance, biosynthesis, and cellular growth There is an intimate connection between cardiac metabolism and contractile function, which is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1.1 As simple as this illustration, which stems originally from Heinrich Taegtmeyer, appears as complex is its meaning [4] It is clear that changes in contractile function require changes in cardiac metabolism as more power needs more fuel, that is, ATP, and less power needs less fuel The schematic also illustrates that contractile function The Scientist’s Guide to Cardiac Metabolism http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802394-5.00001-7 is directly ­influenced by metabolism Again, if ATP is limited (e.g., during ischemia), it is easily envisioned that contractile function seizes However, the scheme finally encompasses myocardial metabolism as potential target for treating contractile dysfunction [5] Considering that metabolic processes also influence biosynthesis, it becomes clear that metabolism is a prime target of investigations for nearly all physiologic and pathologic states of the heart, may it be ischemia/­ reperfusion, diabetes, hypertrophy, and acute and chronic heart failure [6] In order to develop an understanding for these interrelations and to obtain basic knowledge about the methods and tools used for the investigation of (cardiac) metabolism, we have compiled this book It reflects a selection of chapters geared toward the transfer of principles in cardiometabolic research The book does not claim to be complete, but its content should make the reader quickly understand most of the specific topics he or she intends to specialize in and to be better able to put the personal investigations into perspective Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved 1.  Introduction to Cardiac Metabolism FIGURE 1.1  Schematic illustration of the interrelation reader may find that both fatty acid oxidation and phospholipid ether biosynthesis may be peroxisomal processes and that the endoplasmatic/ sarcoplasmatic reticulum has a major role in calcium homeostasis which influences cardiac contractility as well as metabolic enzyme activities While the role of ribosomes seems to be better known, the importance of transport systems and vesicle pools may have been less recognized and their role in glucose and fatty acid uptake, fission and fusion of mitochondria is highlighted Finally, the authors elegantly explain the different modes of cell death known as apoptosis, autophagy, necrosis, and necroptosis They describe their causes, regulations, and their differences In Chapter 4, together with Christina Werner, we address principle metabolic pathways and metabolic cycles as they relate to energy production and building-block generation in the heart This chapter covers the important biochemical parts of substrate use in cardiac metabolism The contents of this chapter represent another fundamental component of cardiac metabolism, as it demonstrates how glucose and fatty acids as the main substrates are metabolized Here, the connection between different pathways is illustrated and the importance of the citric acid cycle for the generation of reducing equivalents as well as for building blocks for biosynthetic processes becomes readily visible The role of the respiratory chain as acceptor of reducing equivalents, as consumer of oxygen and most importantly as the main site of ATP production is made apparent Furthermore, anaplerosis as mechanism to “refill” exploited moieties within metabolic cycles is introduced and the interrelation of hexosamine biosynthetic pathway, pentose phosphate pathway, and glycolysis is presented as well as the influence of fatty acid oxidation on glucose use and vice versa Understanding of the principles explained in this chapter is essential to follow the metabolic path of substrates in an organism Louis Hue, Luc Bertrand, and Christophe Beauloye then address the principles of how the of cardiac contractile function and substrate metabolism Adapted from Ref [4] In Chapter 2, Jan Glatz and Miranda Nabben begin with illustrating basics in metabolically relevant biochemistry They show that metabolism is tightly coupled to all major types of biomolecules as virtually every biomolecule can be used as a substrate or pathway component in metabolism Carbohydrates and fatty acids are the main substrates used to produce ATP Amino acids and nucleotides are mainly used to build proteins and nucleic acids However, all biomolecules come with specific characteristics and even when they are “exclusively” used as substrate for ATP generation, their biochemical influence on other cellular processes needs to be taken into account as well Furthermore, the properties of biomolecules influence their transport as well as their import into the cell or into cellular substructures, such as mitochondria Fatty acids as lipophilic compounds are not readily soluble in the aqueous blood and cytoplasm Carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and amino acids are more hydrophilic and may not cross membranes without help Thus, it is important to be aware of the properties of biomolecules and their biochemistry This chapter introduces the reader to the biochemical properties of the major classes of molecules and illustrates their behavior In Chapter 3, Bernd Niemann and Susanne Rohrbach address metabolically relevant cell biology and illustrate the roles of intracellular organelles for cardiac metabolism In this chapter, the roles of all major cellular organelles with respect to cardiac metabolism are described The   1.  Introduction to Cardiac Metabolism previously described cycles and pathways are regulated and how metabolism is controlled Cardiac metabolism must never stop and needs to be adjusted to substrate availability, hormonal regulation, and workload The authors elegantly describe how metabolic pathways are organized and controlled Furthermore, they discuss how short- and long-term control of enzyme and pathways activity is achieved and how flux may be controlled With flux control, they ­distinguish between two general mechanisms: control by supply as a “push mechanism” or control by demand as a “pull mechanism.” Another way to control substrate metabolism is achieved by substrate competition and interaction, which seems to be the most sensitive regulation seen in metabolism Chapter 5 offers the reader a thorough understanding of the regulations and interdependencies of cardiac metabolic pathways and cycles The previously mentioned information is strictly focused on processes ongoing in the mature, adult heart However, metabolism undergoes massive changes during development These changes are described by Andrea Schrepper in Chapter 6 The adult heart con­ sumes preferentially fatty acids followed by lower amounts of glucose, lactate, and ketone bodies In contrast, embryonic, fetal, and neonatal hearts; considerably deviate from the adult situation Oxygen availability is frequently limited and substrate provision differs significantly from the adult situation G ­ lucose is the major substrate in these hearts with glycolysis as the main process for ATP generation With birth, the heart has to adapt quickly to the abundance of fatty acids and increased oxygen availability The change from glucose as the preferred substrate in the fetus to the adult situation is described in this chapter Furthermore in the aging organism, cardiac metabolism changes again and the heart has to cope with increasing limitations in metabolism and function The findings in cardiac metabolism in the aging heart are also discussed With Chapters 7 and 8, we enter the realm of methods and models Together with Moritz   Osterholt, we first present a general overview of methods used to investigate cardiac metabolism From basic biochemical determinations of individual metabolite concentrations and enzyme a­ ctivities using spectrophotometry, through powerful new tools for broad analyses of RNA and protein expression or metabolite concentration (the “-omics”) up to nuclear and magnetic resonance tracing of metabolic rates, the principles are illustrated We have tried to illustrate the strengths and the weaknesses of the individual methods As mitochondria have moved more and more into the focus of metabolic research, we have addressed those biochemical analyses frequently used in the context of mitochondrial investigations as an example for the integration of methods We then move to address commonly used models to investigate cardiac metabolism Metabolic measurements are frequently impossible in humans, thus animal models are required Modeling of disease in animal models brings along advantages and shortcomings The chapter is intended to introduce the reader to surgical, interventional, environmental, and genetic animal models and should enable the reader to choose an appropriate model for cardiac metabolic research The chapter includes models of cardiac hypertrophy from different causes, ischemic as well as volume or pressure overload heart failure models as well as models of diabetes and nutritional intervention Exercise may influence cardiac metabolism as well as infection Furthermore, there are in vitro models as the isolated Langendorff or the working heart preparation, which are well suited for the investigation of metabolic fluxes in relation to contractile function or for the metabolic investigation of ischema/­ reperfusion Cell culture models are used more and more to assess signaling mechanisms in cardiovascular disease, although the loss of workload-dependent contractile function makes the interpretation difficult at times Thus, understanding the limits of these models may prove helpful 1.  Introduction to Cardiac Metabolism result from a nutritional “dysbalance,” that is, the over-reliance on one substrate (mainly fatty acids) Exercise in turn may not only lead to cardiac hypertrophy, but affects cardiac substrate metabolism as well as mitochondrial function in a way that may provide protection against such metabolic insults This excellently written chapter clearly addresses the influence of nutritional and exercise-induced changes on cardiac metabolism with respect to acute and chronic consequences Chapter 11 touches on the vast field of ischemia, hypoxia, and reperfusion David Brown, Monte Willis, and Jessica Berthiaume describe how cardiomyocytes as well as the complete organ depend on a continuous coronary flow for proper function Thus, hypoxia and ischemia present potentially deadly challenges for the entire organism Hypoxia is defined as reduced oxygen availability, which may be, up to a certain degree, tolerated by the heart In contrast, ischemia (myocardial infarction) interrupts the provision of oxygen and nutrients to the heart and the removal of carbon dioxide and disposal of “waste products” together; and depending on the degree of ischemia even completely (low flow- or total ischemia) This has a profound effect on cardiac metabolism Importantly, the necessary reperfusion to terminate ischemia provokes more changes to cardiac metabolism and causes damage to the cell by itself, a phenomenon termed reperfusion injury In the long run, ischemia is the most common cause for the development of heart failure In this chapter, the effects of hypoxia, ischemia, and reperfusion on cardiac metabolism and metabolic therapies for ischemia-induced heart failure are discussed Chapter 12 then addresses heart failure but this time with pressure overload as the cause T Dung Nguyen illustrates that cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure can be induced by several different mechanisms but pressure overload is a major cause The relation of metabolic remodeling and morphologic remodeling in the heart during the development of heart failure is Another physiologic principle, which in itself is highly interesting and even clinically relevant, also affects the proper conduct of metabolic research and the planning of metabolic experiments Martin Young describes elegantly the impact of diurnal variations in cardiac metabolism and how genetically determined cardiac and biologic rhythms affect cardiac function and the methods used to investigate them Cardiac metabolism not only changes in response to changes in environmental conditions or disease, it also changes regularly throughout the day Diurnal variations are mainly caused by variations in behavior such as sleep–wake cycle and feeding at different times They significantly affect both gene and protein expression These variations lead to changes in glucose and fatty acid metabolism Disturbance of diurnal variations may even lead to heart failure, underscoring their relevance Frequently, there is little attention paid to diurnal variations in the experimental design, yet a different time point of investigation within 1 day may significantly alter the amount of protein or RNA to be investigated Reading this chapter not only provides interesting and important information, but also it helps to clarify the relevance of diurnal variation for planning of experiments We then enter a series of chapters addressing states of disease Marc van Bilsen starts with the description of the influence of nutrition and environmental factors on cardiac metabolism As should be clear by now, the heart is able to utilize all possible substrates and has therefore, been termed a metabolic omnivore Cardiac metabolism is therefore relatively robust However, chronic changes in substrate supply lead to chronic adaptations of cardiac metabolism, which may not always be associated with the preservation of normal function Nutritional changes, such as fasting or high-caloric or highfat feeding, profoundly affect cardiac metabolism The heart and its metabolism is even more severely affected in conditions such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes, which all   REFERENCES Finally, Terje Larsen provides a historic overview over the field Metabolic investigations have a long tradition and many early discoveries were necessary to build the foundation for today’s investigations of cardiac metabolism Historically, cardiac metabolism started with the ancient Greeks when Aristotle observed that cardiac function is associated with heat and that nutrition and heat are connected Several historic findings strongly influenced the development of the field of metabolism and cardiac metabolism and allowed more and better understanding of cardiac function and its coupling to ­ cardiac metabolism Furthermore, several methods to perform cardiac metabolic research have their base on such “historic” work and the historic findings have been the base for several Nobel prizes in medicine We hope you will find useful information for your endeavor into cardiac metabolism and we wish you lots of curiosity and success in your investigations discussed and their possible interrelation presented While a causal role for impaired cardiac metabolism in the development of heart failure seems not always clear; the observed metabolic changes frequently indicate the state of heart failure progression (e.g., mitochondrial function) Furthermore, concepts to target cardiac metabolism for the treatment of hypertrophy and heart failure are presented and their results analyzed A similar target is investigated by Craig ­Lygate from a both conceptually and methodologically different perspective Energetics address the role of high-energy phosphate generation and turnover as assessed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy This perspective also assumes a tight link between ATP production and contractile function, but adds the creatine kinase system to the picture Creatine kinase deficiency has been observed in cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, but the regulation of creatine kinase is very complex In Chapter 13, the creatine kinase system is described including various findings in hearts with elevated or reduced levels of creatine Furthermore, energy transfer and energy status of the heart in hypertrophy and heart failure are discussed and the effect of treatments to improve energy status is presented In the end, we attempt together with Christian Schulze, Peter Kennel and Linda Peterson to illuminate the clinical relevance of metabolism and the current efforts and achievements of metabolism in the treatment of cardiac disease In this chapter, the advantages and disadvantages of noninvasive metabolic assessment of the heart by nuclear and magnetic resonance techniques is addressed, illustrating how powerful but also how complex metabolic research can be In addition, a detailed update on metabolic therapy in clinical practice is provided in the second part of the chapter again illustrating the important role of metabolism in cardiac disease References   [1] Kolwicz SC Jr, Purohit S, Tian R Cardiac metabolism and its interactions with contraction, growth, and survival of cardiomyocytes Circ Res 2013;113:603–16 [2] Neely JR, Liedtke AJ, Whitner JT, Rovetto MJ Relationship between coronary flow and adenosine triphosphate production from glycolysis and oxidative metabolism Recent Adv Stud Cardiac Struct Metab 1975;8:301–21 [3] Neely JR, Morgan HE Relationship between carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and the energy balance of heart muscle Ann Rev Physiol 1974;36:413–39 [4] Taegtmeyer H Fueling the heart: multiple roles for cardiac metabolism In: Willerson J, Wellens HJ, Cohn J, Holmes D Jr, editors Cardiovascular medicine London: Springer; 2007 p 1157–75 [5] Taegtmeyer H Cardiac metabolism as a target for the treatment of heart failure Circulation 2004;110:894–6 [6] Taegtmeyer H, King LM, Jones BE Energy substrate metabolism, myocardial ischemia, and targets for pharmacotherapy Am J Cardiol 1998;82:54K–60K 212 15.  Historical Perspectives malonyl-CoA) and oxidation in the mitochondria on the other In addition, expression of key enzymes in the metabolic pathway of glucose and lipid metabolism by PPAR, SREBP-1c, and ChREBP play important roles in the long-term regulation of myocardial fuel supply The elucidation of these interactions as well as of the importance of mitochondrial ROS production has led to a more refined understanding of the mechanisms leading to insulin resistance and type II diabetes Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, and Diabetes Orchestrating Metabolic Fuel Selection FIGURE 15.3  Sir Philip Randle (1926–2006) who devel- In the wake of the work by Randle and his coworkers, a number of researchers have made significant contributions to describe the alterations in metabolism taking place in various disease states [49–52] Whereas the Randle cycle controls fuel selection and adapts the substrate supply and demand in normal tissues, Lionel Opie (University of Cape Town, South Africa) and his coworkers focused on the importance of substrate utilization in the ischemic heart In collaboration with Eric Newsholme and Hans Krebs (Oxford, England) he worked out ideas about a protective role of glucose already during the late 1950s [53–55] This work was pursued later to prove the concept that glycolysis is protective of the heart cell membrane [56] Opie realized very early that myocardial substrate metabolism was not just of theoretical interest, and was eager to translate the findings into clinical understanding and therapy Thus, he developed the concept that decreased delivery of glucose and glycogen utilization (due to intracellular accumulation of lactate and protons) inhibit glycolytic ATP production during severe myocardial ischemia [57] In 1970, Opie was the sole author of a Nature paper, which focused on the role of fatty acids on the heart [58], work which was much inspired by collaboration with Michael Oliver (Edinburgh, Scotland) oped the fundamental concept of interplay between carbohydrate and lipid fuels in relation to the requirement for energy utilization and storage Metabolic Signaling in the Heart The interactions between glucose and fatty acid metabolism, which were described in the glucose–fatty acid cycle, are far more complex than originally proposed, as revealed by new molecular insights The comprehensive review by Louis Hue and Heinrich Taegtmeyer (The Randle cycle revisited: a new head for an old hat) [49] gives the reader a closer understanding of the mechanisms involved They include allosteric regulation and reversible phosphorylation controlling glucose uptake, glycolytic flux (phosphofructokinase), and glucose oxidation (pyruvate dehydrogenase) on the one hand, and control of fatty acid uptake (by   Energy substrate supply of the cardiac muscle – and its regulation This work was followed up in collaboration with Joel DeLeiris (France), showing that the adverse effects of fatty acids on experimental myocardial infarction were abolished by glucose and/or insulin [59] In addition, Demetrio Sodi-Pallares and coworkers reported already in the early 1960s that infusion of glucose–insulin–potassium (GIK) solution reduced electrocardiographic signs of ischemia, limited infarct size, and improved survival in experimental animals, as well as in patients with acute myocardial infarction Although Sodi-Pallares and his team used GIK to restore potassium depletion in ischemic myocardial cells [60], the rationale for using the solution as a cardio-protective solution was perfect, since it would suppress circulating levels and myocardial uptake of free fatty acids, and improve the efficiency of myocardial energy production through the provision of exogenous glucose However, the initial enthusiasm was soon met with critique, because one feared that increased lactate production in response to increased glucose and insulin would be harmful instead of beneficial due to inhibition of glycolysis [61] Opie and coworkers later reported increased tissue concentrations of ATP, phosphocreatine, and glycogen in baboons [62] and in 1999, Carl Apstein and Opie reviewed several clinical trials using GIK and concluded that the data were “not firm nor extensive enough to support the routine use of GIK in patients with AMI.” On the other hand, they argued that evidence was strong enough to recommend routine use of GIK for diabetics with acute myocardial infarction [63] (Fig.15.4) The adult heart is capable of oxidizing a wide range of carbon substrates, and the heart is therefore often referred to as a metabolic omnivore [49] It is also widely appreciated that shifts in substrate utilization in the heart occur in response to various disease states, such as heart failure and diabetes Most forms of heart failure are associated with a history of cardiac ischemia, myocardial infarction, hypertension, and/or left ventricular hypertrophy, 213 FIGURE 15.4  Professor Lionel H Opie is internationally renowned for his pioneering work on the energy ­ etabolism of the heart, and for his exceptional talent as m author and lecturer   with either normal or decreased ejection fraction The general concept is that myocardial substrate selection is relatively normal during the early stages of heart failure; however, in the advanced stages activation of a fetal-like gene program causes downregulation in fatty acid oxidation and a concomitant increase in glycolysis and glucose oxidation, reduced respiratory chain activity, and an impaired reserve for mitochondrial oxidative flux [64] It has been suggested that this substrate shift, which is associated with reactivation of other fetal-like hallmarks (e.g., myosin heavy chain isoform switching), contributes toward the progression to overt contractile failure [65] These concepts were thoroughly discussed in a comprehensive review by William Stanley, Fabio Recchia, and Gary Lopaschuk in 2005 [50] The epidemic increase in obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease In the heart, fatty acids enter the cardiomyocytes through specific transporters and are converted to acyl-CoA by acylCoA synthetase Acyl-CoAs might in turn be used for b-oxidation, or they can be diverted to nonoxidative pathways, including esterification 214 15.  Historical Perspectives and TG synthesis However, when fatty acid supply is high, myocardial TAG content is increased In addition, acyl-CoA becomes a source for formation of potential lipotoxic intermediates – ceramides, DAG, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), creating a state of lipotoxicity It has been argued that insulin resistance may be adaptive when protecting the heart from excess fuel uptake, or maladaptive when associated with ROS formation and activation of signaling pathways of apoptotic cell death In diabetes and insulin resistance, tissues such as skeletal muscle and heart have lost their capacity to appropriately change between use of lipids in the fasting state and use of carbohydrate in the insulin-stimulated prandial state, a condition which has been termed “metabolic inflexibility” [66,67] Because the diabetic heart seems to be “starved in the midst of plenty,” it has been argued that excess substrate supply may result in impaired transcriptional regulation of proteins constituting the pathways of cardiac energy metabolism and, consequently, in impaired metabolic flexibility [67,68] Today we know that the heart both adapts and maladapts to various metabolic stresses and that the adaptive responses may be favorably manipulated by the provision of specific fatty acid substrates [69] and ingestion of foods with a low glycemic index For instance, it has been reported that a lowcarbohydrate/high-fat diet can prevent or reduce some of the most serious aspects of heart failure [70,71] In addition, dietary supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids prevents development of heart failure [72], while a high-sugar diet further accelerates development of heart failure [73] How exactly obesity affects the sites of metabolic regulation in the heart is not completely understood A number of key enzymes important in the regulation of cardiac fatty acid oxidation have been characterized [74] and resulted in metabolic strategies to suppress fatty acid metabolism and protect the heart, for example, following ischemia [75] Evidence has also been provided that activation of PPARa drives myocardial FA oxidation in the diabetic heart and leads to impaired glucose uptake and utilization All these additional discoveries regarding the genetic regulation of metabolism have complemented and reinforced the importance of Randle’s glucose–fatty acid cycle by which high concentrations of fatty ­acids inhibit glucose utilization (for review, see Finck et al [76]) Fuel Availability and Cardiac Energetics   In the late 1960s and beginning of the 1970s the importance of free fatty acids as a determinant of myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) was demonstrated in experiments using dog hearts in situ The novel observation was that an acute increase in the myocardial uptake of fatty acids was associated with increased MVO2, despite unchanged mechanical activity [77] Furthermore, the fatty acid-induced increase in MVO2 was considerably higher (∼ 30%) than could be stoichiometrically accounted for based on a switch in substrate oxidation from glucose to the more oxygen-requiring fatty acids This finding initiated intensive research on the impact of fatty acids on cardiac function, providing evidence that elevated levels of fatty acids can be harmful for the heart, such as, during ischemic stress [78] Furthermore, it was also shown that pharmacological strategies, which reduced the supply of fatty acids to the heart attenuated the damage to the heart during subsequent coronary occlusion in dogs [79,80] The fatty acid-induced increase in MVO2 has later been confirmed both in pigs and rodents [42,81] Analysis of the relationships between MVO2 and total cardiac work (measured by pressure-volume techniques) has established that the increased oxygen consumption can be ascribed to nonmechanical processes, which are still not completely settled [82] and therefore are a challenge to current and new candidates in the field REFERENCES FUTURE PROSPECTS 215 Despite impressive achievements describing many of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the changes in myocardial metabolic phenotype that occur during normal physiology as well as during various disease states, we are probably just beginning to understand the complex regulatory mechanisms governing myocardial energy substrate metabolism One of the challenges for the immediate future is to identify the mechanistic links between obesity and cardiovascular disease to develop targeted metabolic interventions to ameliorate metabolic inflexibility and glucolipotoxicity in the heart, either in the short term (by changing enzyme activities) or in the long term (by alternating gene expression) [11] Priestley J Experiments and 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Aberrant oscillations, in cardiac metabolism, 134 Acetoacetic acid, liver produces, 11 Acetone chemical structure, 13 liver, produces, 11 Acetyl-CoA, 41 CAC stepwise catabolizes, 49 cardiac FA oxidation, 172 CoA yielding, 40, 199 decarboxylation, 43 FAO produces, 158 mitochondrial and cytosolic concentrations, 61 protein acetylation, 65 pyruvate, oxidizes, 17 TCA cycle yielding, 17 transferred to glucosamine-6phosphate, 47 Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) activity, 78, 143, 162 Acetyltransferases, 26 Acyl-CoA dehydrogenases, 127 Acyl-CoA oxidase (ACOX1), 28 isoforms of flavoprotein, 28 peroxisomal enzymes, 28 Acyl-CoA synthase, 18, 77, 147, 213 Adenine nucleotides end-stage heart failure, 184 interconversion of, 183 mitochondrial and cytosolic concentrations, 61 total adenine nucleotides (TAN), 183 Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) adenosine triphosphate, 208 energy production, 183 O ratio, 98 ribosylation, 129 Adenosine receptors (AR), 164 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 208 amino acid metabolism for generation, 18 AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK), 30 36 ATP molecules, synthesis of, 18 body’s energy, 17 CK reaction, 184 electrochemical gradient, 97 F1/F0 ATP synthase, 23 generation, 2, 50, 97 ATP/O ratio, 145 proton production level, 17–18 substrate-level phosphorylation, 17–18 glycolysis for generation, 3, 17 high-energy phosphoryl group, 183 hydrolysis, 1, 20 lactate oxidation and glycolysis, 77 muscle contractions, 208 myocardial phosphocreatine, 197 myocardial production, 7, 76 phosphorylation apparatus, 97 propionyl-CoA, 41 transfer, 184 Adenylate cyclase (AC), 23 Adenylate kinase, 183 Adipokines, 147 Adiponutrin (ADPN), 128 ADP See Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) Aging/development, cardiac metabolism, 73 ATP in fetal/newborn, adult, and old mammals, 74 contributions of glycolysis, glucose oxidation, lactate oxidation, and fatty acid oxidation, 76 fetal and maternal metabolism, 73 fetal energy substrates, 74–75 fetal glycolysis, 76–77 fetal heart carbohydrate oxidation, 77 fatty acid oxidation, 77 219 FFA/ketone bodies/glycerol, plasma level of, 75 mitochondria, during development, 79 neonatal energy metabolism, 77 fatty acid oxidation, 78–79 neonatal glycolysis/carbohydrate oxidation, 77–78 substrate metabolism, in elderly, 79–80 Akt pathway, 143 Alanine glyoxylate aminotransferase (AGT), 28 Alloxan, 113 American Society of Nuclear Cardiology (ASNC), 193 Amino acid metabolism, 16, 48, 210 acyl-CoA synthetase, 18 branched chain, 14 building blocks for proteins, 12–14 heart failure (HF) models metabolic remodeling, 173 ionization state, 13 nonessential amino acids, 14 pH dependent, ionization state of, 13 A-minoacyl-tRNA, 30 Amiodarone, 199 AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), 143, 156, 183 Anaerobic glycolysis, 45, 156 Anaplerosis, 45, 50 metabolic remodeling, 170 Animal models, surrogates for human diseases, 117 Antiarrhythmic effects, 149 Antifibrotic effects, 149 Anti-inflammatory effects, 149 Antioxidant response element (ARE), 162 Antioxidant therapy, 164 220 Aortic stenosis, 109 Aortic valve insufficiency, 111 Apaf-1, 33 Apoptosis, 33 Apstein, Carl, 212 Arachidonic acid, 10 Arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT), 186 Arterial oxygenation, 195 Atg genes, 34 ATP See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Autoimmune myocarditis, 114 Autophagy, 177 cardiac metabolism, 177–178 B Bcl-2-associated death (BAD) promoter protein, 161 Bcl-2 homology domain 3-only (BH3-only) proteins, 27 Bing, Richard John, 210 Biosynthesis, Blood filling, heart, 209 Blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE), 87 Bmal1 promoter, 130, 141 dgat2 gene, 132 Body mass index (BMI), 145 Branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), 14, 48 Buchner, Eduard, 208 C CAC See Citric acid cycle (CAC) Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII), 160 Ca channels, 30 Calcein, 98 Calnexin, 29 Caloric restriction, 149 Candidate gene approaches, 128 Carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP) controls, 59 Carbohydrates, to fatty acid metabolism, transition, 207 hypertrophy and heart failure, 207 metabolically relevant biochemistry, 7–8 mitochondrial oxidation of, 73 Subject Index 5-Carbon sugar, 17 Carbonylcyanid-mchlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), 26 Cardiac contractile function high-energy demand of, 53 schematic illustration of interrelation, Cardiac energetics, 172, 184 Cardiac glycogen, 41 Cardiac growth, by hyperplasia, 104 Cardiac hypertrophy, 169, 176 Cardiac imaging, noninvasive, 191 Cardiac metabolism, 1, 4, 130 beginning of new era, 210–211 Cardiac muscle, 210 cardiac energetics, 214 diabetes orchestrating metabolic fuel selection, 212 energy substrate supply, 211 fuel availability, 214 heart failure, 212 heart, metabolic signaling, 212 myocardial infarction, 212 Randle glucose–fatty acid cycle, 211 Cardiac physiology, perfusion of isolated organs, 209 Cardiac substrate, 172, 173 advantageous effect, 202 changes in metabolism, 80 nutritional environment, 80, 140 stimulating glucose, 173 Cardiac workload, 139 blood pressure to reduce, 165 chronic changes, 139 exercise, regular physical, 143 hypertension, 139 Cardiomyocytes, 41, 183 Cardiomyocyte-specific CLOCK mutant (CCM), 131 Cardioprotective signaling pathways, 164 Cardiovascular disease (CVD), 148 mitochondrial morphology, 27 O-GlcNAcylation, 65 risk for, 143, 213 Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase activity, 80 Carnitine-palmitoyl transferase I and II (CPT-I/II), 39, 67, 143, 166 Caspase activation, 34 Ca2+ transport, 23 CBK hearts, 132 CCM hearts, 132 Cell culture models, Cell cycle progression, 123 Cell death, 33 activation of, 27 apoptosis and autophagic, 33 ischemic area, 158 myocardial, time-dependent evolution of, 158 Cell maintenance, Cell membranes, 11 Cellular growth, Cellular redox environment, regulation of, 174 Cellular respiration, discovery of, 208 chemiosmotic hypothesis, 209 electron transport chain, 208 Cellular uptake, metabolic substrates, 14–16 11 C-glucose, 195 Chronic myocardial ischemia models, 108 Chylomicrones, 126 Circadian clocks, 130 Circadian rhythm, 140, 142 Citric acid cycle (CAC), 40, 48–50 catalytic efficiency, 40, 49 functional interaction, 53 reaction steps, 50 CK system See Creatine kinase (CK) system 13 C-labeled substrate, 93 Clark-type electrode, 96 Clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs), 32 14 C-octanoate, 92 Coenzyme Q10 deficiency, 96 Collagen helix, 13 Compensated hypertrophy, 169 Contractile function, COPI-guided vesicle formation, 32 Copper centrum (CuA), 25 Coronary artery anatomy, 107 Coronary artery embolization, 108 Coronary artery ligation (CAL), 107 Coronary atherosclerosis, 149 Coronary sinus cannulation, 191 11 C-palmitate, 195 Creatine kinase (CK) system, 183 ATP synthesis rates, 184 deficiency, deficiency exacerbates, 187 phosphagen system, 183 signaling mechanisms, 184 Creatine transporter (CrT), 183 down-regulation, 184 in heart (CrT-OE mice), 187 uptake via, 183 CrT See Creatine transporter (CrT) CVD See Cardiovascular disease (CVD) Cyon, Elias, 209 Cytochrome bc1 complex, 25 Cytochrome c, 23 Cytochrome c oxidase, 25 Cytoplasmic coat protein (COP) complexes, 32 Cytoplasmic fatty acid binding protein (FABPc), 15 D Dahl salt–sensitive rat, 110 Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), 35 DeLeiris, Joel, 212 Deoxygenated blood, drains, 210 Diabetes, 112, 145, 146 adipokines, 147 dietary models of metabolic syndrome, 112 hormone levels, 146 intrinsic changes, 146 metabolic syndrome dietary models, 112 nondietary experimentally induced models, 113 nutrient supply, 146 type II, 113–114 Diacylglyeride acyltransferase (DGAT2), 128 Dichloroacetate (DCA), 165, 173 Dietary monosaccharides, Dietary w-3 fatty acids, 149 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate, 43 Disaccharides sucrose, chemical structure of, Diurnal variation, in cardiac metabolism, extrinsic vs intrinsic influences, 130 cardiomyocyte circadian clock, 131–132 homeostatic model, 124 as integral clock component, 131 nutritional/environmental influences, on cardiac metabolism, 140 overview of, 123 posttranslational modifications, 129 practical implications, 133–134 relevant transcription, 127–129 221 Subject Index time-of-day-dependent oscillations, 124 metabolic fluxes, 125 amino acid metabolism, 126 fatty acid metabolism, 126 glucose metabolism, 125 translation, 129 posttranslational modifications, 127 DNA polymerase, 16 DNA replication, 123 DNP See Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) Doxorubicin, 111 DPP4-inhibitors, 201 Dye dichloroindophenol (DCIP), 95 Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP), 196 13 C-labeled tracers, 196 fragmentation, 33 mutating irritation, 20 E Electron-transferring flavoprotein (ETF), 23 ubichinone-oxidoreductase, 23 Electron transport chain (ETC), 156, 177 Electrophoresis, 89 Elongation factors (EFs), 31 End-diastolic volume, 209 Endogenous glycogen, 76 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 19 stress responsive CREB3/Luman, 31 eNOS-knockout mice, 161 Enzyme activities, 16–17 kinetics of, 17 of mitochondrial complexes, 95 regulation, 16–17 Enzyme regulation, 16–17 Enzyme–substrate complex, 16 Erythropoietin (EPO), 163 Estrogen-related receptors (ERR), 59 Etomoxir, 198 Eukaryotic cells, 19 Eukaryotic ribosomes, 30 Exercise induced cardiac hypertrophy, 104 regular physical, 143 strength exercise, 106 swim training, 106 training, 144 after myocardial infarction, 144 oxygen consumption, 144 voluntary exercise programs, 104, 105 E-xit-site, 30 F FAD+-dependent succinate dehydrogenase, 49 FAs See Fatty acids (FAs) Fas ligand (FasL), 33 Fat deposition, 196 Fatty acid metabolism, 210 beta oxidation, 28 single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging, 192 Fatty acid oxidation, 39–41, 92 catalytic efficiency, 40 reaction steps, 40 Fatty acids (FAs), 2, 10, 155, 199 adult heart, 195 for cellular uptake/metabolism, 39 b-oxidation inhibitors, 199 cardiac metabolic pathways/ cycles, complexity of, 52 carnitine synthesis inhibitors, 199 CPT inhibitors, 197 regulation, 15 therapeutic interventions– modulators, 197 free fatty acids (FFAs), 73 concentrations of plasma, 74 placenta for, 75 long-chain, 10 saturated and unsaturated, 11 transport, 15 metabolically relevant biochemistry, 10–11 oxidation of, 17 enzymes, 172 quantification of, 195 supply to heart, 142 Fatty acid translocase (FAT), 39 [18F]2-deoxy-2-fluoro-d-glucose (FDG) injection, 192, 193 Feed-forward stimulation, 66 Fetus, amino acids, 75 FFAs See Free fatty acids (FFAs) 14-(R,S)-18F-fluoro-6-thiaheptadecanoic acid (FHTA), 195 Fibroblasts overgrowing cultures, 117 Flow-metabolism mismatch, 193 Fluorescent probes, 98 Flux-generating step, 65 Frank–Starling mechanism, 209 Fuel gauge, 63 222 G Gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase (BBOX)-inhibitor blocking, 199 Gas chromatography (GC), 90 Genetically determined cardiomyopathy, 112 Genetic manipulation, 117 GLP1-R knockout model, 201 Glucogon-like-peptide (GLP-1), 161 Gluconeogenesis, 29 Glucose, cellular uptake, regulation of, 15 fatty acid cycle, 211, 212 glycolytic breakdown of, 43 storage form, transport, 41, 92 Glucose-insulin-potassium (GIK) infusion, 165, 199, 212 Glucose metabolism, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging, 192 Glucose oxidation, 126, 141 in ex vivo perfused rat hearts, 125 rates of, 77 Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), 47, 66, 87 Glucose transporters (GLUT), 14 Glucose uptake, 41, 77 cardiac metabolic pathways/cycles, complexity of, 52 2-DG accumulation, 91 modulators/metabolism, 199 biguanides–metformin, 201 DPP4-inhibitors, 201 glucose–insulin–potassium infusion, 199 incretin mimetics–GLP analogs, 201 pharmacologic agents, 200 thiazolidinediones, 202 Glucose utilization, 41 Glutamine fructose-6-phosphate aminotransferase (GFAT), 47 Glutathione peroxidase (GPx), 26 Glycerinaldehyde-3-phosphate, 43 Glycerinaldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), 43, 185 Glycogen, 8, 41 breakdown/hydrolysis of, chemical structure of, as endogenous glucose storage, 8–10 Subject Index synthesis of, Glycolysis, 43–45, 77 ATP generation, catalytic efficiency and ATP production, 43 reaction steps of, 44 Glycolytic ATP production, 212 Glycolytic enzymes, 43 Glycolytic pathway, 76 Golgi apparatus, 19, 31 cis-Golgi network (CGN), 31 G6PD deficient mice, 174 G-proteins function, 58 GTPase activity, 58 Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (GAMT-/-), 186 H HBP See Hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP) Heart ketone, 75 metabolic signaling, 212 pumping function, 207 Heart failure (HF) models, 4, 106 aortocaval shunt, 111 PO/ischemia, combination of, 111 rapid-pacing, 111 toxin, 111 ascending aortic constriction, 109 cardiac muscle, energy substrate supply, 212 coronary artery ligation, 107 in large animal models, 107 in small animals, 107 coronary artery microembolization, 108 chronic cardiac ischemia, without infarction, 108 myocardial infarction, by reperfusion, 108 hydraulic occlusion, 108 hypertensive heart failure, 109 hypertrophied See Hypertrophied heart ischemia-induced, 106 myocardial infarction, 106 isolated working heart, 115 Langendorff heart preparation, 115 left ventricular pressure overload models, 109 surgical models, 109 metabolic remodeling, 169, 177 amino acid metabolism, 173 anaplerosis, 174 autophagy, 177 cardiac hypertrophy and failure, 171 cellular processes potentially linked, 175 FA uptake, changes, 172 glucose, changes, 172 hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP), 175 increased cardiac ROS levels, 176 mitochondrial biogenesis/ function, 175 modulating substrate utilization, 172 overview of, 170 pentose phosphate pathway, 174 substrate utilization, 169 noninvasive hypertensive models, 110 Dahl salt–sensitive rat, 110 renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, 110 spontaneous hypertensive rat (SHR) model, 112 perfusate, 115 recirculating vs nonrecirculating perfusion mode, 115 right ventricular pressure overload models, 110 volume overload, 110 risk of, 202 surgically induced hypertension abdominal aortic constriction, 110 renal wrapping, 110 transverse aortic constriction, 109 valve insufficiency, 111 ventricular septal defect, 111 Vesalius, Andreas, 207 Heart preparation, Hepatic glycogen synthesis, 74 Hexokinase, 43 Hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP), 45, 47, 170, 175 reaction steps, 47 Hexose, HF models See Heart failure (HF) models 2-3H-glucose, 92 High-fat diet (HFD), 112, 140 Histidine, 14 H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS), 196 Homeostasis, 58 Hormone, disease-related changes, 146 Hydraulic occlusion, 108 b-Hydroxybutyric acid chemical structure, 13 liver, produces, 11 Hydroxyl-(OH-) group, Hyperglycemia, 123, 146 Hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, 195 Hyperlipidemia, 146 Hypertension, 139, 149 Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 197 Hypertrophied heart cardiac dysfunction, causes, 185 b-guanidinopropionic acid (b-GPA), 187 CK inhibition, by iodoacetamide (IA), 185 CK knockout mice, 186 creatine deficiency by genetic modification, 186 cardiac energetics augmentation of, 187 in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), 187 creatine kinase phosphagen system, 183 failing heart, impaired energetics in, 184, 187 Hypertrophied rat hearts, 174 Hypertrophy-associated anaplerotic changes, 174 Hypertrophy models, 105 Hypothesis generating, cardiac metabolism, 127 Hypoxia, defined, Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), 161, 163 I 123 I beta-methyl-piodophenylpentadecanoic acid (BMIPP), 192 Immunostaining, 87 Inapt animal models, 163 Infarction See Myocardial infarction (MI) Inflammatory cardiomyopathy, 114 Inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), 87 Insulin receptor tyrosine kinase, 63 Insulin sensitivity, 123 Insulin signaling, 114 Interfibrillar mitochondria (IFM), 94 Subject Index Intracellular organelles roles, metabolically relevant cell biology carrier systems/mitochondrial transporters, 22 cell death apoptosis, 33–34 autophagic, 34 necroptosis, 35 necrosis, 34–35 cellular compartments, 19 cytosol, 19 endoplasmic/sarcoplasmic reticulum, 29–30 inner mitochondrial membrane carrier systems and series connection, 21 malate/aspartate shuttle system, 23 mitochondria, 20 ATP-genesis from ADP, 25 cardiovascular diseases impact mitochondrial morphology, 27 central metabolic processors, 23 electrogenic carrier, 23 metabolic chain and oxidative phosphorylation, 26 NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase, 24 neutral carriers transport acids, 23 nonelectrogenic, 23 exchange carrier, 23 proton-compensated carrier, 23 respiratory chain, 26 transcription factors, 27 mitochondrial human genome cis and trans strand, 21 mitochondrial respiratory chain, 24 peroxisomes, 28 ribosomes/metabolism regulated protein synthesis, 30 Golgi apparatus, 31–32 transport system and vesicle pools, 32–33 steady states, defined, 26 Intrinsic metabolic homeostasis, 58 Invasive coronary catheterization, 191 Investigation methods, cardiac metabolism, 85 assessing metabolic flux, 91–94 enzymatic reaction, basic mechanism of, 88 glucose tracers 3-O-methylglucose (3-O-MG)/2-DG, 92 223 measuring enzyme activity in vitro, 88–89 metabolomics, 90–91 mitochondrial complex activities, spectrophotometric assays of, 95–96 mitochondrial research, 94 mitochondrial respiration assessing by polarography, 96–98 mitochondrial structure, assess additional aspects of, 98–99 moieties/intermediates, quantification of, 86–88 radioactive glucose/fatty acid tracers/tracer analogs, 93 sample uses, 85 spectrophotometric assays, metabolite concentration/ enzyme properties, 87 transcriptomics/proteomics, 89–90 in vivo/in vitro/ex vivo, 85 15-(p-Iodophenyl)-pentadecanoic acid (IPPA), 192 Ischemia See also Ischemia-reperfusion injury Ischemia-reperfusion injury, 157–159 calcium ion homeostasis/cardiac contractility, 160 cardioprotective signaling pathways, 161 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), 162 antioxidant pathways, 162 hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), 163 reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) pathway, 161 survivor activating factor enhancement (SAFE) pathway, 162 in heart, 155 vulnerability, 156 metabolic changes, 156–157 in mitochondrial dysfunction, 160 ROS production, causes elevates, 159–160 therapies/pharmacologic modulators, 163 interventions minimizing cellular damage, 164 metabolic modulation, 165–166 pre/postconditioning, 164 vascular responses endothelial cell dysfunction and leukocyte adhesion, 160 224 Ischemia–reperfusion injury, 25 Ischemic preconditioning, 161 Isolated heart perfusion, 92 Isoleucine, 14 K 3-Ketoacyl-CoA thiolase inhibitors, 199 Ketone(s) acetoacetic acid, chemical structure, 13 in heart, 75 metabolism of, 210 biochemistry, relevancy, 11–12 Krebs cycle, 23, 25, 48, 93, 195, 208 acetyl-CoA, 43 fatty acid oxidation of, 208 noninvasive evaluation of, 196 oxidative phosphorylation, 208 Krebs–Henseleit buffer (KHB), 115 L Lactate D/L-isomeric forms, chemical structure of, 10 levels, 74 metabolically relevant biochemistry, 10 Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 45 Lactate oxidation, 77 Lactose, chemical structure of, Langendorff model, 209 heart preparation, 115 Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 208 Laplace’s law, 139 Lavoisier, Antoine, 208 Lecithin chemical structure, 12 chemical structure of, 12 Leucine, 14 Lipids energy sources for cardiac contraction, 39 mitochondrial oxidation of, 73 Lipmann, Fritz, 208 Lipogenic substrates, 75 Lipolysis, 196 Liquid chromatography (LC), 90 Liver ChIPseq information, 132 Long-chain fatty acids, 10 biological membrane, 15 saturated and unsaturated, 11 L-type Ca2+ channel (LTCC), 160 Lysine, 14 Lysosomal proteins, 31 Subject Index M Mammalian target (mTOR), 161 Mass-to-charge ratio, 90 Maternal–fetal gas exchange, 77 Metabolic adaptation, 57 Metabolic control analysis, 57 Metabolic cycles, 39 Metabolic fluxes, 91 Metabolic inflexibility, 213 Metabolic modulator, 165 Metabolic pathways, 2, 39 Metabolic remodeling, in heart failure, 169 amino acid metabolism, 173 anaplerosis, 174 autophagy, 177 cardiac hypertrophy and failure, 171 cellular processes potentially linked, 175 FA uptake, changes, 172 glucose, changes, 172 hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP), 175 increased cardiac ROS levels, 176 mitochondrial biogenesis/function, 175 modulating substrate utilization, 172 overview of, 170 pentose phosphate pathway, 174 substrate utilization, 169 Metabolic substrates, cellular uptake, 14–16 Metformin, 201 Metformin in diastolic dysfunction in patients with metabolic syndrome (“MET-DIME”), 201 Metoprolol, 199 Michaelis-Menten kinetics, 16, 88 Mitochondria (mt), 19, 208 Mitochondrial anion carriers, 20 Mitochondrial apoptosis-induced channel (MAC), 161 Mitochondrial-creatine kinase (Mt-CK), 183 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 20, 175 Mitochondrial dysfunction, 176 Mitochondrial fission, 27 Mitochondrial oxidative flux, 213 Mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pore, 158 Mitochondrial respiration, 94 Mitochondrial ribosomes, 20 Mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), 26 Mitochondrial transport systems, 20 Mitochondria targeted CoQ10 (MitoQ), 164 Models to cardiac metabolism investigation aerobic interval training, 105 anaerobic exercise training, 105 strength training, 106 swimming exercise, 106 animal models, 103, 104 advantages/disadvantages, 117 cell culture models, 116 adult cardiomyocytes, 117 HL-1 cells, 117 neonatal cardiomyocytes, 116 continuous exercise, 105 diabetes, 112 exercise-induced cardiac hypertrophy, 104–105 treadmill training, 105 voluntary exercise, 105 ex vivo – isolated heart perfusion, 114 genetically determined See Genetically determined cardiomyopathy heart failure (HF) See Heart failure (HF) models in humans, 103 inflammatory cardiomyopathy, 114 ischemia in hypoxia, 106 obesity, 112 Monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), 16 Monosaccharide a-glucose chemical structure of, Monosaccharides, MPT inhibitor cyclosporine A, 165 mtDNA mutations, 27 mTOR, protein synthesis, 162 Multisite coordinated control, 66 Myocardial ATP production, 77 Myocardial fatty acid oxidation, 198 pharmacologic agents modulating, 198 Myocardial glucose metabolism, 200 Myocardial infarction (MI), 4, 106, 107, 155 Myocardial ischemia, 158 Myocardial lipid accumulation, 147 Myocardial metabolism, nuclear imaging of, 191 Myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2), 77, 214 Myocardial substrate metabolism, 212 Myokines, 143 N NAD+-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase transforms, 49 NADH-dehydrogenase, 79 NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase, 23 NADP+-dependent glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase, 45 NADPH oxidase, 148 Necroptosis, 35 Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, 116 Neutrophils, 160 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), 45 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides (NAD+), 43, 95 Nitric oxide, 58 Nitric oxide synthesis (NOS), 159, 162 Noninvasive analysis, of cardiac metabolism, 191 Nox enzymes, 159 N-terminal signaling sequence, 20 Nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT), 175 Nuclear respiratory factors, 27 Nutrient transport, 73 Nutritional changes, Nutritional/environmental influences, on cardiac metabolism, 139 acute changes in circulating substrate levels, 139 cardiac energy homeostasis, regulation of, 145 cardiac glucose and fatty acid oxidation PDH and mCPT1, 144 relative rates of, 144 dietary interventions, 148–150 diurnal variations, 140–141 fasting/circulating fatty acid levels, 141–143 fatty acids supply to heart, 142 obesity/diabetes, 145 adipokines, 147 hormone levels, 146 intrinsic changes, 146 nutrient supply, 146 PGC1, cardiac energy homeostasis, 145 regular physical exercise, 143–144 Western diet, 148–150 Subject Index O Obesity, 112, 145 adipokines, 147 genetic models for, 113 hormone levels, 146 intrinsic changes, 146 nutrient supply, 146 nutritional models to assess cardiac metabolism, 112 diet, 112 paradox, 148 O-GlcNAcase (OGA), 47, 65 O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), 47, 128, 129 O-GlcNAcylation, 126, 129, 132, 175 Oligosaccharides, Olive oil, 148 Oliver, Michael, 212 OMICS technology, 89 Opie, Lionel H., 213 Otsuka Long–Evans Tokushima fatty (OLETF) rats, 113, 114 Oxalosuccinate, decarboxylation of, 49 b-Oxidation, reaction steps, 40 Oxidative modification, 99 Oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) system, 18, 20 Oxidative stress, 174 Oxygen consumption, metabolic rate, 208 Oxygen discovery, primary respiratory gas, 208 P Palmitate-to-palmitate-CoA activation, 197 PDH See Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex PDH kinases (PDK), 64 Pentose-phosphate pathway (PPP), 41, 45–47, 170 interactions of, 42 reaction steps of, 46 Pentoses, P-eptidyle tRNA, 30 Percutaneous coronary angiography (PTCA), 108 Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), 164 Perfusion-FDG metabolism, 192 Perhexiline, 197 Period and cryptochrome genes (PER1), 130 225 Perosixome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), 80, 127, 141 Peroxisomal beta oxidation products, 28 Peroxisomes, 19, 28 PGC1a expression, in heart/ extracardiac tissues, 134 Phenylalanine, 14 Phosphagen system, 183 Phosphatidylcholine chemical structure, 12 Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), 60, 161 Phosphatidylinositols (PIPs), 161 Phosphocreatine (PCr), 183 Phosphofructo kinase (PFK), 43, 76 6-Phosphofructo1-kinase (PFK1), 66 Phospholipids, 11 chemical structure, 12 chemical structure of, 12 Phosphorylase, 66 Phosphorylations, 62, 124 covalent modification, 62–64 multiple, 64 protein kinases cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), 63 fuel gauge, 63 insulin receptor tyrosine kinase, 63 insulin signaling, 63 multiple/hierarchical, 64 protein phosphatases, 64 pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) catalyzes, 64 PI3-Kinase–AMPK pathway, 199 P-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 184 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 86 Polysaccharides, Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 112 Positron-emission tomography (PET), 145, 192 total oxygen consumption, 195 Postconditioning cardioprotection, 161 Post-MI model, using MRI follow-up, 187 Posttranslational modifications (PTMs), 129 PPP See Pentose-phosphate pathway (PPP) Preconditioning cardioprotection, 161 226 Priestley, Joseph, 208 Primary respiratory gas, discovery of oxygen, 208 Prolyl-hydroxylases (PHDs), 163 Propionyl-CoA carboxylase catalyzes, 41 Protein A binding, 25 Protein degradation, 177 Protein expression, Protein kinase B (PKB), 60 Protein kinase C delta (PKC-d), 165 Protein–protein interactions, regulation principles of cardiac metabolism, 67–68 Proteins amino acids-building blocks for, 12–14 structure of, 13 synthesis, 126 Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP), 64 Proton production level, 17–18 31 P spectrum, 94 Pulmonary artery, 110 Pyruvate, Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex, 43, 64, 140, 172, 212 Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK), 43, 127, 140 R Radionuclides, 193 Randle cycle controls fuel selection, 212 Randle glucose–fatty acid cycle, 211, 214 Randle, Philip, Sir, 212 Rapid pacing models, 111 Rat heart preparation, isolated perfused, 210 Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, 20, 59, 95, 148, 158, 213 Receptor interacting protein kinase (RIPK1), 35 Redox-equivalent transporters, 20 Regular physical exercise, 143 Regulation principles, of cardiac metabolism, 57 enzyme activity long-term control, 59–60 short-term control, 60–65 compartmentation, 61 covalent modifications of proteins, 65 Subject Index phosphorylation, covalent modification, 62–64 substrates/ligands, effect of, 60 flux control, 65 flux-generating steps, 65 flux reversal, 65 glucose metabolism, multistep coordinated control of, 61 metabolic pathway, 57–58 reactive oxygen species (ROS), 59 signaling pathway, 58–59 signal transduction, 58–59 protein kinases in metabolism, 62 protein–protein interactions, 67–68 protein Ser/Thr phosphatases, 63 pull mechanism, demand control, 66–67 push mechanism, supply control, 66 substrate interaction/competition, 67 Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, 148 Reperfusion See also Ischemiareperfusion injury myocardial infarction, 108 Reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) pathway, 161 Respiratory chain, 51 Respiratory control, 26, 97 Respiratory gas, primary oxygen, discovery of, 208 Retroviruses, genetic manipulation, 117 Rhythmic genes, computational analysis, 127 Rhythms, 130 Ribosomes, 29, 30 mammalian mitochondrial, 30 Ribulose-5-phosphate, 45 isomerization and epimerization, 45 Rieske complex, 25 Right ventricular (RV), 109 Ryanodine-receptor, 30 S Sarcoplasmic glucose, 43 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SPR), 29 Scanning electron microscopic, 79 Signaling pathway, 58 Signal transduction, 58 Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging, 192 fatty acid metabolism, 192 glucose metabolism, 192 magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) hyperpolarization/dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP), 196 myocardial fatty acid deposition measurement, 196 MR-based methods myocardial oxygenation, 196 positron emission tomography imaging, 193 myocardial fatty acid metabolism (flux) measurement, 195 myocardial glucose uptake / metabolism measurement, 193 myocardial lactate metabolism measurement, 195 myocardial oxygen consumption measurement, 195 Sirtuins, 26 Skeletal muscle, insulin resistance, 211 Smooth ER (SER), 29 Solute carrier (SLC) family, 16 SPECT imaging See Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging Spectrophotometric assays, 86 Spontaneous hypertensive rat (SHR) model, 110 SRCa2+-ATPase (SERCA), 160 Starling, Ernest, 209 STAT3 promotes protection, 162 Sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP1c), 59 Streptozotocin (STZ), 113 induced diabetes mellitus, 134 Subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM), 94 Substrate–enzyme complex, 88 Succinyl-CoA, 14 Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 131 orchestrates synchrony, 131 T Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, 192 Tetramethylrhodamine-methylester (TMRM), 98 TG synthesis, 213 Thenoyltrifluoroacetone (TTFA), 95 Thiazolidinediones, failing heart, 202 Threonine, 14 Thrombolysis, 108 TNFR-associated death domain (TRADD), 33 TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor-1 (TRAILR1), 33 Transcriptome, 89 Transcriptomic analysis, 143 Translocase of the inner membrane (TIM), 20 Transverse aortic constriction, 109 Triacylglycerols, 11 cell membranes, 11 hydroxyl groups forms ester, 11 rodent heart, 126 Triacylglycerol tripalmitoylglycerol, chemical structure, 12 227 Subject Index Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), 14, 48, 173, 208 Triglycerides See Triacylglycerols Trimetazidine, 199 Tritium-labeled water (3HOH), 92 U Ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), 60 UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), 47 Uncoupling proteins (UCPs), 127 Urea cycle, 23 Uridine diphosphate (UDP) glucose molecule, Uridine triphosphate (UTP), V Vasodilatory drugs, 165 Ventricular dysfunction, 175 Ventricular septal defect, 111 Ventricular stroke volume, 209 Vesalius, Andreas, 207 Vesicles, targeting proteins, 29 Voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), 32 von Helmholtz, Hermann, 208 von Mayer, Julius Robert, 208 W Waste products, Western blotting analysis, 86, 129 Wilhelm, Carl, 208 ... protons to be pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix into the outer compartment of the mitochondria, yielding a proton gradient The enzyme ATP synthase uses this gradient to facilitate a proton-flux... environment building up to 50% of the cellular volume The cytoplasma on the other hand is defined as the total inner-cellular volume with the exception of the nucleus, that is, the cytosol and all associated... in investigating cardiac metabolism but are lacking the fundamentals, you need The Scientist’s Guide to Cardiac Metabolism Reading this book will provide you with the basic and, therefore, often