A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present ANDREW GORDON OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS A MODER N HISTO RY OF JAPAN This page intentionally left blank A MODERN HISTORY OF JAPAN From Tokugawa Times to the Present ANDREW GORDON Harvard University New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2003 Oxford University Press Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi São Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto and an associated company in Berlin Copyright © 2003 by Oxford University Press, Inc Published by Oxford University Press, Inc 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 http://www.oup-usa.org Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gordon, Andrew, 1952– A modern history of Japan: from Tokugawa times to the present / Andrew Gordon p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-19-511060-9 (cloth)—ISBN 0-19-511061-7 (pbk.) Japan—History—1868– Japan—History—Tokugawa period, 1600–1868 I Title DS881.9 G66 2003 952—dc21 2002070916 Printing number: Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Contents Maps, Tables, and Figures ix Preface xi Introduction: Enduring Imprints of the Longer Past PART CRISIS OF THE TOKUGAWA REGIME The Tokugawa Polity Unification The Tokugawa Political Settlements 11 The Daimyo¯ 13 The Imperial Institution 14 The Samurai 14 Villagers and City-Dwellers 15 The Margins of the Japanese and Japan 16 Social and Economic Transformations 20 The Seventeenth-Century Boom 20 Riddles of Stagnation and Vitality 27 The Intellectual World of Late Tokugawa 34 Ideological Foundations of the Tokugawa Regime 34 Cultural Diversity and Contradictions 37 Reform, Critiques, and Insurgent Ideas 42 The Overthrow of the Tokugawa 46 The Western Powers and the Unequal Treaties 46 The Crumbling of Tokugawa Rule 50 Politics of Terror and Accommodation 54 Bakufu Revival, the Satsuma-Cho¯shu¯ Insurgency, and Domestic Unrest v 56 vi CONTENTS PART MODERN REVOLUTION, 1868–1905 The Samurai Revolution 61 Programs of Nationalist Revolution 62 Political Unification and Central Bureaucracy 63 Eliminating the Status System 64 The Conscript Army 66 Compulsory Education 67 The Monarch at the Center 68 Building a Rich Country 70 Stances toward the World 73 Participation and Protest 77 Political Discourse and Contention 78 Movement for Freedom and People’s Rights 80 Samurai Rebellions, Peasant Uprisings, and New Religions 85 Participation for Women 88 Treaty Revision and Domestic Politics 91 The Meiji Constitution 92 Social, Economic, and Cultural Transformations 94 Landlords and Tenants 94 Industrial Revolution 96 The Work Force and Labor Conditions 100 Spread of Mass and Higher Education 105 Culture and Religion 108 Affirmations of Japanese Identity and Destiny 111 Empire and Domestic Order 115 The Trajectory to Empire 115 Contexts of Empire, Capitalism, and Nation-Building 123 The Turbulent World of Diet Politics 126 The Era of Popular Protest 131 Engineering Nationalism 136 PART IMPERIAL JAPAN FROM ASCENDANCE TO ASHES Economy and Society 139 Wartime Boom and Postwar Bust 139 Landlords, Tenants, and Rural Life 144 Contents vii City Life: Middle and Working Classes 148 Cultural Responses to Social Change 154 10 Democracy and Empire between the World Wars 161 The Emergence of Party Cabinets 162 The Structure of Parliamentary Government 165 Ideological Challenges 167 Strategies of Imperial Democratic Rule 169 Japan, Asia, and the Western Powers 173 11 The Depression Crisis and Responses 182 Economic and Social Crisis 182 Breaking the Impasse: New Departures Abroad 186 Toward a New Social and Economic Order 192 Toward a New Political Order 196 12 Japan in Wartime 204 Wider War in China 204 Toward Pearl Harbor 207 The Pacific War 209 Mobilizing for Total War 212 Living in the Shadow of War 217 Ending the War 221 Burdens and Legacies of War 224 13 Occupied Japan: New Departures and Durable Structures 226 Bearing the Unbearable 226 The American Agenda: Demilitarize and Democratize 229 Japanese Responses 234 The Reverse Course 238 Toward Recovery and Independence: Another Unequal Treaty? 240 PART POSTWAR AND CONTEMPORARY JAPAN, 1952–2000 14 Economic and Social Transformations 245 The Postwar “Economic Miracle” 245 Transwar Patterns of Community, Family, School, and Work 251 Shared Experiences and Standardized Lifeways of the Postwar Era 254 Differences Enduring and Realigned 259 Managing Social Stability and Change 262 Images and Ideologies of Social Stability and Change 264 viii CONTENTS 15 Political Struggles and Settlements of the High-Growth Era 270 Political Struggles 270 The Politics of Accommodation 279 Global Connections: Oil Crisis and the End of High Growth 287 16 Global Power in a Polarized World: Japan in the 1980s 291 New Roles in the World and New Tensions 291 Economy: Thriving through the Oil Crises 298 Politics: The Conservative Heyday 301 Society and Culture in the Exuberant Eighties 304 17 Beyond the Postwar Era 310 The End of Sho¯wa and the Transformation of the Symbol Monarchy The End of LDP Hegemony 312 The Economic Bubble Bursts 314 The Japanese Disease at Century’s End? 320 Issues for the Future 328 310 Appendix A Prime Ministers of Japan, 1885–2000 333 Appendix B Vote Totals and Seats by Party, 1945–2000 Lower House 335 Elections Notes 345 Select Bibliography 363 Index 371 Maps, Tables, and Figures Maps Tokugawa Japan 47 The Japanese Empire, 1895–1939 191 War in the Pacific 205 Japan Today 296 Tables 2.1 2.2 7.1 8.1 9.1 10.1 14.1 14.2 16.1 Major Cities circa 1720 21 Peasant Protests, 1600–1867 31 Labor Force Numbers, Early Twentieth Century 100 Riots in Tokyo, 1905–18 132 Core Subsidiaries in the Mitsui and Mitsubishi Combines at War’s End 144 Party Cabinets 1918–32 164 Nominal GNP of Five Major Nations, 1951–80 248 Equality of Access to Japanese Higher Education, 1961–74 255 Real GNP Growth of Major Economies in 1980s 299 Figures 14.1 14.2 16.1 17.1 17.2 Real GNP and Capital Formation, 1951–76 247 Rise of Middle-Class Consciousness 268 United States–Japan Trade Balance, 1963–79 292 Real GNP Growth in Japan, 1983–99 316 Real GDP Growth of Major Economies, 1999 326 ix 370 C SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Thought and Culture Burkman, Thomas W The Occupation of Japan: Arts and Culture Norfolk, Va.: Liskey Lith ograph, 1988 Cary, Otis, ed War-Wasted Asia: Letters, 1945–46 Tokyo and New York: Kodansha Interna tional, 1975 Field, Norma In the Realm of a Dying Emperor: A Portrait of Japan at Century’s End New York: Pantheon Books, 1991 Kersten, Rikki Democracy in Postwar Japan: Maruyama Masao and the Search of Autonomy London and New York: Routledge, 1996 Koschmann, Victor Revolution and Subjectivity in Postwar Japan Chicago: University of Chi cago Press, 1996 Krauss, Ellis S Japanese Radicals Revisited: Student Protest in Postwar Japan Berkeley: Uni versity of California Press, 1974 Lifton, Robert J Death in Life: The Survivors of Hiroshima New York: Random House, 1968 Olson, Lawrence Ambivalent Moderns: Portraits of Japanese Cultural Identity Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1992 Treat, John Whittier Writing Ground Zero: Japanese Literature and the Atomic Bomb Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995 Tsurumi, Shunsuke A Cultural History of Postwar Japan, 1945–1980 London: KPI Limited, 1987 D Japan and the World Buckley, Roger U.S.–Japan Alliance Diplomacy, 1945–1990 Cambridge: Cambridge Univer sity Press, 1992 Encarnation, Dennis J Rivals beyond Trade: America versus Japan in Global Competition Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992 Havens, Thomas H Fire across the Sea: The Vietnam War and Japan, 1965–1975 Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987 Hein, Laura, and Mark Selden, eds Living with the Bomb: American and Japanese Cultural Conflicts in the Nuclear Age Armonk, N.Y.: M.E Sharpe, 1997 Miyoshi, Masao Off Center: Power and Culture Relations between Japan and the United States Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991 Nagai, Yo¯nosuke, and Akira Iriye, eds The Origins of the Cold War in Asia New York: Co lumbia University Press, 1977 Pyle, Kenneth B The Japanese Question: Power and Purpose in a New Era Washington, D.C.: The AEI Press, 1992 Schonberger, Howard B Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945–1952 Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1989 Index Abe Isoo, 134, 197 Abe Masahiro, 48, 51, 52 Abe Nobuyuki, 207 advertising industry, 266–67, 307 Agricultural Basic Law, 279 agriculture, 2, 95, 194, 307; mechanization of, 254; rice, 4, 25, 26, 162, 214, 215, 279; in Tokugawa period, 9, 27; wartime, 214, 215 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), 319–20 Ainu people, 17, 75, 259 air raids, 222, 225 Aizawa Saburo¯, 198 Aizawa Yasushi (Seishisai), 19, 44, 45, 52, 67, 77 Aizu domain, 52, 55, 56, 59 Akihito, Crown Prince, 265, 310, 311 Akutagawa Ryu¯nosuke, 159 Allied Council for Japan, 229; members of, 355n9b See also Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers All-Japan Federation of Student Self-Governing Associations (Zengakuren), 275, 283 Amaterasu, 6, 137 anarchism, 134, 167 The Anatomy of Dependence (Amae on ko¯zo¯; Doi Takeo), 301 Ancient Learning (Kogaku), School of, 37, 43 Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902), 173 Anpo See U.S.-Japan Security Treaty Ansei Purge (1858), 54 Anti-Comintern Pact (1936), 207 anti-foreignism, 92 anti-modernism, 219–21 anti-nuclear movement, 274, 275 anti-tax movements, 125 Anti-Terrorism Law, 331 anti-treaty protests, 274, 276 anti-war movements, 275, 282–83, 285, 319 Arahata Kanson, 167 Araki Sadao, 180, 197, 198 Arisawa Hiromi, 192, 272 art, 38–39, 94, 109, 113; market in, 308; in Tokugawa era, 160; ukiyo-e, 38, 108 See also literature; music; theater artisans, 15–16, 20, 36; traveling, 160 Asahara Sho¯ko, 318–19 Asahi Shinbun (newspaper), 79 Asano zaibatsu, 231 Asanuma Inejiro¯ ASEAN See Association of Southeast Asian Nations Ashio copper mine, 97 Asia, 210, 212, 295; colonial possessions in, 174; effects of World War I in, 139; hegemony in, 74, 131, 180, 186, 208, 238; occupation of Southeast, 298; Soviet power in, 207; Western power in, 207 Asian Monetary Fund, 331 Aso¯ Hisashi, 197 assassinations, 182, 187, 189, 190, 195, 198, 200, 202, 279 assemblies, national, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 93 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 297 Association to Write New Textbooks, 332 atomic bombs, 223, 224, 225, 227, 332; survivors of (hibakusha), 274 Aum Shinrikyo¯, 318–19, 324 automobile industry, 248, 268, 293 bakufu (tent government; military government), 3, 17, 56, 57; and foreign trade, 48–51; Tokugawa, 11, 15, 37; and villages, 16, 26 bakumatsu (men of action), 81, 92 banking, 96, 97, 183, 248; 1927 crisis in, 140, 142, 143; in 1990s, 316–17, 325, 328 Bank of Taiwan, 142 Basic Law for a Gender-Equal Society (1999), 329 Beresford, Charles, 118 Berlin Wall, 310 Bikini Island, 274 biological warfare, 220 Bird, Isabella, 32 birth control, 264 birthrate, 304, 323, 329 black market, 228, 240 Black River Society, 167 Bolsheviks, Russian, 167, 175 Bose, Subhas Chandra, 211 Boxer Rebellion (China), 120 Buddhism, 4–5, 35, 154, 188; and Christianity, 111; and Confucianism, 6, 36; and festivals, 253, 255; ikko¯ (single-minded) sects of, 10; Nichiren, 5, 261; and popular religions, 45, 159; Pure Land, 5; and Shinto, 110; temples of, 17, 261; Zen, 5, 35 bullet train, 254, 255, 266 bunraku puppet theater, 39–40, 81–83, 94 Buraku Liberation League, 262 burakumin (village people), 65, 154, 259, 261–62 Buraku Special Measures Law (1969), 262 371 372 INDEX bureaucracy, 15, 64, 123, 127, 129, 172, 188, 279; and big business, 236, 243; corruption in, 319– 20; and Diet, 165; economic, 212; and free market, 214, 236; meritocratic, 202; in Occupation, 236, 242; and political parties, 130, 262; and politicians, 136, 169; vs private sector, 150 Burma, 177, 210, 211, 356n9a business, 183, 217, 243, 263, 271; and government, 250–51, 262; in Occupation, 235, 240; quality control in, 299–300; small, 148, 149, 213, 252, 259, 279–80; and unions, 172, 279 Cabinet Planning Bureau, 194, 212 cabinets: and professional politicians, 196–97; transcendental (1922–24), 171 Campaign for Economic Revitalization, 195 Canada, 356n9a, 359n4 capitalism, 7, 119, 167, 194, 197, 236, 271, 287; and Confucianism, 99–100; and Depression, 183, 189; free-market, 192, 214; global, 321; humanized, 269; industrial, 70, 71, 97, 114, 123, 135, 290; insecurities of, 160; Japanesestyle, 99, 291, 327; managed, 250–51; of Meiji era, 98; state-controlled, 212 See also economy; labor “The Cardinal Principles of the National Polity” (Kokutai no hongi), 199 cartels, 193–94, 213, 250 castle towns, 15, 20–21, 27, 28, 53 Catholicism, 3, 17 censorship, 42, 85, 179, 199, 217, 231, 298 CGP See Clean Government Party Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 61–62 Chaplin, Charlie, 156, 200 Charter Oath (1868; Five-Article Oath), 78–79 chemical industry, 194, 217 Chiang Kai-shek, 176–77, 187, 204, 207 Chichibu uprising, 87, 88, 96 Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 40 China: 1911 revolution in, 173, 176; and Allied Council for Japan, 356n9a; classic texts in, 6; communists in, 239; criticism of Japanese textbooks by, 332; demonstrations in, 178; diplomatic relations with, 18; examination system in, 5, 41; and Far Eastern Commission, 356n9a; and Japan, 3–4, 75, 115–20, 173–74, 176, 182, 197, 238; Japanese military intervention in, 165, 190–92; Japanese occupation of, 204, 206, 211, 214, 224, 297, 298, 332; Japanese trade with, 33, 42, 96, 272; and Korea, 116, 117, 118, 178–79, 192; nationalism in, 178, 180, 209; Nixon visit to, 291; Opium Wars in, 48, 50, 176; People’s Republic of (PRC), 242, 246, 291, 292; Qing dynasty in, 18, 116, 173, 176, 189; renaming of “invasion” of, 297; Republic of (Taiwan), 242; and Soviet Union, 206; T’ang dynasty in, 6; textile mills in, 140; tribute system in, 4, 18, 116; and Twenty-One Demands, 162, 173– 74; and the West, 219 See also Sino-Japanese War; Taiwan Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), 176, 180, 186, 187, 190; and communists, 239; and Japanese invasion of China, 204, 206, 207; and U.S., 208, 239 Chiossone, Eduardo, 69 Chisso Chemical Fertilizer, 194 Cho¯shu¯ domain, 52–59, 61, 63, 64, 66, 72, 73, 81 Christianity, 3, 15, 17, 77, 110, 111, 234 Christian Women’s Reform Society, 274 Chun Doo Hwan, 297 Churchill, Winston, 239 Chu¯shingura (Kabuki play), 40 cities, 28, 32, 148–54, 160, 259; entertainment quarters of, 38, 40; life in, 7, 9, 16; migration to, 95; Tokugawa, 23, 160; vs countryside, 139, 195, 254 See also middle class citizen movements, 282, 283, 285, 287 Citizen’s Federation: Peace to Vietnam! (Beheiren), 282, 283 citizenship law, 304 Clean Government Party (CGP; Ko¯meito Party), 286–87, 302, 314, 316, 321, 322, 323 Cold War, 239, 270, 289, 312, 313, 315, 321, 330 Collected Works of Contemporary Japanese Literature, 160 colonialism, 74–75, 173–81, 211, 224, 298 See also imperialism Comintern, 168 Commoner News (Heimin Shinbun), 134 commoners (heimin), 15–16, 33, 78, 85; criticism of, 44, 67; in Meijii era, 65, 164; and political rallies, 126, 135; Tokugawa, 77, 160 communism, 134, 158, 167, 198, 199, 207; containment of, 272; crackdown on, 239–40; and dissent, 113; and militant unionism, 235; opposition to, 240, 273, 282, 289; support of, 302; threat of, 330 See also Japan Communist Party communist movement, 176, 186, 237, 238 Conditions in the West (Fukuzawa), 80 Confucianism, 4–6, 42, 53, 83, 99, 105; and Buddhism, 6, 36; neo-, 5, 6, 35, 36, 37; and Tokugawa social order, 16, 41 Confucius, 36, 37 constitution, 80–85, 90, 91, 105, 111, 114; and Diet, 126, 131, 230, 272; and emperor, 107, 112, 165; and gender equality, 304; postwar, 230–31, 236, 240, 242, 243, 272, 287; and public support for treaties, 119; and religious freedom, 110; revision of, 272–73, 279, 303; and succession law, 312 construction industry, 301, 302 consumer electronics, 248, 267, 305 consumerism, 249, 252, 259, 267, 268, 269, 285, 307 control associations, 213 See also cartels Control Faction (to¯sei-ha), 198 Council for Gender Equality, 329 cram schools, 308 crime, juvenile, 324–25 culture, 4, 113, 266, 300; attack on Western, 219; commercial, 267, 269; kasutori, 229; mass, 307; mechanization of material, 199–200; Meiji period, 94, 108; popular, 201–2, 219; and social change, 154–55, 269; Westerniza Index tion of Japanese, 108–9; and women, 155; youth, 305, 306 currency, 140, 182–83, 192–93, 291 daimyo¯ (military lords), 3, 10, 11, 12, 44, 49, 78; abolition of domains of, 13, 63, 65; and alternate attendance, 13–14, 21; debts of, 29, 34; descendants of, 314; fudai, 13, 52; pensions of, 70; and samurai, 9, 15, 20; tax payments of, 25, 26; tozama (outer), 13, 19, 55; traveling, 24 danchi (apartment blocks), 257 “The Danger from Japan” (White), 294 Dan Takuma, 187, 350n5 Darwinism, social, 79 Date Masao, 202 datsu-sara (escape from salary), 268 Dazai Osamu, 229 de Gaulle, Charles, 250 Dejima island, 17 demilitarization, 229–30 democracy, 126, 170, 189, 239, 240, 264, 267; imperial, 161, 171, 172, 173, 181, 182, 234; and U.S occupation of Japan, 230, 231 See also Taisho¯ democracy Democratic Party (Minshuto¯), 237, 238, 271 Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), 322, 323, 325 Democratic Socialist Party (DSP), 281, 282, 321 democratization, 229, 232; vs promotion of economic recovery, 215 Department Store Law, 280 Depression, 182–86; responses to, 186–203 Diet, 78, 123, 212, 217; 1937–38 session of, 216; and bureaucrats, 162, 164, 165; and cabinet ministers, 92, 127; composition of, 93, 126; and constitution, 126, 230; elections to, 127– 28, 163, 216, 270, 271, 303, 313, 323; and factory laws, 171, 172; and health insurance laws, 171, 172; and military, 127, 162, 165; politics of, 126–31, 242, 279; powers of, 93, 119; and renewed U.S.-Japan Treaty, 276, 283; and succession law, 312; support of, 118; and taxes, 127; and women, 90, 236 discrimination, 154, 231, 260–61, 262, 304, 327, 328–29 Dodge, Joseph, 241 Dodge line program, 241 Doi Takako, 313 Doi Takeo, 301 domains, 3, 14, 43, 62; abolition of, 13, 63, 65; fudai, 52; and samurai, 21, 105 See also Satsuma domain; Tosa domain Do¯mei Kaigi, 281, 282 Do¯shikai party, 162, 163, 174, 180 Dulles, John Foster, 241 Dutch, 17, 21, 35, 44, 48, 207, 209, 210 Dutch learning, 44 earthquakes, 140, 154, 170, 318, 325 Echizen domain, 52, 78 economic development, 72, 98, 142–43, 178, 192, 279 See also economy “economic miracle.” See economy: postwar boom in 373 Economic Planning Agency, 250, 272 Economist (magazine), 246 economy: 1860s to 1890s, 94, 97; 1910s-1920s boom of, 139; 1990s recessions of, 316, 325; attitude toward Japanese, 317, 323, 327; competition in, 327; consumer, 217, 220, 305; crisis in, 182; debt in, 248, 326, 328; domestic, 142, 192; end of boom in, 140, 314– 20; and foreign investment, 71–72, 294; and foreign policy, 331; and free competition, 193; global, 246, 272, 281, 294, 298, 309; and gold standard, 140, 182–83, 192–93, 291; growing power of, 268, 298, 308; and imperialism, 142; independent Japanese, 272; informationintensive, 328; new vs old, 325–26; postwar boom (“economic miracle”) in, 243, 245–51, 260, 270, 294, 309; and postwar industrial policy, 193, 225; and price controls, 217, 279; pride in achievements in, 266; and savings, 249, 262; state guidance of, 193, 225, 279, 327; and transparency, 327; transwar political, 250 See also industries; inflation; trade; wages; zaibatsu Edo, 2, 13–17, 22, 24; in 1600s, 16, 20; in 1700, 23; in 1800s, 61; alternate attendance in, 13– 14, 17, 21; Dutch tribute missions to, 21; entertainment quarters of, 38; food riots in, 51; Matthew Perry in, 49 education, 83, 95, 243, 298, 328; compulsory, 67– 68, 76, 85, 93, 105, 136, 231, 248; control of, 231, 236–37, 242; employee, 300; hierarchy based on, 251–52, 254, 255, 263; higher, 106– 8, 255, 259, 263, 324; Imperial Rescript on, 105–6, 107, 111, 112, 113; mass, 67, 105–6; music, 108; and social policy, 262–63; spread of, 43, 105–8, 167; and testing skills, 308; vocational, 150, 259; of women, 67, 68, 89, 90, 102, 106, 113, 151, 155, 231, 263 See also Ministry of Education; school system Eisenhower, Dwight, 276 Election Purification Campaign, 196 elections, 169, 173, 196; to Diet, 127–28, 163, 216, 270, 271, 303, 313, 323; and DSP, 282; laws on, 93; postwar, 237, 238 electric power industry, 193–94 electronics industry, 260, 293, 326 emigration, 120, 121, 177 emperor, 2–3, 14, 35, 43, 134, 170; and 1959 royal wedding, 269; and constitution, 107, 112, 165, 199, 272–73; death of, 310–11; and education, 105, 106; and Japanese surrender, 224, 226–27; and loyalist samurai, 53; Meiji, 69–70, 129; and military, 93, 123, 180–81, 188, 198, 209, 269; and obedience to state, 112; and oligarchs, 130; and power, 61; role of, 68, 77, 83–84, 112, 114, 123, 171, 199, 219, 239, 269, 272; and shogunal ruler, 36, 41; sovereignty of, 58, 77, 92–93, 169; support for, 131; as symbol, 231; Taisho¯, 129, 352n1; as transcendent, 199; vs democracy, 181; Western haircut of, 89, 113; women as, 312; worship of, 287 empress, 68, 113 Encouragement of Learning (Fukuzawa), 80 374 INDEX energy, alternative sources of, 288 entrepreneurship, 99, 248; postwar, 227 environment, 283–84, 285, 286, 289, 290, 302 Equal Employment Opportunity Law for Men and Women (EEOL; 1985), 304, 329 equality, 157, 167, 173, 174, 225, 255, 274, 329; between men and women, 74, 89, 90, 119, 231, 291, 304, 329 eta (outcaste group), 16, 65 Etorofu islands, 48 Eto¯ Shinpei, 85 Europe, 22, 59, 62, 67, 139, 268, 289, 298 examinations, Japanese civil-service, 64, 127 exports, 119, 120, 208, 249, 272, 291; in 1930s, 192, 193; to Asia, 295; of automobiles, 315, 317; cotton, 96, 139, 192; to Korea, 115, 241, 248; and Korean War, 241; of laborers, 95, 115; and money supply, 182, 183; silk, 95, 96, 140; of steel, 315; textile, 115, 176; to U.S., 292, 293; wage demands in, 288 extraterritoriality, 50, 115, 119, 274 Ezo See Hokkaido Factory Act (1911), 127 factory councils, 153 factory laws, 127 families: extended, 252, 254, 256; nuclear, 252, 254, 256, 257, 263, 265; and role of homemaker, 252–53 famine, 28–29, 32, 34, 211, 228 Far Eastern Commission, 229; members of, 3569a farmers, 10, 15, 16, 36, 71; and Depression, 183; educated, 43; increased output of, 95; and land, 42, 167, 230, 231; and landlords, 145–46; number of, 26, 254; owner, 188, 279; and political participation, 81; and popular rights activism, 88; practices of, 26, 29; productivity of, 144–45; protection of, 315; and samurai, 10, 20, 87; small-scale family, 94, 252; standard of living of, 144, 145; and students, 285, 286; and sumptuary laws, 40; in Tokugawa era, 160; wealthy, 88, 147 See also tenant farmers fascism, 182, 196, 202–3, 216 Federation for Patriotic Industrial Service (Sangyo¯ ho¯koku renmei; Sanpo¯), 196, 213–14, 217, 235 feminism, 119, 134, 136, 167, 168–69, 328; and birthrate, 304; and constitution, 236; and dissent, 113; Japanese, 274–75, 304, 331; organizations of, 217, 274; scholars of, 329 Fenellosa, Ernest, 109, 113, 300 Field, Norma, 311 Fifteen-Year War (1931–World War II), 189 Financial Reconstruction Commission (FRC), 325 Financial Revitalization Law, 325 First National Bank (Japan): Korean branches of, 122 Five-Article Oath (1868; Charter Oath), 78–79 Five-Year Plans, 194, 250 Food Control Law (1942), 214–15 Footprints in the Snow (Tokutomi Roka), 66, 67 foreign capital, 71–72 foreign direct investments (FDI), 294 foreigners, 17–19, 46, 329–30 See also immigration Foreign Ministry, 239 foreign policy, 127, 173, 174, 180, 187–89; and economy, 331; Tokugawa, 17–19 See also imperialism Formosa See Taiwan France, 75, 83, 118, 119, 356n9a, 359n4; alliance with Japan (1907), 177; in Indochina, 207, 208, 298; and Tokugawa reformers, 46; Vichy regime in, 208 Friendly Society (Yu¯aikai), 135, 150, 152 See also Greater Japan Federation of Labor Friends of Constitutional Government (Rikken Seiyu¯kai) See Seiyu¯kai “From the Caramel Factory” (Sata Ineko), 151 Fuji Bank, 308 Fuji Spinning Company, 185 Fujiwara Seika, 36 fukoku kyo¯hei (rich country, strong army), 70 Fukuda Hideko, 89, 90, 117 Fukuda Takeo, 297, 302 Fukumoto Kazuo, 168 Fukuzawa Yukichi, 79, 80, 83, 89, 116 furitaa (free-lancer), 305 Futabatei Shimei, 108 GATT See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade geba (tactic of armed struggle), 283 geisha, 145, 258 gender roles, 7, 31–32, 39, 88, 112, 134, 152, 156; and business, 252, 263; diversity in, 328; and equality of women, 74, 89, 90, 119, 231, 291, 304, 329; fear of breakdown in, 203, 215; and government, 263, 313; postwar, 225, 259 See also women General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 246, 315 General Council of Trade Unions of Japan (So¯hyo¯), 273, 277, 280, 281, 282 General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (Keynes), 193 Gensuikyo¯ See Japan Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs Gentleman’s Agreement (1908), 121–22, 177 Genyo¯sha, 92 Germany, 118, 119, 359n4; fascist system of, 182, 202–3; and Japan in World War I, 173, 174; Nazi, 207, 212, 213, 216; recovery in, 289; Siemens corporation in, 162; surrender of, 223; unification of, 310 Gin-bura (Ginza cruising), 155 giri vs ninjo (duty vs human feeling), 40 Goto¯ Sho¯jiro¯, 58 government, 181, 220, 237, 285, 286; authoritarian rule in, 212, 320; as business booster, 250–51; “by assassination,” 166; coalition, 321–22, 323; constitutional, 162, 163, 164, 169, 196, 199; corruption in, 302, 313–14; and economy, 249–50, 327; and gender roles, 263; imperial democratic, 169–73; party, 162, 169; retrenchment in, 182, 183; spending of, 193; structure of parliamentary, 165–67 Grant, Ulysses, 109 Gratitude Societies (Ho¯tokukai), 136, 137 Index Great Britain, 48, 172, 182, 190, 194, 355n9b, 356n9a, 359n4; and Japan, 17, 46, 115, 117, 119, 120, 136, 137, 173, 174, 207, 209, 210 Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere, 210, 211, 224 Greater East Asian Ministry, 211 Greater Japan Federation of Labor (Dai Nihon Ro¯do¯ So¯do¯mei), 152, 153, 179 See also Friendly Society The Greater Learning for Females (Kaibara), 31 Great Treason Incident (1911), 134 Green Cross Company, 319–20 Grew, Joseph, 239 Gulf War (1991), 315–16, 330 Hagerty, James, 276 hai-tekku (high-tech), 308 Hakodate, 49 Hall, John W., 19 Hamaguchi Osachi, 172, 182, 188; assassination of, 187 Hanihara Masanao, 177 Hara Kei, 128–29, 130, 131, 158, 162, 349n11b; assassination of, 163, 166; and formation of cabinet, 166; and international peace conference, 175; and Korea, 178; and steel strike, 163, 170; and suffrage, 171; and the West, 176 harakiri (seppuku; suicide), 269 Harmonization Society, 171 Harris, Townsend, 14, 50, 52, 53, 54 Hasegawa Machiko, 265 Hashimoto Ryu¯taro¯, 301, 317, 322, 325, 329 Hata Tsutomu, 321 Hatoyama Ichiro¯, 270, 271, 272 Hayashi academy, 36 Hayashi Fusao, 298, 332 Hayashi Razan, 36 Hayashi Senju¯ro¯, 196–97 health insurance, 171, 172, 286 heavy industries, 99, 194, 217, 246 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm, 109 Heian era, 4, 64, 218 Heidegger, Martin, 220 Heisei emperor, 310, 311, 312 hibakusha (atomic bomb survivors), 274 Hibiya anti-treaty riot (1905), 125, 131, 133 hierarchy, 32, 35, 145, 146, 148, 199, 203, 256; education-based, 251–52, 254, 255, 263 hinin (nonpersons), 16 Hiranuma Kiichiro¯, 207 Hirasawa Keishichi, 135, 170 Hirata Atsutane, 43, 51 Hiratsuka Raicho¯, 169 Hirohito, Emperor, 161, 165, 166, 223, 238, 265; announcement of surrender by, 226–27; death of, 310–11; and South Korea, 297; and Tanaka Giichi, 187 Hiroshige, 39 Hiroshima, 223, 225, 274, 332 Hirota Ko¯ki, 196 Hitler, Adolf, 11, 203, 207, 208, 216 Hizen domain, 53, 63, 84 Hokkaido (Ezo), 1, 17, 48, 75, 97 Hokusai, 24 375 Home Ministry, 127, 136, 159, 166, 185, 196, 213, 215; bureaucrats in, 172, 214, 235; Social Affairs Bureau in, 171, 172; and unions, 195 Honda So¯ichiro¯, 248 Honshu, 1, 2, 17, 33 Hosokawa Morihiro, 314, 321, 322 Hotta Masayoshi, 52, 54 House of Peers, 93, 126, 166, 199 House of Representatives, 93, 126, 166, 238, 303, 313, 322, 323 See also Diet Housewives Association (Shufuren), 274 housing policy, 262, 285 Ibuka Masaru, 248 Ichimaru (geisha), 156 Ida, town of, 25 Ienaga Saburo¯, 124 Ihara Saikaku, 38 Ii Naosuke, 54–55 Ikeda Hayato, 250, 279, 282, 301 ikko¯ (single-minded) sects See Buddhism IMF See International Monetary Fund immigration, 154, 324, 329, 330 Immigration Act (1924; U.S.), 177 imperialism, 125, 142, 162, 181; American, 279; and Anglo-American power, 203; Japanese, 7, 115, 122, 123, 136, 139, 160, 177, 179, 180, 189, 226, 331; post–World War I, 174–75; Western, 4, 74, 179, 180, 189, 211, 298, 332 Imperial Middle Class Federated Alliance, 183 Imperial Military Reserve Association (Teikoku zaigo gunjinkai), 136 Imperial Rescript on Education (1890), 105–6, 107, 111, 112, 113 Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA), 216, 217, 237 Imperial Way faction (ko¯do¯-ha), 197, 198, 199 Imphal Campaign, 211 Important Industries Control Law (1931), 193 Important Industries Control Order (1941), 213 imports, 95, 120, 272, 292–93, 295, 313; growth of, 119; from Korea, 115, 116; rice, 315; and tariffs, 99, 119, 193, 250 In Affirmation of the Great East Asia War (Hayashi Fusao), 298 “In a Grove” (Akutagawa), 159–60 India, 177, 211, 219, 356n9a India National Army, 211, 224 individualism, 195, 199, 216 Indochina, 207, 208, 209, 211 Indonesia, 211 industrial associations, 213 Industrial Bank of Japan, 309 Industrial Development Bank, 248 Industrial Patriotic Federation See Federation for Patriotic Industrial Service industrial revolution, 7, 94, 96–100, 123 industries: investment in, 249, 298–99; manufacturing, 30, 259, 260; nationalization of, 194, 197, 238; rational control of, 212 infanticide, 29, 32 inflation, 95, 96, 214, 217; in nineteenth century, 51; postwar, 235, 240, 249, 254, 256; in twentieth century, 139–40, 162, 287, 288, 298; in twenty-first century, 326 376 INDEX Inoue Enryo¯, 111 Inoue Junnosuke, 187 Inoue Kaoru, 73, 91, 348n13 Inoue Kowashi, 84, 92 intellectuals, 212, 218–19, 220, 237 International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo Trial), 230 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 331 Inukai Tsuyoshi, 156, 188; assassination of, 189, 195, 200 IRAA See Imperial Rule Assistance Association Ise Shrine, 6, 35, 45, 110 Ishihara Shintaro¯, 329–30 Ishii-Lansing agreement, 174 Ishiwara Kanji, 188, 207 Israel, 287 Itagaki Taisuke, 74, 81, 85, 128 itai-itai byo¯ (“it hurts disease”), 284 Italy, 182, 202–3, 208, 212, 289, 359n4 Ito¯ Hirobumi, 54, 84, 105, 112, 117, 128, 165, 348n13; drafting of constitution, 92, 123; in Europe, 73; in Korea, 122–23; and Mitsui Trading Company, 97; and Russia, 121 Ito¯ Noe, 170 Itsukaichi document, 84 See also constitution Iwakura Mission (1871–73), 73, 74, 88, 91 Iwakura Tomomi, 66, 73 Iwasaki family, 143 Iwasaki Yataro¯, 163 Iwasaki zaibatsu, 231 Izu peninsula, 50 Japan: geography and climate of, 1–2; global role of, 330; political institutions of, 2–3; “subordinate independence” of, 270, 276, 289 Japan as Number One (Vogel), 301 Japan Communist Party (JCP), 153, 167–68, 186, 231, 232, 271; crackdowns on, 170, 239; and labor unions, 237, 239, 273, 275 Japan Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs (Gensuikyo¯), 274 Japan Council of the International Metal Workers Union (IMF-JC), 282, 288 Japanese-American commercial treaty, 208 “Japanese enlightenment” (1870s), 79–80 Japanese identity (Japanese-ness), 2, 7, 109, 111, 113, 137 Japanese language, 4, 155, 220, 228 The Japanese (magazine), 112, 113 Japan Farmers Union, 147 Japan National Railway (JNR), 303 Japan New Party, 314 Japan Productivity Center (JPC), 280, 324 Japan Railway (JR), 103, 303 Japan Renewal Party, 314, 322 Japan Socialist Party (JSP), 237, 238, 239, 271, 275, 277; boycott of constitutional commission by, 273; and CGP, 287; and compromise, 279, 282; and JNR unions, 303; and LDP, 321–22; leaders of, 313; as opposition, 303, 314, 316; right-wing faction of, 281; strength of, 287; support of, 322 Jehol (Rehe), 190 Jehovah’s Witnesses, 199 Jimmu, Emperor, 287 job security, 281, 300 Johnson, Lyndon, 289 joru¯ri (puppet theater), 109 JSP See Japan Socialist Party ju¯shin (senior statesmen), 166 Kabuki theater, 16, 38, 39, 40, 41, 109 Kaempfer, Englebert, 21 Kagoshima, secession of, 86–87 Kaifu Toshiki, 313 Kaishinto¯ See Progressive Party Kaitokudo¯ Merchant Academy, 38 Kaizo¯sha (publishing company), 160 kakure kurushitan (hidden Christians), 110 Kamimura Hideji, 146, 147 Kamino Shin’ichi, 179 kami (Shinto divinities), 6, 110 Kanemaru Shin, 313, 314 Kan Naoto, 319, 322 Kanno Suga, 134 Kansai Plain, Kansei reforms, 42 Kant, Immanuel, 108 Kanto¯ region, 3, 11, 87; 1923 earthquake in, 140, 154, 170 Karatsu Hajime, 300 karo¯shi (“death from overwork”), 305–6 Katayama Sen, 134–35 Katayama Tetsu, 238 Kato¯ Takaaki (Komei), 163, 164, 166, 172, 174, 180 Kato¯ Tomosaburo¯, 163 Katsu Kaishu¯, 53–54, 57, 58 Katsura Taro¯, 128, 129, 130–31, 134, 162, 348n13 Kawai Eijiro¯, 199 Keio University, 83, 220 Kennan, George, 241 Kennedy, John F., 289 Kenseikai (Constitutional Politics Association), 163, 164, 166, 170, 172 See also Minseito¯ Kenseikai/Minseito¯ governments, 176 Kenzo¯ Tange, 266 Keynes, John Maynard, 193, 354n12 Kido Ko¯in, 63, 66, 67, 70, 73, 74 Kido Shiro, 156 Kigensetsu (Origin Day), 287 Kii domain, 52 Kim Dae Jung, 296 Kim Ok-kyun, 116 Kingu magazine (Kodansha), 159 Kishida Toshiko, 89–90 Kishi Nobusuke, 212, 276, 301 Kita Ikki, 167, 179 Kiyoura Keigo, 163 Kobayashi Takiji, 147, 198 Kobe, 71; earthquake in, 318, 325 ko¯bu gattai (unity between court and bakufu), 55 Kogaku (Ancient Learning), 37, 43 Ko¯gisho (national deliberative assembly), 79 Koiso Kuniaki, 223 Koizumi Junichiro¯, 323 Kojiki, 43 Kojong, King (Korea), 116, 178 Kokoro (Natsume), 106–7, 129 kokumin (the people), 135 Index Ko¯mei, Emperor, 52, 55 Ko¯meito¯ Party See Clean Government Party Konoe Fumimaro, 197, 204, 207–8, 210, 212, 213; descendants of, 314; and end of World War II, 222–23, 238; and mass party, 216 Konoe Memorial, 223 Korea, 62, 96, 193, 194, 224, 298; annexation of, 123, 154, 297; and China, 116, 117, 118, 178– 79, 192; diplomatic relations with, 18, 19; and Japan, 3–4, 17, 115–16, 117, 120–22, 177, 178, 191, 295–97, 330, 331; Japanese invasions of, 11, 35, 74, 81, 85; Japanese trade with, 115, 241, 248; nationalism in, 116, 117, 123; Republic of (South Korea), 295–96, 306, 332; and Russia, 117, 120; trade with, 18, 33, 115, 116, 122; treaties with, 115, 295–96; and U.S., 117; in World War II, 210, 214 Koreans, 259; in Japan, 154, 261, 330 Korean War (1950–1953), 241, 245, 246, 248, 271 koshiben (office workers), 155, 160 Ko¯toku Shusui, 134, 166 Kumamoto, 87 Kuomintang See Chinese Nationalist Party Kuril Islands, 48, 295 Kuroda Kiyotaka, 165, 348n13 Kuruma Samezo¯, 218, 355n7 Kwantung army (Manchuria), 187, 188, 190, 206, 207 kyo¯datsu (exhaustion), 229 Kyo¯ho¯ reforms, 42 Kyoto, 2, 13, 24, 33, 35, 154; as battleground (1800s), 55–56, 58, 61; Nijo palace in, 14; and ¯ Onin War, 9; population of, 23 Kyoto University, 199, 219, 231 Kyushu, 1, 18, 33, 77, 86, 88, 314; coal mining in, 97, 276 labor: agricultural, 254; and capital, 171, 184, 277; changed treatment of, 195; conditions of, 100– 105, 134–35; costs of, 98–99, 214; disputes concerning, 102, 103, 134, 135, 151, 152, 167, 171, 172, 184; export of, 95, 115; family, 252; and gender differences, 259–60; and management, 235, 251, 289; patriotic associations of, 199; reforms for, 173, 235, 243; three-K, 329; wage, 123, 139, 150, 157, 214, 215, 235, 256, 273; women’s roles in, 251, 260–61 See also workers Labor Ministry, 235 labor movement, 110, 168, 235, 273, 281, 288 Labor New Order, 213 labor unions, 103, 135, 153, 158, 259, 288; in 1940s and 1950s, 249, 273; agricultural, 217; anti-communist, 273; and Communist Party, 237, 239, 273, 275; and discussion councils, 195–96; and health insurance, 171; in Occupation, 231, 235; office, 150; pro business, 289; and productivity drive, 280; tenant farmer, 147, 172; and university graduates, 168; and wage increases, 273; women in, 150–51, 184–85, 275; workplace struggle of, 273; worldwide, 290 Ladies’ Patriotic Association, 136, 145 landlords, 94–96, 144–48, 197, 215, 225, 234–35; in Occupation, 231 See also tenant farmers 377 land prices, 308, 315 land reform, 230, 231, 234–35, 240, 243, 251, 279 LDP See Liberal Democratic Party League of Blood, 187–88 League of Nations, 174, 190 left-wing movements, 167, 237 Lenin, V I., 168 Levellers Association (Suiheisha), 154 Liaodong peninsula, 118, 119, 120, 121 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), 282, 286, 287, 289, 302, 323, 325; comeback of, 321, 322; and constitution, 272, 279; defeat of, 310, 312, 313, 314; in Diet, 302, 303, 313; founding of, 271, 321; and JSP, 321–22; leadership of, 301; and Police Duties Law, 275–76; and small business, 279–80; and U.S.-Japan treaty, 276, 277 liberalism, 161, 169, 173, 196, 199 Liberal Party (Jiyu¯to¯), 84, 87, 91, 116, 128, 237, 238, 322; and elections, 127, 270, 271 See also Seiyu¯kai Li Hongzhang, 117 Li-Ito pact, 117 List, Friedrich, 73 literacy, 26, 67, 160 literature, 38–41, 159–60 Louis XIV (France), 35 Love Suicide at Sonezaki (Chikamatsu), 40 loyalty, 105, 110, 113, 137, 199, 231; to emperor, 129, 130, 162, 217 Lucky Dragon incident, 274, 275 Lytton Report, 190 MacArthur, Douglas, 209, 211, 233, 234, 239, 272; and occupation of Japan, 227, 229, 232 machine industry, 99, 100, 103, 140, 152 magazines, mass circulation, 139, 159 Mainichi Shinbun (newspaper), 79 Makino Nobuaki, 166 Manchukuo, 188, 190, 192 Manchuria, 120–22, 193, 204, 224; development of, 194, 207, 208; expansion in, 190, 209; and Japan, 118, 174, 176, 177, 180, 186–89, 197, 209, 298 Manchurian Incident (1931–32), 188, 189 manga (comic book), 39 manufacturing, 70, 71–72, 95, 145, 243, 281; output of, 96, 140, 142 Marco Polo Bridge incident, 204 marriage, 169, 227, 257–58, 261, 275, 304, 312 Marshall, George, 239 Maruyama Masao, 161, 267, 268, 307 Marx, Karl, 218 Marxism, 158, 160, 183, 186, 198, 218, 232, 284, 289 Marxism-Leninism, 157 mass media, 139, 159, 264, 266, 268, 298 materialism, 109–10, 119, 219, 267, 268, 269, 307, 324 Matsudaira Sadanobu, 42 Matsui Noboru, 124 Matsukata Masayoshi, 96, 100, 127, 128, 130, 166, 348n13 Matsumae domain, 17 Matsuo Basho¯, 38, 39 378 INDEX Matsuo Taseko, 51 May Day celebration (1920), 168 May Fourth Movement (1919), 178 May Thirtieth Movement (1925), 178 Meiji constitution (1889), 64, 77–78, 92–93, 164, 165, 180 Meiji emperor, 58, 59, 61, 161, 165, 310 Meiji era, 20, 53, 320; changes of, 111–14, 261; household registration in, 262; Origin Day (Kigensetsu) in, 287; rhetoric of, 227; traditions of, 310–11 Meiji Restoration (1868), 53, 58–59, 61–137, 198, 219, 320 Meiji Six Journal (Meiroku Zasshi), 79–80, 89 Meiji Six Society, 80, 112 “Memorial on the Establishment of a Representative Assembly” (1874), 81 men: education of, 263; hairstyles for, 89; military service for, 93, 134, 254–55; role of, 329; in Tokugawa period, 32; and voting, 126; and women, 74 merchants, 15–16, 29, 36, 37, 38, 43, 148, 162 middle class, 245, 264, 265, 267, 268, 289, 290; new, 149–50, 256–57, 259; old, 149, 150, 259 See also consumerism; culture Middle East, 287–88, 330 Midway Island, battle for, 211 migration, 95, 154 Miike mine, 97, 280; 1960 strike in, 276–79, 280, 288; Union Wives Association of, 278 Miki Takeo, 271 militarism, 201, 203, 239, 242 military, 3, 188, 195, 211, 274; and arms production industry, 119, 123; buildup of, 117, 118, 119, 120; and business combines, 194; and cabinet, 130; cost of, 127, 174, 175, 217; dismantling, 239; and emperor, 93, 165; expansion of, 182, 191, 197, 202, 297; in Korea, 179; in Meiji Restoration, 66–67, 108; and nationalism, 136, 209; and naval arms race, 175, 187, 190; and politicians, 136, 169, 198; prohibition of, 272, 273; rebellion of, 186– 87; and reform, 190, 193; surrender of, 227, 239; universal conscription in, 66, 93, 134 Mill, John Stuart, 79, 80, 108 Minamata, 284 mining: coal, 96–97, 193, 240, 276–79, 280, 288; female workers in, 103, 134; male workers in, 103; in Manchukuo, 192; metal, 96, 192; and strikes, 276–79, 280, 288 Ministry of Agriculture, 195, 214 Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, 83, 171, 172, 173, 193 Ministry of Commerce, 193, 212, 213, 240, 250 Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MITI), 250 Ministry of Education, 105, 124, 136, 137, 186, 199, 319, 324; and 1964 Olympiad, 266; and gender roles, 263; and home economics, 328; in Occupation, 231; and school textbooks, 297, 332 Ministry of Finance, 262, 295, 301, 312, 314, 317 Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), 250, 288, 301 Ministry of Justice, 173 Ministry of Welfare, 213, 214, 228, 319, 323 Minobe Ryo¯kichi, 286 Minobe Tatsukichi, 199, 358n18 minponshugi (rooted in the people), 169, 170 Minseito¯ (People’s Politics Party), 163, 172, 182, 183, 189, 216, 271; and elections, 196; foreign policy of, 180, 187, 188; and Progressive Party, 237; and unions, 173, 195 See also Kenseikai Mishima Yukio, 269 missionaries, 3, 11, 17, 44, 67, 110, 234 MITI See Ministry of International Trade and Industry Mito domain, 41, 44, 52, 54, 55, 122 Mito Mitsukuni, 41 Mito scholars, 48 Mitsubishi Bank, 189 Mitsubishi zaibatsu, 97, 98, 143, 144, 150, 163 Mitsui, 97–98, 143, 144, 150, 187, 231, 276–77 Mitsui Bank, 97 Mitsui Trading Company, 97, 143, 350n5 Mitsukoshi department store, 155 Miyake Setsurei, 300 Miyazawa Kiichi, 313, 314, 331 Mizuno Tadakuni, 48 Mobilization Law, 212, 214 modern girl (modan gaaru; moga), 156–57, 158, 159, 160, 185, 219, 305, 325 modernization, 74, 108, 109–10, 111, 116, 202–3, 289; opposition to, 219–21 monopolies See zaibatsu Mori Arinori, 89, 105, 106 ¯ Mori Ogai, 108 Morisson (American merchant ship), 48 Morita Akio, 248 Mori Yoshihiro, 323 Mothers Conference, 274 Motoda Eifu, 105 Motoori Norinaga, 43, 109 Motoshima, Mayor (Nagasaki), 311 Movement for Freedom and Popular Rights, 80– 85, 89 Movement to Protect Constitutional Government, 130 Mukden (Shenyang), 188, 204 Munitions Ministry, 212, 250 Muragaki Norimasa, 88, 90 Murayama Tomiichi, 321, 322 music, 108, 109, 220 Mussolini, Benito, 203 Mutsuhito, Emperor, 165 Nagasaki, 17, 18, 21, 274, 311; and atomic bomb, 223, 225; trade in, 33, 44, 48; Women’s Defense Association in, 222 Nagasaki Citizens’ Committee to Seek Free Speech, 311 Nagata Tetsuzan, 198 Nagatsuka Takashi, 145 Nagoya, celebrations in (1867), 58 Nakamura Masanao, 80, 112 Nakasendo¯ road, 24, 25 Nakasone Yasuhiro, 297, 301, 302, 303, 304, 312 Nakayama Ichiro¯, 272 Nanjing Massacre, 204, 206, 224, 297, 332 Nara era, Index narikin (nouveau riche), 140 Narita airport, 285, 286 Naruhito, Crown Prince, 311 National Foundation Day, 287 National General Mobilization Law, 212–13 nationalism, 45, 50, 62, 105, 111, 130, 269, 331; agrarian, 194–95; in Burma, 211; in China, 178, 180, 209; engineering, 136–37; in Korea, 116, 117, 123; and military service, 67; ultra-, 207, 298 National Learning, School of, 43–44, 51, 122 nation-building, 75, 115, 123, 126, 135, 164 nation-states, 59, 80, 114 Natsume So¯seki, 106–7, 108, 129, 137 Nazi Labor Front, 213 Nazi Law for the Organization of National Labor (1934), 195–96 neo-Confucianism, 5, 6, 35, 36, 37 the Netherlands, 17, 21, 35, 44, 48, 207, 209, 210, 356n9a Neutrality Treaty (1941; Japan and Soviet Union), 222, 223 New East Asian Order, 210 New Frontier Party, 322 New Life Movement, 263–64 New Man Society (Shinjinkai), 157 New Order, 212, 216–18; and associations, 217, 218 New Party Sakigake, 319, 322 newspapers, 79, 139, 159, 265 New Theses (Shinron; Aizawa Yasushi), 44 New Zealand, 356n9a NHK (Nippon Ho¯so¯ Kyo¯kai; Japan Broadcast Association), 265 Nichinichi (Daily) News, 79 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 220 Nihonjinron (theories of the Japanese), 300–301 Niigata, 284 Nikko¯ Shrine, 35, 41 Nimitz, Chester, 211–12 Ninomiya Sontoku, 136 Nippon Music Culture Association, 220 Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT), 303, 328 Nishi Amane, 80 Nishihara Loans, 174, 176 Nishiyama Yataro¯, 248 Nixon, Richard, 291–92, 302 Nogi Maresuke, 129 Noh theater, 108–9 Nomonhan, 206 NTT See Nippon Telephone and Telegraph nuclear weapons, 274, 275, 276 Obuchi Keizo¯, 323 Occupation, U.S., 226–43; and democracy, 230, 231; government-controlled media in, 264; and labor unions, 231, 235; and MacArthur, 227, 229, 232; reforms of, 234–39; reverse course of, 239–40; and zaibatsu, 231, 236, 239 Oda Nobunaga, 10, 11, 13, 14, 34, 35 “office ladies,” 305, 306 official development assistance (ODA), 297 Ogawa Kikumatsu, 227–28 Oguri Tadamasa, 56 Ogyu¯ Sorai, 37, 41, 43 379 ¯ Ohira Masayoshi, 302 ¯ Kentaro¯, 116 Oi oil: and industrial expansion, 246, 276; Middle Eastern, 316; supply of, 208, 272, 330 oil shock, 287–88, 327 ¯ company, 98 Oji Okada Keisuke, 196, 198 okage-mairi (Ise-mairi; mass pilgrimages), 45 Okakura Kakuzo¯, 109, 113 Okakura Tenshin, 300 Okinawa (Ryukyu Islands), 17, 18, 35, 74, 75, 242; American forces on, 274, 289, 330; battle for, 223; reversion to Japan of, 291, 292 ¯ Okubo Toshimichi, 54, 66, 70, 72, 73, 74 ¯ Shigenobu, 83, 84, 91, 92, 128, 162, 174, Okuma 180 oligarchs (genro¯), 112, 130, 133, 161, 162, 188; original, 92, 348n13; and party politics, 93, 127, 131, 166 Olympics, 265–66 ¯ Omi Silk Reeling Company, 275 ¯ Omura Masujiro¯, 66 “On Decadence” (Sakaguchi), 229 ¯ Onin War (1467–1477), onna-gata (female impersonators), 39 Onoda Hiroo, 269 Opium Wars (1839–1842), 48, 50, 176 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 294, 359n4 Osaka, 2, 16, 20, 24, 33, 37, 123, 154; 1867 celebrations in, 58; and alternate attendance system, 20–21; bullet train to, 254, 266; entertainment quarters of, 36; food riots in, 51; local government in, 171; population of, 23; as rice port, 25; and suburban sprawl, 251; uprising in, 53; world exposition at, 265 Osaka Incident of 1885, 116 ¯ Oshio Heihachiro¯, 53 ¯ Osugi Sakae, 170 ¯ Kaoru, 282 Ota outcastes, 16, 65, 154 See also burakumin Outline of Civilization (Fukuzawa), 80 An Outline Plan for the Reorganization of Japan (Kita; 1923), 179 Owada Masako, 311 ¯ Oyama Iwao, 348n13 ¯ So¯ichi, 186 Oya oyatoi gaijin (hired foreigners), 72 Ozaki Yukio, 130 Ozawa Ichiro¯, 314, 321, 322, 323 Ozu Yasujiro¯, 200 Paekche (Korean peninsula), 4, Pakistan, 356n9a panic of 1927, 142 Park Chung Hee, 296, 297 parliamentary rule, 81, 84, 165–67, 169; and political violence, 167, 189; support for, 162, 164, 186 Patriotic Industrial Service Federation See Federation for Patriotic Industrial Service Patriotic Public Party (Aikoku Ko¯to¯), 81 peace movements, 134, 273–74, 275 Peace Preservation Law, 170 Pearl Harbor, 209, 210 380 INDEX peasants, 37, 40; protests of, 30–31, 32, 34, 88; rebellion of, 44, 57, 61, 87 Peking International Meeting on Tariff Reform (1925), 176 People’s Republic of China (PRC), 242, 246, 291, 292 See also China Perry, Matthew, 49, 51, 52, 78, 111, 115 Phaeton (British warship), 48 Philippines, 177, 209, 210, 356n9a Pierce, Franklin, 14 A Plan for the Reorganization of Japan (Kita; 1919), 167 Plaza Accord (1985), 294–95, 314 Police Duties Law, 275–76 police forces, 172, 230, 236–37, 239, 242, 275–76 political participation, 77–85, 93, 115, 123, 125; and loyalty to emperor, 162, 199; of women, 88–91, 111, 151 political parties, 81, 84, 126, 127, 128, 262, 270– 71; and cabinets, 163, 164–65, 169; centrist, 287; conservative, 271–72, 301–4; cooperative diplomacy of, 186; in Depression, 183; establishment, 243; leaders of, 169–70; of the left, 232, 237, 285; left vs right, 203, 237, 271, 273, 321; mainstream, 197; and New Order, 216; prewar, 238, 242; progressive, 271– 75, 281; and zaibatsu, 143, 169 politicians, 125, 136, 169, 287; bureaucrats turned, 301, 302; and cabinets, 196–97; career, 301, 302, 313; and New Order, 216, 217; and oligarchs, 127, 131, 133; and parties, 165; and state ministers, 126, 127, 128 politics, 145, 171, 282, 286, 314; of compromise, 128, 279, 289; parliamentary, 126–31; “pork barrel,” 129, 170 pollution, 270, 283–84 Pollution Related Disease Compensation Law, 286 popular rights movements, 80–85, 86, 88, 127, 135, 162 population, 26, 28, 94–95, 98, 251, 323–24 Port Arthur (Liaodong peninsula), 121 Portugal, 17 prime ministers, 162, 163, 166, 333–34 Priority Production program, 240 Privy Council, 165–66, 172 productivity, 98, 280, 298, 300, 326 Progressive Party (Kaishinto¯), 84, 91, 127 Progressive Party (Shinpoto¯), 237 prostitution, 101–2, 185, 258, 324; and sexual slavery, 224–25, 227, 322, 331, 332; toleration of, 16, 185, 186 See also Yoshiwara Public Order Police law (1900), 172 Public Telephone Company, 303 publishing industry, 139, 160, 264–65, 307 Pusan, 18 Puyi, Emperor, 189 quality control (QC), 299–300 racism, 123, 154, 294 radio, 159, 200 railroads, 99, 103, 115, 122; building of, 71, 96, 97, 111; and timekeeping, 71 Rasho¯mon (film), 160 Reagan, Ronald, 298, 303 Recruit incident, 302, 312, 313 Red Purge, 239–40, 271 Reform Club, 163 Reform Party (Kaishinto¯), 271 reforms, 34, 42–45, 120, 197, 219, 273; and change, 203, 243; economic, 42, 70, 203, 212– 13, 216, 320; labor, 173, 235, 243; land, 230, 231, 234–35, 240, 243, 251, 279; military, 190, 193; and nation-building, 115, 164; Occupation, 234–39; of SCAP, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 237, 254, 320; social, 195, 266; of tenant farming, 171 See also Charter Oath Reischauer, Edwin O., 289 religion, 17–18, 110, 111, 318–19 See also Buddhism; Christianity; Confucianism; Shinto religions, new, 159; Konko¯, 44–45, 87; Kurozumi, ¯ 44–45; Maruyama, 88; Omoto, 88, 199; Tenri, 44–45, 87, 88, 199 Religious Corporations Law, 319 Republic of China (Taiwan), 242 revolution, 46, 61–62, 64, 68, 167, 226, 320; from above, 62, 75–76; in China (1911), 173, 176; Russian, 157, 167; samurai, 61–76 rights, 160; popular, 80–85, 86, 88, 127, 135, 162; to strike, 172, 280, 288; voting, 126, 172, 236; to work, 231 See also women’s rights Rikken Do¯shikai, 130, 131 riots, 51, 66–67, 76, 85, 131, 135, 162 ri (principle of reason), 36 Rissho¯ Ko¯sei kai, 261 risutora (restructuring), 317–18, 327 Roche, Leon, 56 Roessler, Hermann, 92 ro¯nin (masterless samurai), 40, 179, 256 Roosevelt, Franklin, 208, 210 Roosevelt, Theodore, 121, 177 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 79, 108 Royall, Kenneth, 240 Russia: explorers in 1780s, 46; and Japan, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 173; and Korea, 117, 120 See also Soviet Union Russian Revolution, 157, 167 Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), 122–23, 129, 134, 136, 137, 177; peace settlement of, 121, 125, 131, 161, 187; and surprise attack on Port Arthur, 210 Ruth, Babe, 201, 202 Ryu¯kyu¯ Islands See Okinawa Sagawa Express scandal (1992), 312, 313 Saigo¯ Takamori, 63, 74, 81, 85, 86, 87 Saigo¯ Tsugumichi, 348n13 Saionji Kimmochi (Prince Saionji), 128, 129, 130, 166, 177, 190, 348n13, 349n11b Saipan, capture of, 212 Saito¯ Makoto, 178, 180, 190, 196, 198 Sakaguchi Ango, 229 Sakamoto Ryo¯ma, 53–54, 57, 58, 78 Sakatani Shiroshi, 89 Sakhalin Island, 48, 121 Sakurauchi Yoshio, 307 samurai (bushi; warriors), 3, 12, 14–15, 16, 37, 41, 54; in cities, 29, 149, 150, 160; and daimyo¯, 9, 15, 20; debts of, 29, 34; in Diet, Index 126; domain, 21, 105; and farmers, 10, 20, 87; hairstyles of, 89; loyalist, 52–53, 55, 57; masterless, 40, 179, 256; and Meiji restoration, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65–66, 75, 76; and merchants, 38; in neo-Confucianism, 36; political participation of, 78, 81, 83; and popular rights movements, 81; rebellions of, 67, 85, 86, 87, 88; and reforms, 42; and revolution, 61–76; stipends of, 61, 64–65, 70, 86; transformation to bureaucrats, 15; traveling, 25; underemployed, 9; women of, 113 San Francisco treaty (1951), 241–42 sankin ko¯tai (system of alternate attendance), 13– 14, 17, 21–22, 55 Sanshiro¯ (Natsume So¯seki), 108 sarariiman (salary-man), 155, 259, 268 Sata Ineko, 151 Sato¯ Eisaku, 301 Satsuma domain, 52–59, 61, 86; in early Meiji, 64, 66; and popular rights, 81; and Ryu¯kyu¯ Islands, 18; samurai of, 54, 64, 105; surrender of lands of, 63; in Tokugawa era, 72; travel abroad from, 73 Satsuma rebellion, 85, 95, 116 Saturday Evening Post, 159 “Sazae-san” (comic strip and TV show), 265 SCAP See Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers school system, 251, 254, 255, 259, 268 science, 42, 155, 219, 220 Seiyu¯kai (Friends of Constitutional Government; Rikken Seiyu¯kai), 128, 162–65, 172, 173, 179, 216; attack on headquarters of, 189–90; cabinets of, 130, 161, 166, 176, 189, 238; and Chiang Kai-shek, 177; in Depression, 183; and elections, 196; and foreign policy, 180, 187, 188; leaders of, 129, 131, 158, 170, 349n11b; and Liberal Party, 237 Sekigahara, battle of, 11, 13 Self-Defense Force (SDF), 269, 329–30, 331 self-determination, national, 178, 179 Separation Edict (1868), 110 sexual harassment, 328, 329 sexuality, 155–57, 160, 185 See also prostitution Shandong (China), 174, 176, 178, 204 Shanghai (China), 176, 178, 179, 204 Shenyang (Mukden), 188 Shibaura Engineering Works, 98, 104 Shibusawa Eiichi, 73, 99, 122 Shidehara Kiju¯ro¯, 176, 239 Shikoku, Shimabara, rebellion in, 17 Shimada Saburo¯, 179 Shimizu Toyoko, 90 Shimoda, 49, 50, 52 Shimonoseki, 56 Shinjinkai See Tokyo University New Man Society shinjinrui (new species), 305 shinkansen (new trunk line; bullet train), 254, 255, 266 shinpan (Tokugawa relatives), 13 Shinpoto¯ See Progressive Party Shinto (the Way of the Gods), 6, 36, 43, 137, 219, 230, 311; and popular religions, 45, 159; 381 priests of, 3, 287; shrines of, 35, 110, 136, 253, 261 shipbuilding industry, 99, 119, 123, 140, 299; and cartels, 193; cutbacks in, 288; male workers in, 103, 152 shipping industry, 99, 119, 122, 192 shishi (loyalists), 52–53 shizoku (upper samurai), 65 Sho¯da Michiko, 265, 269, 312 shogun (generalissimo), 3, 11, 12, 14, 29; castle in Edo, 21, 22; and emperor, 36, 41 Sho¯wa Denko, 194 Sho¯wa era, 165, 198, 297, 310, 312 Sho¯wa Research Association, 212 Siberian Intervention, 175, 179 silk industry, 95, 96, 102–3, 140 Singapore, 209, 211 Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), 118, 119, 121, 123, 124, 128, 129, 131 Sirota, Beate, 236 Smith, Adam, 73 Social Democratic Party, 134 socialism, 135, 136, 154, 158, 166, 167, 216, 271; and Christian activists, 110; and constitution, 272; criticism of government, 113, 238; and feminism, 169; growth of, 237; interest in Western, 134; international, 179; as minority, 239; organizations of, 217; state, 194, 226; support of, 302 See also Japan Socialist Party Social Masses Party (SMP), 197, 216 social security system, 263, 324, 326 Society for Political Education (Seikyo¯sha), 112, 113 So¯do¯mei federation, 195, 280, 281 So¯hyo¯ See General Council of Trade Unions of Japan The Soil (Nagatsuka), 145 So¯ka Gakkai (Value Creation Society), 261, 286, 287 Sony, 248 sotsu (lower samurai), 65 Southern Manchurian Railway, 118 Soviet Union, 167, 175, 194, 224, 225, 230, 242; and Allied Council for Japan, 355n9b; collapse of, 310; and Far Eastern Commission, 356n9a; and Japan, 206, 208, 217, 222, 223, 246, 272, 295, 298; and Japan Communist Party, 271; Nazi attack on, 208; and U.S., 239, 274 See also Russia Spain, 17 Spanish-American War (1898), 121 Special Higher Police, 230 Spencer, Herbert, 79 sports, 109, 201–2, 220, 265–66 Stalin, 207, 208, 271 steel industry, 123, 192, 240, 248, 250, 299, 315 stock market, 97, 140, 308, 314–16, 327 Strike for the Right to Strike, 288 strikes, 134, 135, 152, 282; in 1920s, 153; in 1930s, 185, 195; in 1950s, 273; in China, 178; and communism, 239; of factory workers, 103; Miike mine, 276–79, 280, 288; in Occupation, 235, 238, 239; right to, 172, 280, 288; steel, 163, 170; student, 284; of textile workers, 102, 151, 275; women in, 275 382 INDEX Structural Impediments Initiative (SII), 294 student movements, 157, 274, 275, 283, 285, 286, 290 students, 73, 115, 186, 285, 286, 308, 324 suffrage: movements for, 126, 163; universal male, 171, 172–73, 197, 237; women’s, 134, 172, 236 Sumitomo, 97, 143, 231, 261, 308 supiido (fast living), 219 Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), 229, 238, 249, 271; and economy, 240, 241; General Headquarters (GHQ) of, 234, 356n10; reforms of, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 237, 254, 320; reverse course of, 239–40 Suzuki Bunji, 135, 150, 152 Suzuki Kantaro¯, 223 Suzuki Sho¯san, 35–36 Suzuki Trading Company, 142 Taisho¯ democracy, 161 Taisho¯ emperor, 129, 161, 165 Taisho¯ political crisis (1913), 129–31, 162, 163 Taiwan Development Company, 192 Taiwan (Formosa), 74, 75; under Japanese rule, 115, 118, 120, 122, 177, 191, 192, 224, 298; in World War II, 210 Takahashi Korekiyo, 163, 192, 193, 198, 354n12 Takamure Itsue, 169 Takasugi Shinsaku, 57 Takeshita Noboru, 301, 312, 313 Takikawa Yukitoki, 199 The Tale of Genji, 43, 218 The Tale of the 47 Ro¯nin (Chikamatsu), 40 Tanaka Giichi, 136, 165, 176, 179, 187, 353n18 Tanaka Kakuei, 295, 301, 302, 312, 313, 314, 322 Tani Kanjo¯, 91 Tanizaki Jun’ichiro¯, 160 Tanuma Okitsugu, 42 taxes, 68, 85, 131, 217, 279, 322, 324; business, 125, 127, 280; collection of, 16, 26, 93, 97; consumption, 312, 313, 317; and imperialism, 123, 125; land, 95, 127, 145, 183; in Meiji period, 70–71, 76, 125; as qualification for voting, 126–27; rice as, 21, 25, 70 technology, 3, 59, 149, 217, 246, 253, 266; American exports of, 49, 289; and industry, 99, 250; military, 4, 44; Western, 73, 113 telecommunications system, 328 television, 249, 265, 266, 267, 289, 293; emperor’s funeral on, 311 temples, 16–17, 261 Tempo¯ era reforms, 42 Tempo¯ famine, 53 Tenant Farmer Dispute Mediation Law, 172 tenant farmers, 30, 87, 144, 171, 183, 184, 214; economic life of, 145, 194; and land, 167, 230; in Occupation, 235; organizing movements of, 157, 217 tenka (the realm; “under heaven”), 34 Tenmei famine (1786), 28–29 Tenrikyo¯, 261 Terauchi Masatake, 162, 174, 175 terrorism, 198, 203, 331; in Tokyo subway, 318–19 textile industry, 96, 97, 100, 120, 140, 185, 193; women in, 134, 150, 152, 186, 260 Thailand, 211 Thatcher, Margaret, 303 theater: bunraku puppet, 39–40, 81–83, 94; joru¯ri puppet, 109; Kabuki, 16, 38, 39, 40, 41, 109; Noh, 108–9 To¯jo¯ Hideki, 198, 208, 215, 217, 223, 230, 354n4 To¯kaido¯ route, 24 Tokugawa, Way of the, 36 Tokugawa era, 1, 6, 9–59, 160, 167, 219; Buddhism in, 5; commoners in, 77, 78, 149; cultural diversity in, 37–41; economy in, 19, 20; final years of, 92; foreign policy of, 17–19; founding of zaibatsu in, 143; political settle ments in, 11–19; seclusion policy of, 48; women rulers in, 312 Tokugawa family, 2, 3, 7, 14, 126 Tokugawa Hidetada, 11 Tokugawa Iemitsu, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 36 Tokugawa Iesada, 52 Tokugawa Ieyasu, 11, 12, 14, 19, 33, 34, 41; and Confucianism, 36; on peasants, 77; selfdeification of, 35; settlement with daimyo¯, 13 Tokugawa Nariaki, 52, 54 Tokugawa regime, 19; and China, 4, 37; ideological foundations of, 34–36; overthrow of, 46–59, 62 Tokugawa Yoshimune, 42 Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 52, 56–57, 58 Tokutomi Roka, 66, 67 Tokutomi Soho¯, 119 Tokyo, 2, 23, 123, 131–32, 134, 201, 251, 254; earthquake in, 140 See also Edo Tokyo Federation of Salary Earners, 150 Tokyo Imperial University, 106, 107, 121, 135, 143, 157, 163, 169, 199; renaming of, 231 Tokyo Savings Bank, 142 Tokyo Trial See International Military Tribunal for the Far East Tokyo University, 231, 283, 284, 324 Tokyo University New Man Society (Shinjinkai), 186 Tokyo Women’s Reform Society, 90 Tonghak rebellion (Korea), 117–18 Tosa domain, 52, 53, 55, 57, 58; and popular rights, 81, 88; support of national assembly, 78, 79; surrender of lands, 63 To¯yo¯ Muslin textile mills, 185 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 10–11, 13, 14, 18, 25, 34, 35 trade, 7, 9, 10, 43, 188, 189, 272; and agriculture, 29–30, 95; with China, 33, 42, 96, 272; in Edo, 23; international, 33, 48–51, 182, 246; interregional, 21, 24; with Korea, 18, 33, 115, 122; in Nagasaki, 33, 44, 48; and religion, 17– 18; and roads, 24, 25; with Soviet Union, 295; surpluses in, 315; in Tokugawa period, 20, 48– 51; with U.S., 209, 241, 292, 293; vs war, 49, 119 See also exports; imports traders, 3, 17, 20, 44, 115, 148; rice, 21, 25, 139– 40 translations, 42, 44, 301 transportation, 23, 24, 97, 254, 255 Index transwar era: diversity in, 251; patterns in, 251–53; programs of, 225, 234–35, 242–43, 245 travel, 23–25, 73, 305, 307–8 treaties: Kanagawa, 50; with Korea, 115, 295–96; Portsmouth, 121; revisions of, 91, 92, 115, 119; San Francisco (1951), 241–42; Shimonoseki, 118, 120; with Soviet Union, 222, 223; unequal, 50, 73, 76, 78, 91, 274; Versailles, 174, 175, 178 See also U.S.-Japan Security Treaty treaty ports, 91, 119 Tripartite Pact, 208 Truman, Harry, 234 Tsuda Ume, 89 Tsuda University, 89 Tsurumi Shunsuke, 307 Tsuru Shigeto, 272 Tsushima domain, 18 Twenty-One Demands, 162, 173–74, 177, 180 Uchida Ryo¯hei, 167, 179 Uchida To¯shichi, 152 Uchimura Kanzo¯, 112 Ugaki Kazushige, 175, 180, 189, 191–92 ukiyo-e (woodblock print), 38, 108 unemployment, 171, 184, 186, 189, 298, 317; and job security, 281, 300 United Nations, 304, 330 United States (U.S.), 7, 67, 194, 223, 226, 289, 294, 298; and Allied Council for Japan, 355n9b; Bill of Rights of, 231; as bulwark against communism, 240; commercial treaty with, 208; and Dutch, 209; and Far Eastern Commission, 356n9a; and Great Britain, 209; and Gulf War (1991), 315–16, 330; and Japan, 59, 121, 173, 177, 207, 219, 229, 246, 270, 273, 280, 292, 293, 295, 330, 331; and Korea, 117; and League of Nations, 190; Lockheed corporation in, 302; and Manchukuo, 190; and occupation of Japan, 227–43; Open Door policy of, 122, 177; and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 359n4; Resolution Trust Company in, 317, 325; and Soviet Union, 239, 274; strategy of, in Japan, 229; Super 301 sanctions against Japan, 293; terrorist attacks on, 331; trials for war crimes, 230; and Twenty-One Demands, 174; unions in, 351n32 See also Pearl Harbor; U.S.Japan Security Treaty Uno So¯suke, 313 urbanization, 20, 23 See also cities U.S.-Japan Security Treaty (1951; Anpo), 242, 267, 271, 273, 274, 275, 282, 289; debates over, 307; protests against second renewal of (1970), 283; renewal of (1960), 276, 277, 278 Vietnam, 4, 177, 208, 211, 224 Vietnam War, 282, 289, 319 violence, 167, 185, 189; terrorist, 198, 203 Vladivostok (Russia), 175 Vogel, Ezra, 301 Wada Ikuo, 141 wages: control of, 217; equality in, 274; increase in, 273, 288; low, 193; merit and seniority in, 383 280; moderation of, 282, 288; and perfor mance, 327; postwar, 259; wartime, 217–18 Wang Jingwei, 206–7, 211 war, 7, 9, 231; in China, 199, 204–7, 217; and intellectuals, 218–19, 220; between Japan and the West, 187, 188, 209–12; mobilization for, 175, 182, 198, 203, 212–17, 218, 219, 225, 236, 264; Pacific, 209–12, 217; total, 212–17 See also transwar era; particular conflicts warlords, 176 Waseda University, 83, 220 Washington Conference (1922), 176, 187 Waswo, Ann, 145–46 Webb, Beatrice, 122 welfare system, 287, 289, 302; corporate, 281; cost of, 303, 304; district commissioners in, 148–49, 171–72; and middle class, 290 the West: in Asia, 207; culture of, 108–9, 219; imperialism of, 4, 74, 179, 180, 189, 211, 298, 332; individualism in, 195, 199; influence of, 199, 219–20; and New Order, 212; openness to, 73; respect from, 131; technology of, 73, 113; translations from, 42, 44, 301; war with, 187, 188, 209–12 White, Theodore, 294 William II, King (Netherlands), 48 Willoughby, Charles, 239 Wilson, Woodrow, 174, 175, 178 “The Woman Who Loved Love” (Ihara), 38 women: activist, 53, 285; in cabinet, 323; careers for, 252; changing roles in labor force, 251, 260–61; and cultural changes, 155; in Diet gallery, 90; and divorce, 158, 328; economic role of, 215; education of, 67, 68, 89, 90, 102, 106, 113, 151, 155, 231, 263; in electronic industry, 260; as emperors, 2; equality of, 74, 89, 90, 119, 231, 236, 291, 304, 329; as founder of religions, 88; as “good wives and wise mothers,” 112–13, 167, 169, 275, 329; hairstyles of, 89, 91, 111; as homemakers, 253, 263; and labor activism, 150–51, 184–85, 275; liberated, 158; limited working hours for, 127; and marriage, 169, 227, 304; and men, 74; and political movements, 274, 290; political participation of, 88–91, 111, 136, 151, 155, 236; and purification campaigns, 196; and royal throne, 312; rural, 195; of samurai class, 113; and sexuality, 155–56; and sexual slavery, 224–25, 227, 322, 331, 332; succession to throne, 90, 312; in textile industry, 100, 150, 151, 152, 185, 260; in Tokugawa period, 31– 32, 113; U.S soldiers and Japanese, 227; in wartime, 215; working, 94, 100–103, 134, 148– 54, 185, 225, 256, 263, 275, 299; workingclass, 169 See also modern girl; women’s rights Women for National Defense, 199 Women of the World (Sekai Fujin), 134 women’s groups, 217 Women’s Labor Academy, 151 women’s rights, 117, 155, 230, 243; economic, 90, 261, 275; political, 171, 172, 230; voting, 134, 172, 236 Women’s Volunteer Labor Corps, 215 384 INDEX workers, 100–105; British, 153; and equality, 225; factory, 127, 134, 149, 150, 152, 158, 160, 167, 185, 217; female, 94, 100–103, 134, 150, 152, 185; male, 103, 123, 151–52; office, 150, 158; salaried, 280; silk, 275; South Korean, 306; textile, 102, 123, 150; traveling, 103 See also labor Workers’ Conditions (government study), 102 workplace councils, 217, 277, 280 World Bank, 248 world depression, 143, 153 World War I, 139, 141, 143, 158, 171, 173 World War II, 114, 143; “comfort stations” in, 224– 25, 227, 322, 331, 332; death toll of, 226; ending, 221–24; Japanese surrender in, 224, 225; Japan’s responsibility for, 297, 298; reparations in, 230, 239, 241; steps toward, 207–9; understanding of, 331, 332 writers, 94, 159–60 Yahata (Kyushu), iron and steel mill at, 99, 118 Yajima Kajiko, 90 Yamagata Aritomo, 84, 122, 128, 131, 165, 174; death of, 163; and Korea, 116, 118; as Meiji oligarch, 92, 127, 130, 166, 348n13; and military, 66, 117, 162 Yamakawa Hitoshi, 167, 168 Yamakawa Kikue, 169 Yamamoto Gonnohyo¯e, 130, 162, 163, 164 Yamanoguchi Baku, 355n8a Yamasaki Ansai, 36 Yamato family, 2, 203 yangban (Korean aristocratic status), 62 Yasuda, 143, 231 Yasukuni Shrine, 137 Yellow Peril, 177 yo¯fuku saimin (“Western-clothes pauper”), 158 Yokohama, 56, 71 Yokohama Mainichi Shinbun (newspaper), 79 Yokoi Sho¯ichi, 269 Yokoyama Knock, 329 Yonai Mitsumasa, 207 yonaoshi (world rectification), 45, 88 Yosano Akiko, 169 Yoshida Shigeru, 223, 237–38, 239, 241, 242, 270, 271, 287 Yoshida Shoin, 53 Yoshihito (Taisho¯ emperor), 161 Yoshimoto Takaaki, 267, 268, 307 Yoshino Sakuzo¯, 169, 179, 351n35 Yoshiwara (Edo entertainment district), 16 youth groups, 136–37, 217 Youth Independence Corps, 178 Yuan Shikai, 174 zaibatsu families, 143, 231 zaibatsu (financial cliques), 97–98, 183, 195, 213, 242, 251; leaders of, 173, 194, 197, 216; and Occupation, 231, 236, 239; and political parties, 169, 186; and the state, 99, 193; in twentieth century, 139, 143 zai-tekku (financial technique), 308 Zengakuren See All-Japan Federation of Student Self-Governing Associations Zenro¯, 280, 281 Zhang Zuolin, 187, 188 Zhu Xi, 6, 36, 37, 42 ... between Japanese-ness and modernity It tells a peculiarly modern story as it un folded in a place we call Japan In other words, the modern history of Japan has been inseparable from a larger modern. .. Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi São Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei... historians, who have called him a magnificent savage,” a “cruel and callous brute,” even a Japanese Attila.”3 But Nobunaga was more than a butcher He also fashioned political institutions that his