DECISION MAKING FOR STUDENT SUCCESS “Using clear explanations and numerous examples, the authors present an array of innovative practices shown to improve the educational outcomes for students Drawing from research in multiple fields, the authors provide a nuanced picture of the challenges students face when making college decisions to help us understand not only why these barriers are so formidable, but also very real ways to overcome them This book is a great resource for anyone working to support college access and success in this complex world.” —Bridget Terry Long, Saris Professor of Education and Economics, Harvard Graduate School of Education, USA “A terrific, accessible introduction to the power of ‘nudges’ in improving education Researchers, educators, and anyone who wants to lend a hand to struggling students will find important insights in this volume.” —Susan Dynarski, Professor of Economics, Education and Public Policy, University of Michigan, USA Each year, many students with affordable college options and the academic skills needed to succeed not enroll at all, enroll at institutions where they are not well-positioned for success, or drop out of college before earning a credential Efforts to address these challenges have included changes in financial aid policy, increased availability of information, and enhanced academic support This volume argues that the efficacy of these strategies can be improved by taking account of contemporary research on how students make choices In Decision Making for Student Success, scholars from the fields of behavioral economics, education, and public policy explore contemporary research on decision making and highlight behavioral insights that can improve postsecondary access and success This exciting volume will provide scholars, researchers, and higher education administrators with valuable perspectives and low-cost strategies that they can employ to improve outcomes for underserved populations Benjamin L Castleman is an Assistant Professor of Education and Public Policy at the University of Virginia, USA Saul Schwartz is a Professor of Public Policy and Administration at Carleton University, Canada Sandy Baum is a Research Professor of Education Policy at George Washington University and a Senior Fellow at the Urban Institute, USA This page intentionally left blank DECISION MAKING FOR STUDENT SUCCESS Behavioral Insights to Improve College Access and Persistence Edited by Benjamin L Castleman, Saul Schwartz, and Sandy Baum First published 2015 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Taylor & Francis The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Decision Making for Student Success– Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Control Number: 2014040949 ISBN: 978-1-138-78497-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-78498-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-76793-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC CONTENTS Preface Sandy Baum, Benjamin L Castleman, and Saul Schwartz Behavioral Economics and Postsecondary Access: A Primer Benjamin L Castleman, Sandy Baum, and Saul Schwartz Motivation, Behavior, and Performance in the Workplace: Insights for Student Success in Higher Education Charles Kurose Student Aid, Student Behavior, and Educational Attainment Sandy Baum and Saul Schwartz How Can Financial Incentives Improve the Success of Disadvantaged College Students? Insights from the Social Sciences Nicole M Stephens and Sarah S M Townsend Prompts, Personalization, and Pay-Offs: Strategies to Improve the Design and Delivery of College and Financial Aid Information Benjamin L Castleman vii 20 38 63 79 vi Contents The Shapeless River: Does a Lack of Structure Inhibit Students’ Progress at Community Colleges? Judith Scott-Clayton 102 Prepare for Class, Attend, and Participate! Incentives and Student Success in College Robert M Shireman and Joshua A Price 124 Behavioral Nudges for College Success: Research, Impact, and Possibilities Jill Frankfort, Ross E O’Hara, and Kenneth Salim 143 Glossary Contributors Index 163 167 169 PREFACE Sandy Baum, Benjamin L Castleman, and Saul Schwartz Efforts to increase the number of students who enroll and succeed in postsecondary education are rooted in concerns about both the labor market needs of the U.S economy and the persistent disparities in college access and completion Over the decade from 2002 to 2012, when 80 percent to 83 percent of recent high school graduates from families in the highest quintile of the income distribution enrolled in college, the postsecondary enrollment rate in the lowest quintile of the income distribution fluctuated between 51 percent and 58 percent For middle-income students the range was 58 percent to 67 percent (National Center for Education [NCES], 2013) Moreover, many students who enroll not complete the credentials they are seeking Of those who began their studies in 2007, 56 percent had earned degrees or certificates six years later; 15 percent were still enrolled; and the remaining 29 percent had not earned a credential and were no longer enrolled at any postsecondary institution (Shapiro, Dundar, Ziskin, Yuan, & Harrell, 2013) Some of the barriers to greater educational attainment are clear Education is expensive, and we have to be sure both that funds are available to support those who cannot independently afford to pay for college and that students earlier in their schooling know that financial assistance will continue to be available in the future so that they can confidently invest in preparing and planning for college Another challenge to resolving inequalities in college access and success is the dramatic disparity in the quality of our elementary and secondary schools Too many young people graduate from high school unprepared to college-level work—if they graduate at all Diminishing financial barriers and improving academic preparation require both systemic change and significant ongoing investment At the same time, there are many students each year who have the academic skills to succeed in viii Preface college and have affordable college options, but who not enroll at all, enroll at institutions where they are not as well-positioned for success as they might be elsewhere, or drop out of college before earning a credential These are students whose postsecondary outcomes educators and policymakers could conceivably influence with targeted investments in the near term Designing effective strategies for improving student success requires in-depth understanding of how students make choices, how their behaviors and responses to opportunities and circumstances affect their educational outcomes, how they process available information, and how the structure of the student aid system and the classroom might either interfere with or support their aspirations This is the focus of the chapters in this collection Increased understanding of human behavior and decision-making processes is contributing to a number of policy areas For instance, strategies to simplify information about available choices or to provide people with prompts to follow through on intentions they have set for themselves have generated positive outcomes in a range of fields, from retirement planning to public health The chapters in this volume represent an important step in extending these approaches into the area of postsecondary education Taken as a whole, these chapters provide important insights into potential strategies for improving educational attainment These strategies are not likely to provide the solutions to the problems of inadequate funding and inadequate academic preparation But they may move the needle on efforts to support students in overcoming other hurdles to college success This volume grew out of a project supported by a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to the George Washington University Graduate School of Education and Human Development and led by Sandy Baum, Robert Shireman, and Patricia Steele Earlier versions of some of the chapters included here were part of the project and others have been added Chapter is a primer on behavioral concepts It will help readers unfamiliar with behavioral principles to become familiar with the terminology used in this volume The primer includes clear examples of how students facing complex and unfamiliar decisions and processes might end up missing out on opportunities that would help them to achieve their postsecondary goals A glossary at the end of the book provides a quick reference for readers, with definitions and clarification of the concepts discussed in the eight chapters in this volume The Chapters The insights of cognitive psychology and behavioral economics remind us that the standard economic models of rational, utility-maximizing individuals are not adequate for developing a comprehensive understanding of how people behave Preface ix These insights suggest that there are ways to “nudge” people into making choices consistent with their long-run interests and goals While our focus in this volume is on postsecondary education outcomes, it is clear that we can learn from studies of the ways people behave in other environments In Chapter 2, “Motivation, Behavior, and Performance in the Workplace: Insights for Student Success in Higher Education,” Charles Kurose looks to the literature on motivation and its relationship to performance in the workplace His goal is to find potential lessons for higher education in studies of effective strategies for improving workplace outcomes Kurose emphasizes the importance of goal setting and the prevalent finding that specific, challenging goals elicit the best outcomes However, because completing college is a complex task that spans multiple years, these goals should focus on learning processes rather than on final performance outcomes The goals should direct attention and effort toward development of the skills and abilities that one needs in order to succeed in college, rather than toward general goals students are unlikely to know how to achieve In Chapter 3, “Student Aid, Student Behavior, and Educational Attainment,” Sandy Baum and Saul Schwartz examine the financial aid system’s impact on student choices and behaviors They discuss the importance of simple incentives like giving students more money when they enroll in more courses and make more academic progress; they focus primarily on insights from behavioral economics and cognitive psychology, which suggest that responses are less straightforward For example, in the face of complexity, students, like anyone else, are likely to take the path of least resistance, going with the most salient option or the one that requires the least action, and they weigh potential losses more than potential gains of the same magnitude The authors suggest ways in which the current system of grants and loans may exacerbate these tendencies, rather than counteracting them They discuss the tendency for people to over-estimate their ability to beat the odds, leading to choices that may be self-defeating, such as excessive borrowing for college Rather than advocating a specific set of policy changes, Baum and Schwartz focus on increasing our understanding of how the student aid system shapes student behaviors and how modifications might facilitate the goals of improved access and success In Chapter 4, “How Can Financial Incentives Improve the Success of Disadvantaged College Students? Insights from the Social Sciences,” Nicole M Stephens and Sarah S M Townsend emphasize the role of incentives and how a better understanding of the complexities of human decision making can strengthen our ability to provide an environment in which students adopt behaviors more likely to further their goals The authors examine the potential effectiveness of financial incentives in modifying student behaviors Their analysis is in the context of key barriers facing disadvantaged students seeking a college education They argue that properly designed financial incentives have the potential Glossary 165 possibilities together is called broad bracketing Broad bracketing generally leads to be better decisions but requires far greater cognitive resources To illustrate the point, Simonson (1990) gave students a choice of six snacks to be eaten in three upcoming weeks Those who chose all three snacks in advance (broad bracketing) were far more likely to choose a different snack for each week than those who made their choice on the day of the class (narrow bracketing) In an early paper, Kahneman and Tversky (1979) showed that narrow bracketing can lead people to make two sequential choices that are clearly worse than the choice they would have made had they considered the choice together at the same time Read, Loewenstein, and Rabin (1999), as well as Rabin and Weizsäcker (2009), elaborate on the importance of narrow bracketing Salience The likelihood of making a particular choice depends in part on the salience of that choice If a choice is made to stand out from others—say, by advertisements on public transport advertising a particular proprietary college—it becomes more salient to the decision-maker Decision-makers tend to focus too much on the choices that are relatively more visible or prominent and ignore choices that might be better for them but which are less visible and therefore less salient Time-inconsistency In the economist’s standard model of how people decide between options that are available at different times, preferences are consistent Suppose you are asked whether you’d prefer to have A in 30 days or B in 60 days and you answer that you would prefer B in 60 days Now suppose you are asked whether you would rather have A right now or B in 30 days Because the distance in time between A and B is again 30 days, your preferences would be consistent if you say that you would prefer B in 30 days Your preference would be time-inconsistent if you preferred A right now rather than B in 30 In less abstract terms, most of us have had the experience of promising ourselves in the evening that we will wake up early the next morning rather than sleeping in, only to reverse that choice when the alarm rings Chapter of the text by Angner covers the standard model of choices over time Chapter is an excellent discussion of a newer model that captures timeinconsistency and cites the seminal academic articles on the subject References Fryer, Jr., R G., Levitt, S D., List, J., & Sadoff, S (2012) Enhancing the efficacy of teacher incentives through loss aversion: A field experiment (Working Paper No 18237) National Bureau of Economic Research Retrieved from www.nber.org/papers/w18237 Gourville, J., & Soman, D (2005) Overchoice and assortment type: When and why variety backfires Marketing Science, 24(3), 382–395 Johnson, E J., & Goldstein, D (2003) Do defaults save lives? Science, 302(5649), 1338–1339 Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A (1979) Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291 doi:10.2307/1914185 166 Glossary Madrian, B C., & Shea, D F (2001) The power of suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) participation and savings behavior The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(4), 1149–1187 Rabin, M., & Weizsäcker, G (2009) Narrow bracketing and dominated choices The American Economic Review, 99(4), 1508–1543 Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Rabin, M (1999) Choice bracketing Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 19(1–3), 171–197 doi:10.1023/A:1007879411489 Ross, L., & Nisbett, R E (1990) The person and the situation: perspectives of social psychology London: Pinter & Martin Samuelson, W., & Zeckhauser, R (1988) Status quo bias in decision making Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1(1), 7–59 Simonson, I (1990) The effect of purchase quantity and timing on variety-seeking behavior Journal of Marketing Research, 27(2), 150–162 doi:10.2307/3172842 Thaler, R H., & Benartzi, S (2004) Save More TomorrowTM: Using behavioral economics to increase employee saving Journal of Political Economy, 112(S1), S164–S187 doi:10.1086/380085 Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D (1981) The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice Science, 211(4481), 453–458 CONTRIBUTORS Sandy Baum is Research Professor of Education Policy at George Washington University and a Senior Fellow at the Urban Institute A higher education economist, she focuses on college prices, student aid, and other aspects of college finance Benjamin L Castleman is an assistant professor of education and public policy at the University of Virginia His research applies insights from behavioral economics and social psychology to nudge students towards better educational outcomes Jill Frankfort is the co-founder of Persistence Plus Frankfort was previously a Kauffman Foundation Education Ventures Fellow and a director at Jobs for the Future, where she worked with colleges and districts to improve educational outcomes Charles Kurose is a Program Associate at the Spencer Foundation Prior to joining Spencer, he worked as an independent researcher with teams at nonprofit research and advocacy organizations such as the College Board, the Century Foundation, and the Brookings Institute His research focuses on the economics of higher education and covers topics ranging from student financial aid to institutional finance in higher education Ross E O’Hara is a behavioral researcher at Persistence Plus, where he is focused on improving the educational outcomes of college students O’Hara received his Ph.D from Dartmouth College, and completed postdoctoral fellowships at the University of Missouri and the University of Connecticut Medical School Joshua A Price is an Assistant Professor of Economics at Southern Utah University His research focuses on the economics of education, health, and sports 168 Contributors Kenneth Salim is the co-founder of Persistence Plus and the Superintendent of Weymouth Public Schools in Massachusetts The first person in his family to graduate from college, Salim has a doctorate in education from Harvard University Saul Schwartz is a professor in the School of Public Policy and Administration His interests are the economics of education and consumer debt Judith Scott-Clayton is an Assistant Professor of Economics and Education at Teach- ers College, Columbia University, where she teaches courses on labor economics and causal inference She is also a Senior Research Associate at the Community College Research Center (CCRC), and a Faculty Research Fellow of the National Bureau of Economic Research She holds a B.A from Wellesley College and a Ph.D in Public Policy from Harvard University Robert M Shireman, executive director of California Competes and former U.S Deputy Undersecretary of Education, has played a leading role in efforts to redesign college accountability systems, financial aid, and repayment of student loans Nicole M Stephens is an Associate Professor of Management and Organizations at Kellogg School of Management As a social and cultural psychologist, her research explores the ways in which the social world systematically influences how people understand themselves and their actions Her specific focus is on how social class, race, and gender shape people’s everyday life experiences, as well as important life outcomes such as educational attainment and health Sarah S M Townsend is an assistant professor of management and organization at the Marshall School of Business at the University of Southern California Her research focuses on how people’s social and cultural contexts shape their mindsets As a social psychologist, she examines how these mindsets, in turn, influence people’s ability to thrive in diverse settings, shaping their behavior, emotions, and physiological responses INDEX academic performance, financial need and 67 academic preparation vii academic skills, disadvantaged students 66–7 academic support services 45–6, 138, 143, 145, 149 Accelerated Study in Associate Programs (ASAP) 117–18 achievement gaps: disadvantaged students 63–4; first-generation college students 63; low-income students 63; minority students 63 Ackerman, P 34n2, 34n3 Acs, G 83 ACT88, 92, 96, 97n5 active learning 131 Adelman, C 79 adolescents: cognitive functions 82–4; cognitive imbalance 10; cognitive overload 110; communication channels 87–8; decision-making 9–10, 12; fast-response system 10; prompts for beneficial behaviors 86; self-regulation 82; targeted college information 96 adults, mentoring 17 Advanced Placement Incentive Program 65–6 advising 108, 112–14, 118 affect 31 African American students see also minority students: prejudice/stereotypes 150; social belonging 148; stereotype threat 150, 152 Agarwal, S 110 Agle, B 23 agreeableness 29 Aikins, J 68 Ainslie, G 12 Akin-Little, K 65 Allcott, H 146 Allport, G 70 Alon, S 66 Amabile, T 34n10 American Federation of Teachers (AFT) 32 American School Counseling Association 81 anchoring 15 Angrist, J 45 Apfel, N 73 Ariely, D 15, 43, 71 Arizona State University 117 Arnett, A 115 Arnold, K C 91 Arnold, K 151 Aronson, J 63, 70, 148, 150 Astin, A 128–9 Austin Peay State University 115 autonomy 23 availability bias 15–16 Avery, C 3, 41, 79, 97n4, 105 Ayres, I 146–7 Babcock, L 89 Babcock, P 129 170 Index Bailey, T 106, 108, 110 Bailey, T M 143 Baker, R 114, 151 Banaji, M 70 Bandura, A 27–8 Banich, M 82 Banjo, M 34n5 bankruptcy, student loans and 52–3 Bantham, J 111 Barberis, N 57n18 Bar-Gill, O 48, 57n13 Baron, R 34n10 Barrick, M 29, 35n9 Barsade, S 32 Bastedo, M 66 Baum, Sandy viii, ix, 1, 11, 16, 38, 40, 42, 44, 89 Baumeister, R 147 Baylor University 133 Becker, G Beggs, J 111 behavior: decision-making 9–17; interventions 143–56; mobile/ smartphone interventions 152–5; nudges 144–5; personality traits 29 Bell, A 83 Bell, D 110 Benartzi, Shlomo 12 Bennhold, K 144 Benware, C 131 Berdine, R 133 Berman, J 91 Bertrand, M 52, 57n17, 109–10, 113 Beshears, J 86–7, 109 Bettinger, E P 9, 41, 79, 92, 107–8, 114, 151 Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation viii, 57n20 Billings, D 131 Blackwell, L 73 Boatman, A 108 Bohnert, A 68 Bok, D 132 Boldero, J 87 Bond, R 95 Borsari, B 147 Bos, J 91 Botti, S 109, 112 bounded rationality 109 Bourdieu, P 63, 146 Bowen, W 3, 45, 63, 79 Bowles, S 71 Brawer, F 105, 108 Brock, T 65, 67 Brodersen, M 34n10 Brown, T 34n4 Buchanan, J 81 Buchmann, C 83 Bugarin, R 63 Bunker Hill Community College 112 Cabrera, A 67 Calarco, J 68 Camerer, C 89 Cameron, D 144 Cameron, J 65, 71 career counseling 108, 111, 119 Carey, K 147 Carlstrom, A 66 Carnevale, A 66 Carrell, S 79, 91 Carter, P 63 Casey, B 10, 82 Castaneda, M 67 Castleman, Benjamin L x, 1–3, 14, 16, 79, 88, 91–3, 107, 114–15, 152–3 Cauffman, E 82 Center for Community College Student Engagement 108 Chabris, C 85 channel factors 13–14 Chapman, C 3, 79 Chen, E 71 Chen, X 3, 79, 154 Cheng, C 134 Chingos, M 3, 79 Cho, S.-W 106, 110 Choi, J 86, 109 choice architecture 103, 114 Choy, S 66 Cialdini, R 88, 134, 146–7 Civic Enterprises 81 Claire, T 63, 70, 148 Clark, R 65 class attendance 130, 133; paying for 137; policies for 133; strategies to improve 132–3, 135, 139n3; student success and 130–1, 133 classes: preparation for 132; registration for 107 class participation: instructors and 139n5, 140n6; interpersonal strategies 138; note cards 136; online discussion groups 134; policies for 133–4; strategies to improve 132–4; student success and 131–4 Clifford, S 57n19 Clinedinst, M 81 Clotfelter, C 44 Index Coca, V 79 cognitive biases 39 cognitive functions 82–4; cognitive overload 14, 110; imbalance 10 Cohen, A 105, 108 Cohen, G 68–9, 73, 88, 144, 148, 155–6, 161 collaborative learning 130 Collado, H 104 college access 38; barriers to 38, 41, 79; early commitment of aid 46–7; socioeconomic status 1; technological simplifications 115 College Board 1, 42, 45, 57n20, 88, 120n4 college choice 105; economic issues and 8–9, 15 college costs: communication of 16; immediate costs 43, 47; informed decisions about 39, 80; media reports of 15; need-based financial aid 2; net price 9, 16; resource gap 67–8 college counseling 81–95, 108, 119 college culture: alcohol use 147; institutional expectations 146–7; social norms 146–7 college enrollment 41; completion rates 38, 44–6, 67, 102–4, 143–4, 152; concretizing benefits of 89–90; cost constraints 2–3, 67; cultural norms 68–9; deadlines and 4; decision-making 1–5; disparities in 96; financial barriers vii, xi, 2; financial incentives 45–6; income distribution vii; inequality in 1; informational barriers to 79–81; longterm investment, as a 85; part-time 44; social identity 88–9; social norms 88; student attrition 103, 112, 124, 128; summer melt 114–15, 153 College Navigator 80–1, 84, 88, 120n4 college planning process 81–2; availability bias 111; career counseling 119; college-educated families 82–3; communication channels 87–8; default bias 111; disadvantaged students 82–96; informational tools 88–90, 96; interactive tools 115; online advising tools 119; peer mentors 91–2; personalized assistance and 86–95, 97; post-high school summer 91–2; preferences 109–10; prompts 86, 107; simplification strategies 84; social networks and 94–6; strategies to improve 85–6; student activity information 88–9 171 colleges: flexibility and 105; graduation rates 143; institutional reform 116–18; navigating 104–6; for-profit 116; retention 128–31, 143 college search sites, personalized assistance and 93–5 community colleges: advising 108, 112, 114, 118; career counseling 108, 111; completion rates 102–3, 116–18; course registration process 107; credit/noncredit courses 106, 119; decision-making 111, 119; developmental coursework 106, 152; informational barriers 111; institutional reform 116–18; lack of structure in 102–6, 112–14, 117–19; learning communities 115–16; pre-registration 119–20; program options 105–6, 111–12; structured programs 117–19; student attrition 103; technological simplifications 115; transferable credits 106 Complete College America (CCA) 44, 117 Condly, S 65 Condron, D 83 conscientiousness 29 Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) 49 continuing-generation students 69; defined 74n1; family support 83 Covarrubias, R 63, 69 Cox, A 83 Credé, M 66, 130 Croizet, J 63, 70, 148 Cropanzano, R 31 Cruce, T 67 cultural capital 68 cultural mismatch 69, 73 cultural norms, middle class 68–9 Curto, V 110 Cwir, D 144 Dartmouth College 91 Davidson, O 34n5 Davis, D 66 Davis, L 139n5 debt aversion 49–51 Deci, E 23, 71, 131 decision deferral 111–12 decision-making: adolescents 9–12; anchoring 15; availability bias 15–16, 111; behavioral responses 9–17; channel factors 13–14; choice architecture 103, 114; cognitive biases 39; cognitive 172 Index overload 14; in context 89–90; costbenefit analysis 1–3; decision deferral 111–12; default bias 111; default option 14, 46; depressive realism effect 32; fast-response system 10, 40; loss aversion 16, 50; negative affect and 32; overconfidence 51–2; paradox of choice 48; path of least resistance 14; positive affect and 31; present bias 12–13, 85; procrastination 41; psychology-guided information 51–2, 62; reference points 50; simplification strategies 15, 84; slowand-thoughtful system 10, 40; time inconsistent preferences 11–12, 42–3 default bias 111 default option 14 Deil-Amen, R 103, 105, 107, 111–12, 116–17 DellaVigna, S 42, 127 Dembo, M 149 Deming, D 79 depressive realism effect 32 descriptive norms 134–5 Destin, M 69, 73, 148 Devadoss, S 138 developmental coursework 106; community colleges 152; productive persistence and 152 Dhar, R 110–11 Diamond, A 57n22 Diener, E 31 Digest of Education Statistics disadvantaged students see students, disadvantaged discrimination 70 distraction time 135–6 Dixon, S 67 Dobkin, C 130, 133 Dovidio, J 70 Downs, J 126 Driscoll, J 110 Duckworth, A 155 Dundar, A 38, 44 Dunn, W 35n9 Durston, S 82 Dvir, T 34n5 Dweck, C 73, 149–50 Dynarski, M 67 Dynarski, S 9, 40, 43, 79, 106 early aid commitment systems 47 early alert systems 151 Eastern Florida State College 133 Eckert, T 65 Eden, D 34n5 Edidin, J 68 Ehrenberg, R 67 Eisenberg, J 34n10 emotional contagion 32 emotional stability 29 Eren, O 129 escalation situations 34n6 exam preparation 135 extrinsic incentives 23, 126 extroversion 29–30 faculty: changes in 32; financial incentives 72–3; mentoring 72–3; positive affect and 32 FAFSA 5–8, 11, 97n5; 4caster 80; complexity of 9, 13, 40–2, 79, 106–7; H&R Block assistance with 92, 114; prompts for 96; simplifying 61, 120n5; student loans and 49; support for 13 Fallon, B 87 family support 6; continuing-generation students 83; first-generation college students 82–3 Farrell, H 55 Farrington, C 144 Fassinger, P 131 feedback 24–5 Field, E 50 financial aid: applying for 3, 15, 40–1; award letter inconsistencies 44; awareness of 3, 5; class attendance conditions 137; communication channels 87; communication of 14; complexity of 40–3, 55, 80, 85–6, 107; debt aversion 49; disclosure 51–2; early commitment of 46–7; eligibility for 3; estimating 3; federal and state 1–3, 38, 44–7, 53; grant aid 43, 45–6; informational tools 3–4, 39, 41–2, 51–2, 54, 62, 80–2, 85–9, 96; institutional behavior 53–4, 62; longterm support 24, 43, 61; need-based 1–2, 44–5; policies for 55; policy reforms 61–2; simplifying 61–2, 80; smart disclosure 44; student aid calculators 41, 80; student loans 46, 48–52; Title IV federal student aid 80; unexpected financial problems 47 financial incentive programs 63–5, 74; academic skills 66–8; advantaged students 70; baseline preconditions for 65, 67; class attendance conditions 137; consequences of financial resource gap 68; culturally-specific 69–70, 74n2; Index defined 64; lotteries 137; mixed results of 66; motivation 71, 72; professors/ teaching assistants 72–3; study logs 137; study-time wages 136–7 Finkel, E 70 first-generation college students 3, 25; academic skills 66; academic support services 143; achievement gaps 63; cognitive biases 39; cultural capital 68; cultural mismatch 69; defined 74n1; family support 82–3, 108, 113; lack of college knowledge 112–13; modifying expectations of 61; prejudice/stereotypes 70, 148; retention strategies 154; social belonging 148; social norms 147; uncertainty of 85 fixed mindsets 149–50 Fjeldsoe, B 153 Flood, W 135 Florida State University 117 Foltz, J 138 Fonte, R 113 Foo, M 34n10 Foster, L 133 Frankfort, Jill xi, 143 Fredrick, W 129 Free Application for Federal Student Aid see FAFSA Frey, B 23 Fried, C 150 Friedrich, L 81 Fryberg, S 63, 68–9 Fryer, R 16, 46, 66–7, 72 Future to Discover 47 Gabaix, X 110 Garcia, E 118 Garcia, J 73, 88 Gardenhire-Crooks, A 104 Gelb, S 67 George, D 67 George, J 32, 34n10 Gibbs, N 83 Gibson, D 32 Giedd, J 82 Gil, R 130 Ginder, S 143 Gneezy, U 71 goal commitment 22–3, 33 goal-setting: autonomy 23; behavioral responses 21–2; extrinsic incentives 23; feedback 24–5; intrinsic incentives 23; learning goals 26; performance goals 26; present bias 126–7, 130–1; salience 173 125–6, 130, 135; specific commitments 127; specific high goals 21–8; task complexity 25–6 Goldin, C 105 Goldstein, N 88, 146–7 Gollwitzer, P 149, 161 Gonyea, R 67 Good, C 150 Goodman, Josh 97n4 Gourville, J 110 graduation rates 143 Graham, S 82 grant aid 43–6; long-term support 43, 61; Pell Grants 44–5, 62, 114; performancebased 45, 62 Greene, D 65, 71 Greenfield, P 68, 88 Greenleaf, E 111 Greenwald, A 70 Griskevicius, V 146 Grodner, A 129, 133 Grodsky, E 3, 79 group work 30 growth mindsets 150 Grubb, N 42, 108, 111–13 guided mastery 28–9 Gupta, N 65 Guttman Community College (CUNY) 117–19 H&R Block 92, 114 Halstead, J 131 Hamedani, M 73, 148 Harackiewicz, J 73 Harrington, N 153 Harris, D 97n4 Hartin, V 139n5 Harvard University 112 hassle factors 110, 119 Hawkins, D 81 Head, K 153 Heaps, A 81 Heitmann, M 112 helicopter parents 83 Heller, D 45 Henderson, D 129 Henry, G 68 Herrmann, A 112 higher education see college Hogg, M 88 Hollenbeck, J 23 Hollin, I 153 homework 132–3 Hook, S 34n6 174 Index Horn, L 3, 79 Horvat, E 68 Howard, A 70 Howell, J Hoxby, C 3, 56n4, 79, 93, 105, 115 Hsueh, J 83 Hulleman, C 73 Hussar, W 143 Hyde, J 73 Iannarino, N 153 ideas42 155 incentives see also financial incentive programs: extrinsic 23, 126; intrinsic 23; learning-related behaviors 126; narrow bracketing 125–6 income-based repayment (IBR) 50–1 income distribution vii informational barriers 79–84 injunctive norms 134–5 InsideTrack 114, 150 Institute for College Access and Success 83 institutional/program structure: cohorts 117; community colleges 112–14; completion rates 102–4; laissez-faire 113; private colleges 116–17; program options 104–6; restrictive 113 institutional reform 116–18 instruction, effective 138 intelligence, theories of 149–50 intergroup interactions 70 intrinsic incentives 23 Isen, A 34n10 Iyengar, S 109, 112 Jackson, C 65–6, 113 James, K 34n10 Jaquette, O 66 Jaschik, S 54 Jegen, R 23 Jenkins, D 108 Jenkins, G 65, 67 Jeong, D 106, 110 Johannesson, M 71 Johns, M 73 Johnson, A 88 Johnson, B 70 Johnson, C 63, 69–70 Jones, M 3, 79 Jones, R 10, 82 Jones, S 13 Judge, T 29, 35n9 Just, D 126 Kachnowski, S 153 Kahneman, D 10, 40, 46, 85, 89, 111, 137 Kalyanaraman, S 11 Kane, T 2–3, 41, 45, 79 Kanfer, R 34n2, 34n3 Kantrowitz, M 56n3 Karabenick, S 149 Karlan, D 86, 109 Karp, M 114 Katz, L 105 Kawakami, K 70 Keating, D 10 Kelly, D 155 Kelly-Reid, J 143 Kim, H 68 Kim, Y 68 King, A 34n5 King, J King, L 31 Kingsborough Community College (CUNY) 115–16 Kinne, S 21 Kinzie, J 67 Klein, H 23 Kluger, A 24 Knapp, L 143 Kofoed, M Koppenhaver, G 130 Kouyoumdjian, H 135 Kuh, G 67 Kuncel, N 66 Kurose, Charles ix, 20 Kurzweil, M 63 Lafayette College 133 LaGuardia Community College (CUNY) 120n7 Laibson, D 85–6, 109–10 Langley, R 66 Lareau, A 63, 68, 83, 113 Latham, G 21–2, 27, 34n2, 34n3, 34n4 Lauver, K 66 Le, H 66 learning communities 115–16 learning goals 26 Leary, M 147 Lehmann, D 111–12 Leinbach, T 108 Lenhardt, A 87 Lepper, M 65, 71 Leventhal, H 13 Levin, H 118 Levitt, S 72, 126 Li, J 68 Index Lipka, S 83 List, J 72 Liston, C 82 Little, S 65 Liu, X 138 loan repayment assistance programs (LRAP) 49–50 Locke, E 21 Loewenstein, G 11, 89, 126 Loftin, C 139n5 Long, B 2, 9, 79, 97n4, 107–8 Long, S 68 Loprest, P 83 loss aversion 16, 50, 139n1 Lovelace, K 88 Lovett, B 65 low-income, defined 66 low-income students see students, disadvantaged Luca, M 97n4 Luepker, R 88 Lum, L 83 Lusardi, A 110 Luthans, F 27 Lynch, J 11 Lyubomirsky, S 31 Ma, J 89 Mabel, Z McClane, J 135 McConnell, M 86 McNatt, D 34n5 Macomb Community College (Michigan) 105 McPherson, M 3, 40, 79, 97n2 Madrian, B 46, 86–7, 109, 111 Malmendier, U 127 Marburger, D 130 Marion, J 130 Marks, M 129 Markus, H 63, 68–9 Marshall, A 153 Martens, A 73 Martocchio, J 35n9 Master, A 73 matriculation strategies 114–15 Matthews, M 155 MDRC 45, 104, 114, 116, 118 Mellström, C 71 Mendoza-Denton, R 70 Michael, J 139n2 middle class: college planning process 83–4; shadow education 83; simplification strategies 84 175 Middlesex Community College (Ct.) 153–4 Midgley, C 149 Milkman, K 17, 86, 149 Miller, G 71 Miller, Y 153 Mills, A 138 minority students: academic skills 66; achievement gaps 63; family support 108; prejudice/stereotypes 63, 70, 147–8, 150, 152; social belonging 147–8; stereotype threat 150, 152; underrepresented 74n1 Mitchell, O 110 Mitchell, T 34n2 Mitra, A 65 Mittelmark, M 88 mobile/smartphone interventions: personalized nudges 152–5, 160–1; text messaging 87–8, 93, 95, 115 Mone, M 34n2 Morse, A 52, 57n17 motivation 20–2; financial incentives 71–2, 136–7; incentives 126, 132–6; positive affect and 31 Mount, M 29 Mullainathan, S 10, 82, 86, 109–10, 113, 146 Murray, D 88 Nagaoka, J 79 narrow bracketing 125–6 National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators (NASFAA) 45, 51 National Center for Education Statistics vii, 38, 44, 57n21 National College Access Network (NCAN) 42 National Safety Council 15 Neuman, G 35n9 Newman, R 87 New York University 50 Nickerson, D 149 Nisbett, R 65, 71 Noar, S 153 non-traditional students 143 Nora, A 67 note cards 136 Nowlis, S 110–11 Nuñez, A 63 Nunn, C 131 Oakleigh Consulting 42 Obama administration 44, 80 176 Index O’Banion, T 108 O’Donoghue, T 112 O’Hara, Ross E xi, 143 online discussion groups 134 online students, academic support services 143 openness to experience 29 Oreopoulos, P 9, 79, 107 Ortiz, L 91 Ostrove, J 68 outreach 115 overconfidence 27 Oyserman, D 69 Oz, S 34n5 Page, L 3, 88, 91–3, 107, 114–15, 97n4, 152–3 Page-Gould, E 70 Pallais, A 12, 65, 85 paradox of choice 48 parenting styles 113 part-time enrollment, completion rates 44 Pascarella, E 63, 66–7 Passeron, J 63 Patel, R 65 path of least resistance 14 Patterson, R 135 Paulsen, M 67 Payea, K 89 peer mentor programs 91–2, 115 peer nudges 135 Pelled, L 34n10 Pell Grants 44–5, 62, 114 Pender, M performance-based grants 45, 62 performance goals 26–7; personality traits and 29–30 Perna, L 83 Persistence Plus 144, 150, 152–5, 160–1 Person, A 103, 105, 107, 111, 116–17 personality traits 29–30, 35n8 Peterson, C 155 Pettigrew, T 70 Pew Research Center 143 Pheri, T 67 Phillips, L 69 picoeconomics 12 Pierce, W 65 Pierson, C 63 Pintrich, P 87, 149 Piotrowski, M 35n9 Pistilli, M 151 Pope, D 126 positive feelings 31 Pottow, J 53 predictive analytics 151–2 prejudice/stereotypes 63, 70; campus climate and 70; disadvantaged students 70; first-generation college students 70, 148; minority students 63, 70, 147–8, 150, 152 present bias 12–13, 110, 126–7, 130–2 Presser, H 83 Price, Joshua A x, 4, 11, 15, 124, 126 private schools, college counseling 81 procrastination 14 productive persistence 152 professors/teaching assistants see faculty prompts 93, 95–6 psychology-guided information 51–2, 62 public-interest jobs, loan repayment assistance programs (LRAP) 50 Purcell, K 81 Qi, J 132, 140n6 Quinn, D 148 quizzes 135 Rabin, M 112 Raisman, N 144 Ramey, G 83 Ramey, V 83 Rampell, C 57n19 Raseman, S 146–7 Ravid, G 34n5 Ray, B 104 Read, D 11, 125 regret aversion 110 retention strategies: academic support services 45–6, 138, 143, 145, 149; class attendance 130, 135–7; early alert systems 151; factors of success 128–9; financial incentive programs 136–7; growth mindsets 149–50; implementation intention prompts 148–9; importance of 144–5; mobile/ smartphone interventions 152–5; participation in class 131–2; peer nudges 135; predictive analytics 151–2; social belonging 147–8; social norms 146–7; studying 129, 137; success coaches 150–1 Rethinking Pell Grants 42 return on investment 11 Richburg-Hayes, L 65, 67 Richeson, J 70 Robbins, S 66, 147 Roderick, M 79 Index Rogers, T 149 Romer, D 130, 135, 138 Roscigno, V 83 Rose, S 66 Rosen, B 88 Rosenbaum, J 103, 105, 107, 111–12, 116–17 Rowan-Kenyon, H 83 Royer, H 126 Rozek, C 73 Rozin, P 144 Rubenstein, R 68 Rudd, T 116 Rupp, N 129, 133 Rustichini, A 71 Ryan, A 87, 149 Ryan, R 23 Sacerdote, B 79, 91, 97n4 Sadoff, S 72 Saks, A 34n6 salience 125, 130, 135; framing 126, 132 Salim, Kenneth xi, 143 Sanbonmatsu, L 9, 79, 107 SAT 92, 96, 97n5, 130 SAT prep courses 83 Sax, L 68 Schmader, T 73 Schneider, B 82, 97n4 Schneider, M 144 school counselors Schooley, K 91, 115 Schuldt, J 85 Schwartz, B 84 Schwartz, Saul ix, 1, 11, 16, 38, 48 Schweitzer, M 126 Scott-Clayton, Judith x, 4, 9, 16, 40, 42–3, 45, 66–7, 79, 84, 102, 106 Scrivener, S 114, 116, 118 Seijts, G 34n3, 34n4 selective colleges and universities self-efficacy 21, 23, 26–7; developing 27–8; goals and 26–7; guided mastery 28–9; overconfidence and 27; performance and 27, 33; vicarious 27–8 shadow education 83 Shafir, E 10, 82, 109–10, 113 Shalizei, C 55 Shalley, C 34n2 Shani, A 34n5 Shapiro, D vii, 38, 44 Shaw, J 65 Shea, D 46, 87, 111 177 Sherman, D K 148, 155 Sherman, D R 67 Shih, A 146–7 Shireman, Robert M viii, x, 4, 11, 15, 124 Shoup, R 67 Silva, E 152 Simkovic, Michael 51 Simon, Herbert 109 Simonson, I 109 Singer, R 13 smart disclosure 44 smartphone interventions see mobile/ smartphone interventions Smith, D 133 Smith, J 3, 79 social belonging 147–8, 152 social norms 88, 146–7 social priming 134–5 Social Research and Demonstration Corporation (SRDC) 47 Soman, D 110 Somerville, L 10, 82 sophomore slump 71 Spencer, S 144, 148 Springer, M 72 Stajkovic, A 27 Stansal, E 67 status quo bias 111 Steele, C 70–1, 148 Steele, P viii, 40, 63, 72 Stehr, M 126 Steinberg, L 82 Stephens, Nicole M ix, 63, 68–9, 73, 148, 155 stereotype threat 150, 152 Sternberg, B 71 Stevenson, D 82 Stewart, G 29, 35n9 Stinebrickner, R 67 Stinebrickner, T 67 St John, E 67 Stockwell, M 86 Stolovitch, H 65 Strauch, B 82 Stromsnes, W 135 student aid calculators 41, 80 student attrition 1, 124; costs of 144–5; growth mindsets 149–50; implementation intention prompts 148–9; institutional failure, as an 103, 112; interventions for 128, 145–52, 155; non-cognitive factors 143–52; poor planning 148–9; rates of 143 student coaching services 114 178 Index student loans: bankruptcy discharge 52–3; converting to grants 46; disclosure 51–2; federal and state 48–9; income-based repayment (IBR) 50–1; private 48–9; repayment assistance programs (LRAP) 49–50; repayment of 48–53; simplifying 48–51, 54; subsidized 48; unsubsidized 48 students: absenteeism 130; academic helpseeking 149–50; achievement gaps 63; advising 118; cognitive overload 110; college counseling 81; continuinggeneration 69; course choices 106, 108–10; debt aversion 49–51; decision deferral 111–12; decision-making 1–3; developmental coursework 152; dissatisfaction with decisions 112; family support 108; goal-setting 125–7; hassle factors 110, 119; informational tools 119; intergroup interactions 70; motivation 71–2; navigating college 104–6; persistence of 103, 107, 116, 144, 152; personality traits 29–30; personalized assistance and 108; preferences 109–10; regret aversion 110; social belonging 152; social norms 146–7; unpleasant associations 110 students, disadvantaged: academic skills 66–7; achievement gaps 63–4; advising 112–14; challenges of 63–4; college counseling 81–2, 84, 91–3; college planning process 82–97; counseling of 6–7, 55; cultural capital 68; cultural influences 5, 73; debt aversion 49–51; decision-making 2–5, 8–10, 41, 55, 84– 5; discrimination 70; early commitment of aid 46–7; environmental influences 5; extracurricular activities 67–8; family responsibilities 44; family support 6, 82–3, 108, 113; federal supplements 1; financial incentives 63–74; financial need 2–3, 67; graduation rates 143; high achieving 115; immediate costs 43, 47, 85; informational barriers 79–84; internet access 81; lack of college knowledge 112–13; matriculation 3, 114–15; modifying expectations of 61; motivation 71–2; over-borrowing 52; overestimation of college costs 3, 79; personalized assistance and 41–2, 80, 86–97; public recognition 73; sense of belonging 68, 70, 72–3, 88; social belonging 147–8; social norms 147; uncertainty of 88–9; unexpected financial problems 47; work responsibilities 2, 44, 67 student success strategies viii, 128; academic support services 45–6, 62, 145, 149; affect-based 32; behavioral interventions 143–56; behavioral nudges 144–5, 152–5; class attendance 130, 133, 137; class participation 131–4, 136; distraction time 135–6; early alert systems 151; effective instruction 138; emotional contagion 32; exam preparation 135; faculty and 32; goal commitment 22–3, 33; goal-setting 21–30, 32–3; guided mastery 29; homework assignments 132–3; implementation intention prompts 148–9; institutional/program structure 102–4; interpersonal strategies 138; learning communities 115–16; mobile/smartphone interventions 152–5; motivation 20–2, 32, 137–9; note cards 136; obstacles to 16; peer nudges 135; predictive analytics 151–2; quizzes 135; self-efficacy 21, 23, 26–9, 33; social belonging 147–8; social norms 146–7; social priming 134–5; structured programs 117; studying 129, 136–7; success coaches 150–1; time management 148 studying: financial incentive programs 136–7; strategies to improve 132, 134–6; student success and 129, 137; study logs 137 study-time wages 136–7 Subrahmanyam, K 88 success coaches 150–1 summer melt 114–15, 153 Sunstein, C 55, 84, 94, 103, 114, 144 Sutton, C 34n5 Svenson, O 57n14 Sydnor, J 126 task complexity 25–6 Taylor, S 111 Tennessee Techs 117 Terenzini, P 63 Terry, D 88 text messaging see also mobile/smartphone interventions 87–8, 93, 95, 115, 152–3 Thaler, R 12, 55, 84, 89, 94, 103, 114, 144 Thorne, B 135 time inconsistent preferences 11–12, 42–3, 110 Index Tinto, V 103, 106, 112, 131 Tobin, E 63 Tottenham, N 82 Townsend, Sarah S M ix, 63, 69 Tropp, L 70 Trzesniewski, K 73 Turner, S 56n4, 79, 93, 115 Tversky, A 85, 89, 109, 111, 137 United States Census Bureau 38 United States Department of Education 80, 94, 120n4, 131, 143 University of Tennessee at Chattanooga 135 University of Washington Tacoma 154 unpleasant associations 110 Uy, M 34n10 Vancouver, J 27 Van Dijk, D 24 Van Horn, D 115 Vinchur, A 35n9 Visher, M 116 Wei, J 153 Weininger, E 68 Weiss, H 31 Weiss, M 114, 116, 118 Weissman, E 116 Wertenbroch, K 43 Wesson, M 23 White, K 88 White, T 152 White, W 83 Whyte, G 34n6 Wiederspan, M 40 Wilder, D 135 Wilson, T 73 Winters, D 34n2, 34n4 Wolniak, G 63 women students: prejudice/stereotypes 148; STEM fields 148 Woodman, R 34n5 Woolard, J 82 workplace motivation 20–1 Wright, J 35n9 Xin, K 34n10 Wacquant, L 63, 146 Walberg, H 129 Walpole, M 63, 67–8 Walton, G 68–9, 73, 88, 144, 148, 150, 156, 161 Warburton, E 63, 66 Wartman, K 91 Wathington, H 116 Weaver, R 132, 140n6 Wechsler, H 147 Yeager, D 73, 148, 150 Yoder, N 69 Yoshikawa, H 83 Young, J 152 Zauberman, G 11 Zhou, J 32 Zinman, J 86, 109 Zweifler, S 117 179 ... intentionally left blank DECISION MAKING FOR STUDENT SUCCESS Behavioral Insights to Improve College Access and Persistence Edited by Benjamin L Castleman, Saul Schwartz, and Sandy Baum First published... Motivation, Behavior, and Performance 29 beneficial for underprepared students who are struggling to adapt to the demands of college Many of the current efforts to prepare these students for college have... Judith Scott-Clayton 102 Prepare for Class, Attend, and Participate! Incentives and Student Success in College Robert M Shireman and Joshua A Price 124 Behavioral Nudges for College Success: Research,