Environmental chemistry

Envi ronmenta I Chemist ry Volume A Specialist Periodical Report Environmental Chemistry Volume A Review of the Literature published up to end 1982 Senior Reporter H J M Bowen Department of Chemistry, University of Reading Reporters S J Blunden International Tin Research Institute, Greenford Colbeck University of Lancaster R M Harrison University of Lancaster L A Hobbs International Tin Research Institute, Greenford S A Katz Rutgers University, NJ, U.S.A K Simkiss University of Reading P J Smith International Tin Research Institute, Greenford M G Taylor Robens Institute, University of Surrey The Royal Society of Chemistry Burlington House, London, WIV OBN ISBN 0-85186-775-8 ISSN 0305-7712 Copyright 01984 The Royal Society of Chemistry A fI Rights Reserved No part o f this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -graphic, electronic, includlng photocopying, recording, taping, or informotlon storage and retrieval systems - without written permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry Set by Unicus Graphics Ltd, Horsham and printed in Great Britain by Whitstable Litho Ltd, Whitstable, Kent Preface Research in environmental chemistry continues t o proliferate at such a rate that it is often difficult t o see the overall trends in particular topics The subject is advancing hand-in-hand with the remarkable developments in analytical chemistry which have occurred during the past years It is probably fair to say that improvements in analytical sensitivity have exceeded our capacity to interpret the effects of environmental contaminants, so that legally defined limits of concentration are often based on subjective interpretations Nevertheless the potential consequences of both local and global pollution are so serious that failure to understand them could affect large parts of the human race The importance of the ozone layer as a radiation shield in the stratosphere has long been known I t is less widely realized that measurable quantities of ozone also occur in the troposphere, where its fairly long lifetime together with its toxic and corrosive properties make it worthy of study as a pollutant Concentrations of ozone capable of causing biological damage occur more often than is desirable at ground level Indeed ozone, like lead, is a contaminant which exists close to or exceeding toxic levels in our environment Colbeck and Harrison’s review covers these points and shows how the complexities of the sources and sinks of tropospheric ozone are slowly being unravelled Unlike ozone, tin has such low toxicity that its environmental chemistry has been neglected Trialkyl-tin species have much greater toxicity and are used as biocides, so their environmental degradation needs to be studied with care Blunden, Hobbs, and Smith review the current situation with regard t o organotin compounds They conclude that toxic effects are essentially local and fairly short-lived, and that no long-term hazards need arise from their use The question of the natural biomethylation of tin is also discussed, as it is only recently that such environmental reactions have been shown to occur Other heavy metals, notably cadmium, lead, and zinc, are known to accumulate in sewage sludges whose disposal has caused concern Sidney Katz describes how determinations of heavy metals in sludges can now be made with reasonable precision and accuracy Such determinations are vital t o decision-makers in assessing the risks of sludge disposal, whether by application as a fertilizer or landfill, by incineration or by burial at sea Organisms themselves can become adapted t o high concentrations of metals One of the ways in which they this is by forming solid granules of inorganic material within their cells The structure of these granules, which are usually amorphous, is becoming clearer as analyses by electron probe XRF, EXAFS, and infrared spectrometry improve Taylor and Simkiss propose a preliminary classification of granules into calcareous, phosphatic, siliceous, and sulphur-rich categories which makes sense in terms of the likely functions of the vi Environmental Chemistry granules Their observation that the formation of calcareous granules is a normal rather than a pathological cell response seems justified, while the formation of phosphatic and sulphur-rich granules appear to be mechanisms of detoxification or excretion H J M BOWEN Contents Chapter Tropospheric Ozone By I Colbeck and R M Harrison Introduction Ozone Sources in the Unpolluted Troposphere 3 Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange Photochemistry of the Clean Troposphere Ozone Distribution in the Troposphere Latitudinal Distribution of Ozone 10 13 Sinks of Ozone in the Unpolluted Troposphere 17 Tropospheric Ozone Budget 18 Ozone Formation and Destruction in Polluted Air Smog-chamber Studies Modelling of Photochemical Pollution Urban Ozone Rural Ozone 24 27 30 32 33 Elevated Ozone Levels 35 40 42 Meteorological Conditions Associated with Ozone Pollution Weekday-Weekend Variations Biological Effects of Ozone Effects on Humans Effects on Vegetation Environmental Health Guidelines 10 Analytical Techniques 43 43 45 46 47 Chapter The Environmental Chemistry of Organotin Compounds 49 By S J Blunden, L A Hobbs, and P J Smith Introduction 49 Toxicological Patterns of Organotins Toxicology and Mode of Action Metabolism 56 56 59 Envir o nmen tal Chemistry Vlll Analysis of Organotins at Environmental Levels 60 Modes of Entry into the Environment 61 Aqueous Chemistry 65 Transformations in the Environment 70 Degradation of Organotin Compounds 71 U.V Irradiation Biological Cleavage Chemical Cleavage Summary Chapter Determination of Heavy Metals in Sewage Sludge By S.A Katz 72 74 75 76 78 Introduction 78 Analysis of Sewage Sludge 79 79 82 83 83 83 89 89 91 91 Sample Collection Sample Preservation Sample Preparation Drying Dissolution Elemental Determinations Atomic Absorption/Atomic Emission Spectrometry Neutron Activation/Photon Activation Analysis Other Methodologies Selected Procedures for Sludge Analysis US EPA Procedures UK DOE Procedures Other Procedures 92 92 94 96 Disposal and Utilization of Sewage Sludge 96 97 97 97 97 98 Incineration Land Disposal Ocean Dumping Cropland Applications Miscellaneous Applications Possible Consequences of Sewage Sludge Disposal and Utilization and the Need for Monitoring Soil and Water Contamination Contamination of Plants Contamination of Animals Conclusions 98 98 99 100 101 Environmental Chemistry 132 developed for metallothioneinslm may well help to clarify some of these questions Silica Deposition At pH 8, 98% of silicic acid in aqueous solution occurs in a non-ionized form and it is this molecule that is thought to act as the precursor of silica (Si02), structures Since these deposits are amorphous hydrated molecules of unknown molecular weight they are often shown as Si02.nH2O which emphasizes the relationship with silicic acid The solid deposits formed by diatoms are often referred to as ‘opaline’ and as ‘opal’ in other organisms Silica deposits are mainly formed in plants and ‘lower organisms’ In plants the silicic acid is polymerized extracellularly with little or no morphogenesis The deposits often appear to act as abrasives that deter herbivores In other organisms the silica is formed intracellularly (diatoms, chrysophytes, choanoflagellates, radiolaria, testate amoebae, and sponges) but these deposits may be extruded and ‘glued’ together extracellularly to form elaborate structures (chrysophytes, choanoflagellates, testate amoebae) In all cases where the silica is deposited intracellularly there is elaborate control of the shape of the inorganic deposits t o form structures that can be bewilderingly complex The form in which silicon is transported around organisms and in which it enters cells is not known I t is generally agreed that silica deposits are formed in special vesicles derived from the Golgi system, but since this association is often difficult to demonstrate, the membrane bound areas that deposit silica intracellularly are usually referred to as a silicalemma around silica deposition vacuoles (S.D.V.) Silica deposition is normally associated with an organic matrix In diatoms the process has been summarized as (1) uptake of Si(OH)4 from the medium, (2) synthesis of silicalemma from membrane units, ( ) transport of silicon from the cytoplasmic pool, (4) polymerization of silicon within the vacuole, and ( ) synthesis of secondary organic material, mainly carbohydrates, which are added to the developing walls.142The organic matter plus water of hydration may account for 36-90% of the diatom wall that is synthesized in this way and the organic coating appears t o be important in protecting the siliceous ‘frustule’ from dissolution Amorphous silica is unstable and dissolves in fresh and seawater Frustules from killed cells dissolve faster than those from living diatoms and acid cleaned structures dissolve faster than intact structures.143 This increased resistance t o dissolution has been variously attributed to polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, or trace elements such as iron and aluminium In testate amoebae and chrysophytes a fibrilIar matrix occurs in the silica forming vacuoles In the first of these groups a complex silicon-sulphomucinI4O 141 14* 143 J S Garvey, R J Vander Mailie, and C C Chang, Methods Enzymol., 1982, 84,121 T L Simpson and B E Volcani, ‘Silicon and Siliceous Structures in Biological Systems’, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981 B E Volcani, in ‘Silicon and Siliceous Structures in Biological Systems’, ed T L Simpson and B E Volcani, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981 J C Lewin, Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 1961, 21, 182 Inorganic Deposits in Invertebrate Tissues 133 basic protein is formed apparently from a fibrillar precursor and this becomes the organic cement of the test matrix.lW In the chrysophyceae coated vesicles are often seen attached to the edges of the forming vacuole and silica deposition occurs in a vesicle that is filled with fibrillar material.145 Among the sponges a prominent proteinaceous filament is formed around which silica is subsequently deposited.lM The composition of this axial filament is only partially known although its carbohydrate and amino-acid content has been determined 147 If spicules are broken and etched in hydrofluoric acid it can be shown that they have a concentric ring structure that disappears on heating t o 600°C.148 The Si02/H20 proportion of these spicules ranges from 2-5 and the residue (4.3% m / m ) after hydrofluoric acid treatment contains C (0.3-0.8%),Si (17.5%), Na (13.7%), K (2.6%), and Al (3.1%).149 The specific gravity varies from 2.04 to 1.96 and the refractive index from 1.438t o 1.445.150 In recent years there has been considerable interest in the possibility that silicification, matrix biosynthesis, and calcification processes may have some common basis This has been stimulated by the discovery of a unique class of sponges the Sckrospongiae These organisms form siliceous spicules that become embedded in an organic matrix that then becomes enclosed in a massive aragonite skeleton Once the silica becomes embedded in calcium carbonate it becomes much more soluble.151 Among radiolarian protozoa a skeleton may be formed of silica while the quite closely related Acantharia produce a skeleton of strontium sulphate * 52 Urates Many of the mineralized inclusions in excretory organs are found t o contain uric acid, urates, or related compounds Uric acid is the most important constituent of nitrogenous excretion in insects, birds, reptiles, and some molluscs and its biological advantage over urea or ammonia as a nitrogenous waste stems from its insolubility.153 Uric acid is also formed by a separate metabolic pathway involving purine metabolism The insolubility of uric acid means that it frequently occurs in deposits which have the typical morphology of granules with a F W Harrison, D Dunkelberger, N Watabe, and A B Stump, J Morphol., 1976, 150, 343 14’ C B McGrory, Br Phycol J., 1976, 11, 197A 146 W C Jones, in ‘Biologie des Spongiaries’, ed C Levi, and N Boury-Esnault, Cell Intern C.N.R.S.,Paris, 1979, 291, pp 425-447 14’ R E Shore, Biol Bull., 1972, 143,689 148 R Garrone, T L Simpson, and J Pottu-Boumendil, in ‘Silicon and Siliceous Structures in Biological Systems’, ed T L Simpson and B E Volcani, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981 149 D W Schwab and R E Shore, Biol Bull., 1971, 140,125 D W Schwab and B Wahl, Nuturwissenschuften, 1956, 43, 513 W D Hartman, in ‘Silicon and Siliceous Structures in Biological Systems’, ed T L Simpson and B E Volcani, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981 0.R Anderson, in ‘Silicon and Siliceous Structures in Biological Systems’, ed T L Simpson and B E Volcani, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981 l S V B Wigglesworth, in ‘The Principles of Insect Physiology’, Chapman and Hall, London, 1972 144 134 Environmental Chemistry concentric ring structure Often several granules are fused Frequently the uric acid is only one component of the granules which may also contain calcium carbonate, calcium oxalate, and calcium and magnesium phosphates and, as in other phosphate granules, other metal ions may accumulate The granules are found in the fat bodies, Malpighian tubules, and excretory systems of various arthropods Some observers have noted a breakdown in structure prior to egestion suggesting that some components are reabsorbed in the rectum The uric acid levels in prosobranch molluscs such as Littorina ZittorealS4have been shown to be related t o the activity of uricase, the enzyme which degrades uric acid to allantoin The activity of this enzyme is related t o tidal rhythms.lS5 Urate granules can be demonstrated histochemically in the nephrocytes of pulmonate molluscs ls6 The composition of the rings alternated between uric acid and guanine with a nucleus of calcium urate Phospholipids and mucopolysaccharides were also found within the granule mull in^^^^ isolated uric acid granules from cockroach tissues with urate cells and analysed them by infrared spectroscopy using model compounds for comparison All the samples had a band at 1680cm-l, which was assigned to the uric acid carbonyl group, but none of the spectra corresponded exactly t o the model compounds and he concluded that they were composed of a mixture of potassium and sodium urates with free uric acid Bands at ca 3500 cm-' distinguished mono- and di-hydrates or uric acid Analyses also showed the presence of non-urate nitrogen A complementary study by Ballan-Dufrancais et uZ.lS8 looked at the purinic granules in several species of insects, spiders, and pulmonates by Raman laser microprobe The strength of this technique is that the probe can be focused onto a very small area 1-2 pm diameter The granules from the insects BZateZZa germanica and Schistocerca gregaria showed that uric acid was present with potassium and sodium urates By contrast granules from the spider, Epeira, were pure guanine, whereas the granules from Helix kidney were composed of uric acid, potassium and sodium urates, and xanthine Earlier electron probe studies had shown that the granules were heterogeneous having not only a purinic component but also Ca, Mg, P, and C1 The heterogeneous nature of granules from excretory organs was confirmed by Scaffo and L ~ w e n s t a m ' *who ~ investigated the composition of the calcareous deposits in the renal sac of a molgulid tunicate From infrared spectra major peaks a t 1324 and 1620-1650 cm-l were assigned to calcium oxalate (CaC204 2H20) Further peaks at 1445-1450 and 876 and 712cm-1 and the ready dissolution of the granules in 0.1 mol dm-3 HC1 suggested that another component was calcium carbonate Analysis showed also traces of Mg, S , and C1 HubertlS9 studied the granules in adipose cells of Cylindronilus teutonicas Pocock and found that the larger granules (2-18 pm) were urates but the very J Daguzan, C, R Acad S c i Paris, Ser D , 1970, 279, 3131 J Daguzan and P Razet, C, R Acad Sci Pans, Ser D, 1971, 272,2800 C.Gostan, Ann Biol T., 1965, IV, 481 D E Mullins, Comp Biochem Physiol., 1979, 62A,699 C Ballan-Dufrancak, M Truchet, and P DhamelinCourt, Biol Cellul., 1979, 36, 51 l S M Hubert, C R Acad Sci Paris, Ser D , 1975, 281, 151 155 "' Inorganic Deposits in Invertebrate Tissues 135 small granules were calcium phosphates In the granules found in the ovary of the same species only calcium was detected A study of several species of Archaeogasteropods (MoZZusca prosobranchia)lm showed that the occurrence of uric acid varied from species t o species, Conclusions In 1976 it was argued that sufficient ultrastructural studies had been published on invertebrate tissues to justify the recognition of a phenomenon of inorganic granule formation in membrane bound vesicles of a wide variety of cells.*ll In order to establish that phenomenon a Table was published showing the variety of animals and cells that contained these 'calcium granules', A modified form of that compilation is reproduced in an abbreviated form as Table Its Table Some examples of intracellular 'calcium'granules"' Phylum Protozoa Coelenterata Platyhelminthes Trematoda Cestoda Mollusca Gastropoda Lam ellibranchia Arthropoda Crustacea Onychophora Diplopoda lnsecta 'Organ' Species Proroden morgani Renilla reniformis Aurelia aurata - Scleroblasts Statoliths Cyathocotyle bushiensis Taenia taeniaeformis Excretory Ferrisia wautieri Helix pomatia Mercenaria mercenaria Connective tissue Hepatopancreas Mantle Orchestia cavimna Callinectes sapidus Peripatus acacioi Pleuroloma sp Pogonognathellus longicornus Rhodnius prolixis Cercopis sanguinea Blatella germanica Posterior caecum Hepatopancreas Intestine Ovary Intestine Malpighian tubule Intestine Male accessory - aim was two-fold First it attempted to show that calcium granules occurred in most phyla and in a great variety of tissues Thus the ability to form calcium granules was not a pathological condition, in fact, on the contrary it appeared to be a normal activity of many living systems The second aim was to try and indicate that all calcium granules were not the same and at least two fundamentally different ligands (one carbonate based and the other involving phosphates) provided basically different functions and involved quite dissimilar 160 W.Delhaye, Cah Biol Mar., 1976, 17, 305 136 Environmental Chemistry cellular systems The calcium carbonate system appears to be involved in the storage and recycling of these ions through the body fluids while the phosphatic system is more involved with the binding of other metals onto these deposits and the excretion of these granules from the body, This duality of the ‘calcium granules’ system has been extensively reviewed in molluscs by Mason and Nott.lg Ultrastructurally the calcium granules form in membrane delimited vesicles or vacuoles These are frequently associated with the Golgi complex (e.g., the mollusc Pomacea paludosa2 and diplopod Cylindroiulus Zondinensisl6l) or with the endoplasmic reticulum ( e g , the homopteran insect Philaenus s q u a m ~ ~ i s ’ ~When * ) initially secreted the granules appear t o be associated with organic material which may be involved in their induction As the granule increases in size it may have an irregular outline suggestive of numerous needlelike crystals but it usually becomes much more regular in shape as it enlarges and frequently shows electron clear and opaque concentric layers Granules of this type are common in many molluscs and arthropods There appears, therefore, to be considerable uniformity in the ultrastructural evidence for how the calcium granules are formed The details of membrane function remain obscure but there is general agreement about the organelles involved and their possible function Since this phenomenon was identified, however, there has been a large increase in the recognition of other metalcontaining inclusions in cells Thus a number of reviews have extended the listing of references on ‘intracellular granules’ to include other metals so that Coombs and GeorgeIs cite Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Mg, and V deposits while Brown’ includes three extensive tables of ‘metal-containing granules’ These latter reviews provide valuable reference sources to the literature but their aims are entirely different from those behind the compilation of Table , The information in such compilations is certainly not describing a single phenomenon nor is it grouping together comparable cellular activities Thus in order to rationalize such information and to assist in putting it into an environmental context it is important t o recognize the cellular systems that are likely to be involved in metal-stressed organisms There are currently three cellular mechanisms that are recognized as regulating divalent cations within the cytoplasm The first is the mitochondrion which is known to transport calcium inwards via a carrier with a K , of about pM Intramitochondrial granules of calcium phosphate are frequently found in cells adjacent t o sites of biomineralization but it is not clear whether the granules are related to the calcification process or whether they are simply the products of a cellular system that responds to transient influxes of ~ a c i u m lA~ similar ~ problem of interpretation occurs with the metallothionein proteins which appear t o regulate the copper and zinc metabolism of the cytoplasm These sulphydrylrich proteins will also bind strongly onto Cd, Hg, Ag, and Au These inducible proteins act as a fast responding feedback system controlling the intracellular 16‘ 462 163 M Hubert, C R Acad Sci Paris, Ser D,1979, 289, 749 J Gouranton, J Celt Biol., 1968, 37, 316 A L Lehninger, in ‘Biomineralization and Biological Metal Accumulation’, ed P Westbroek and E W de Jong, D Reidel, Dordrecht, New Netherlands, 1983 Inorganic Deposits in Invertebrate Tissues 137 concentration of free metal ions.164The metallothioneins have a half-life of only 2-3 days in viuo and are turned over by the lysosomes; organelles rich in proteolytic enzymes that form part of the recycling and phagocytic systems of the cell In metal-stressed cells the lysosomes or the residual bodies derived from them are frequently found to accumulate metals In certain circumstances, e.g,, the , ~ ~mineral ~ concretions copper deposits in the midgut of larval D r o ~ o p h i Z athe in the Malpighian tubules of Musca dornestica,166and the granules in the kidney of Pecfen,l6’ and remnants of lysosomal enzyme activity are easily detected within these deposits Ferritin molecules have a similar short half-life and during conditions of iron overload a breakdown product, haemosiderin, is found in membrane-bound vesicles within the cell Thus, all these examples of intracellular deposits of metals appear t o involve different pathways within the cell, One of the aspects of this problem which we have tried to emphasize is that little progress can be made in clarifying these pathways until these deposits are characterized by a fuller understanding of their chemistry Perhaps the best example of the confusion that arises by speculation in this area is in relation to the availability or not of calcium phosphate granules for calcium carbonate metabolism in molluscs The literature is full of theories invoking the interconversion of these granules without any reference to the chemical processes involved In fact it would appear that the first phase in the study of inorganic granules in invertebrate cells is now drawing t o a close The phenomenon is well documented and the variety of deposits is clear There are now as a consequence three clear aspects that need further investigation, The Penetration of Metals into Organisms and Cells - This is a fundamental problem that is of particular importance t o environmentalists The ‘classical’ view that biological membranes are hydrophobic whereas metal ions are hydrophilic is probably an oversimplification in that metals exist both in the environment and within the body in such a variety of complexes that many can probably penetrate cell membranes at a reasonable rate Having penetrated the organism they will, of course, encounter a wide variety of ligands that presumably dictate their subsequent fate,168 Precipitation or Binding - Three types of ligand can be considered as existing within the organism The first of these are anions which act as sinks, trapping a variety of cations by processes of adsorption and coprecipitation The physiologically active anions are likely to be buffers (HCOs-/CO?-; HPOt-/PO:-) excretory products (e.g., urates) or products of biosynthetic pathways (e.g., P20:-) and the metabolic activities of the various cells will clearly dictate which of these are available, The second type of ligand is the regulatory protein which has a rapid turnover and is capable of being parasitized by other metals, MetalloM Vasak and J H R Kagi, in ‘Biominerafizationand Biological Metal Accumulation’, ed P Westbroek and E W de Jong, D Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1983 R L Tapp and A Hockaday, J Cell Sci., 1977,26,201 166 R S Sohal, P D Peters, and T A Hall, Tissue Cell, 1976, 8,447 S G George, B J S Puie, and T L Coombs, J Exp Mar Biol Ecol., 1980,42,143 168 R J P Williams, Phil Trans R Soc London, Ser B , 1981, 294, 57 164 ’“ 138 Environmental Chemistry thioneins are the obvious example of this type of molecule but it is t o be expected that a large number of other examples will be characterized in the next few years Proteins of this type are ‘turned over’ by lysosomes but metals, being incapable of enzymatic digestion, will accumulate at these sites, Finally one has to recognize the possibility that a whole range of proteins and metabolic pathways may be ‘protected’ or have such specificity that only one metal is ever involved with them.169 This appears to be the only explanation for the fact that in animals from polluted sites interfering metals such as Cd not accumulate in cells specialized for example in the metabolism of copper in the synthesis of haemocyanin, The concepts of ‘general metal binding’ and ‘specific metal binding’ underlie many of the approaches to detoxification on the one hand and biomineralization on the other In the secretion of the calcite plates of the coccolithophorids strontium and magnesium are excluded from the d e p o ~ i t s l ’ ~ and a similar phenomenon occurs in the formation of silica deposits in the Chrysophyceae 145 In both these latter cases materials appear t o be transported to the mineral forming vacuoles by smaller granular bodies (e.g., coccolithosomes) Clearly there is a great deal of specificity in the transport of these bodies and these ‘protected pathways’ appear to have a physical identity within the cell Accumulation Sites - These are of importance for three reasons First, by their occurrence they draw attention to the whole phenomenon of metal accumulation within cells Secondly, it is implied from their existence that they isolate potentially hazardous metals from the sites where they may damage, Certainly it appears that it is these deposits which people are estimating when they use organisms as environmental monitoring systems Thirdly, they may be transient accumulation sites that are excreted or removed from the cells at various rates This is clearly a major advantage t o the organism and a serious difficulty for those who wish to use organisms for estimating environmental levels of various metals Unfortunately little is known about this aspect of granule behaviou r I t will be apparent, therefore, that further analyses and metabolic studies are required before a fuller understanding can be gained of the unusual properties of metal deposits in intracellular granules of invertebrate tissues ‘69 ‘’O K Simkk and A Z Mason, Environ Mar Res., in the press P L Blackwelder, R E Weiss, and K M Wilbur, Mar Biol., 1976, 34, 11 Author Index Abolins-Krogis, A., 103, 119, 120 Adams, E., 114 Adelman, H., 87 Agard, E T., 59 Akagi, H., 73 Akimoto, H., 29,48 Alabaster, J J., 56 Aldaz, L., 18,21 Aldridge, W N., 58, 61 Alexander, L., 28 Ali, A., 46 Alikhan, M A,, 114 Allard, D W., 3 Allen, D W., 76 Allen, J A,, 112 Allison, I., 21 Altshuller, A P., 30,43 Alyea, F., 20 Ammons, B., 80 Anderson, J A., 39 Anderson, R., 133 Andreac, M O., 70 Andrews, C., 64 Anger, J P., 59 Anlauf, K G., 39 Antonovich, V P., 69 Apling, A J., 36 Aquino, R., 63 Arakawa, Y., 56, 59, 61 Arhland, S., 103 Artiola-Fortuny, J., 80 Ashmore, M R., 45 Atkins, D H F., 24 Atkinson, R., 30 Attmannspacher, W., , l l Bach, W D., 41 Bache, C A., 97, 100 Bachra, B N., 128 Back, W., 99 Baedecker, M,J., 99 Baker, P G., 61 Baldwin, A C., Ball, D J., 24, 36 Ball, G L., 63 Ballan-Dufrancais, C., 108, 109,116,117,130,134 Banzer, J D., 63 Barber, F R., 37 Barker, J R., 30 Barnes, J M., 59 Barnes, R D., 64 Barth, K., 72 Barug, D., 64,75 Bates, R R., 77 Batt, P., 107 Baxter, J C., 80,90 Bayan, B D., 119 Beck, Y., 38 Becker, K H., 38 Beckett, P H T., 80 Beiber, W D., 63 Beiter, C., 67 Bell, C A., Bell, J N B., 45 Bellama, J M., 67 Bellmont, A D., 11 Bengert, G A., 61, 70 Bengtsson, B E., 56 Bennett, J P., 46 Berger-Wiersma, T., 67 Bergman, S C., 80,83 Bernard, R E., 36 Besemer, A F H., 72 Bingham, F T., 91 Bischof, W., 14 Blackwelder, P L., 102, 138 Blair, E H., 59 Blair, W R., 61, 67, 75 Blake, N J., 109 Bleck, R., Blumenthal, D L., 39 Blunden, S J., 61, 67, 69, 74, 75 Bock, R., 56, 59 Body, D E., 46 Boettner, E A., 63 Bokranz, A., 49 Bollen, W B., 65 Bondy, S C., 110 Booker, H G., Borden, T R., 11 Born, H J., 80 Born, L., 56 Boswell, F C., 83 Botte, L., 109 Bowen, H J M., 65 Boyd, A W., 47 Bradley, C E., 24 Bradley, J., 108 Braegelmann, P K., 46 Braman, R S., 60 Brandt, C S., 46 Branson, D R., 59 Braude, G., 80 Braurnan, S K., 63 139 Brecker, L R., 62 Bridges, J W., 58, 59, 60 Brierley, J B., 58 Brinckman, F E., 49, 61, 67, 70, 75 Brocco, D., 24 Broder, B., 17 Brook, A J., 108 Brooks, J S., 76 Brown, A W., 58 Brown, €5 E., 103, 112, 114,118 Brown, J M., 130 Brown, R A., 59 Bruggeman, J., 72 Brunik, H., 72 Bruntz, S.M., 33 Bryan, G W., 106, 110, 113 Buchanan, J B., 112 Buchel, K L., 56 Bufalini, J J., 30 Bufalini, M M., Bull, A T., 64 Bungarz, K., 56 Burch, D., 64 Burge, W D., 80 Burlakova, E B., 121 Burton, R F., 120, 128 Byrd, J T., 70 Cain, K., 58 Calvert, J G., 24, 25 Campbell, J W., 119 Cantley, L C., 108 Cardarelli, N F., 59, 65 Carey, J K., 75 Carlson, R M K., 109 Carlucci, s., 110 Carmichael, N G., 109, 110 Carrondo, M J T., 84 Carter, W P L., Casida, J E., 58, 59, 60 Castrilton, J., 59 Cecinato, A., 24 Cederwall, R T., , Cenci, P., 73 Chadwick, R C., 17 Chaim, S., 45 Challenger, F., 70 Chamberlain, A C., 17 Chameides, W L., 3, 9, 34 Author Index 140 Chan, M W., 33 Chang, A C., 99 Chang, C C., 132 Chapman, A H.,61,67, 73,75 Chapman, G., 116 Chapman, S., Chappuis, J., Chassard Bouchard, C., 112,117 Chatfield, R., 3, 10,11 Chatt, A.,80 Chatt, J., 103 Chattopadhyay, A., 80, 83,91 Chau, Y K., 61,70 Chock, D P., 43 Chockalingham, M P., 18 Chromy, L., 67 Churchwell, F K., 125, 126 Cleveland, W S., 33, 39, 42,43 Cobet, A B., 70 Coffey, P E., 3, 5, 33 Coleman, J R.,107 Coleman, W.M.,70 Conyers, E S., 80 Cook, D R., 18 Coombs, T L., 106,108, 112,118,137 Cooney, J J., 70 Copperman, B S., 129 Corbin, H.B., 73 Cothern, C R.,80,83 Coughtrey, P.J., 105 Cox, R A., 24, 31, 36,45 Craig, P J., 49,70,71 Cram, G C., 59 Cremer, J E., 58 Cremonhi, B., 73 Crkp, D J., 116,122 C r k m a n , B W.,41 Crosby, D G., 61,67 Crowe, A J., 67,76 Crutzen, P J., 3, 31 Cunnold, D., 20 Cuppa, S S., 109 Cyr, R., 47 Czeplak, G., Daguzan, J., 134 Dalpra, C., 45 Daniel, R Ch., 86 Daniels, S L., 80 Danielsen, E F., 4,5, Danskin, G P., 109 Darnall, K R.,25, 30 Davies, A G., 67,73 Davies, D.S.,59 Davies, N R., 103 Davis, D D., 14 Degens, E T.,102 Deimel, H., 38 Delany, A C., 14,21 Delfino, J J., 80 Delhaye, W., 135 De Marrais, G.,41 DeMore, W.B., 48 Denison, P J., 18 Dennett, R.,14 Depieri, R., 110 Dermejian, K L.,25,30 Derwent, R G., 5, 18,27, 31, 36 de Tirado, R S., 59 Dhamelin-Court, P., 134 Dickson, K L., 59 Dietz, G R., 63 Dimitriades, B., 28, 30 Dixon, M., 128 Dizikes, L J., 71 Djangmah, J S., 114 Dobson, G M B., Dodge, M C., 28,30 Donagi, A., 38 Douland, H.,38 Doyle, L J., 109 Dring, L G.,60 Dudzinski, T.J., 13 Dutsch, H.U.,1, 1 Dukhavich, V F., 121 Duncan, J., 65 Dunkelberger, D G., 102, 133 Dunlop, S., 116 Dunn, P., 72 Dutkiewia, V A., Eastman, J A,, 18 Eaton, W C., 29 Eben, Ch., 64 Edlund, M L., 75 Edmond, J.M.,13 Eggleton, A E J., 5, 24, 36 Ehhalt, D H., Elkakn, B., 112,115 Elkus, B., 43 Elliott, B M.,58 Ellis, H.V.,49 Elzerman, A.W.,18 Emmerich, W E., 99 Enderson, R E., 80 Engel, D W.,110 Engelhart, J E., 67 Evans, C J., 49,59,65 Fabian, P., 3, 10, 13, 14 Falconer, P., 13 Falk, H L., 77 Falls, A H., 30 Fanchiang, Y.T., 71 Fankhauser, R K., 33 Farrel, J B., 79 Farrington, D S.,61 Farrow, L A.,25 Feder, W.A., 45 Ferman, M A.,40 Fetherston, W.T.,78 Fiedler, I., 80 Figge, K., 63 Filshie, B K.,11 Finlayson-Pitts, B J., 33 Fish, R H.,58,59,60 Fishbein, L., 77 Fishman, J., Flamm, D L., 47 Fletcher, R A.,46 Formstone, R., 76 Forster, G R., 113 Foster, P., 116,122 Fotheringham, A., 108 Fowler, B A., 109,110, 11 Fox, D L., 28 Fox, M M., 24 Frankenberg, W.T.,80 Fraser, J., 80 Freas, W P., 33 Freiman, A.,67 Freitag, K D., 59 Freitag, W.,63 Frenzel, L M.,65 Fretter, V.,120 Fricke, W.,38 Fuller, W H.,80 F u n , A K., 97 Gabler, R C., 97 Galbally, I E., 18,21 Ganor, E., 38 Garland, J A., 18 Garrone, R.,13 Gart, J J., 77 Garvey, J S., 132 Gay, B W., 30 Gelinas, R J., 30 G e m , J L.,40 George, S G., 106,108, 112,116,137 Georgii, H W.,38 Getzendaner, M.E., 73 Gevers, E Ch., 67 Ghiretti, F., 110 Gibb, J P., 99 Gibson, M A.,107,120 Gidel, L T.,20 Gilbert, N.,47 Gillani, N V., 39 Gillespie, T.J., 42 Gillies, D.G.,69 Gillum, W O.,109 Girard, J P., 128 Goddard, J P., 67 Goldberg, E D., 61 Golden, D M.,30 Golovanov, P V.,74 Good, M L.,65,67,75 Goodwin, W R 30 Gostan, G., 134 Author Index Gouranton, J , Graedel, T E., 25, 3 , Greenaway, P., 107 Greenfelt, P., 38 Gregory, G L., 30 Griffin, R A., 99 Griffiths, D E., 58 Grim, S., 70 Guard, H E., Guary, J C., 106 Guess, W.L., Guichert, R., 38 Guidolti, G., 108 Gupta, A S., Gurnham, C F., 78 Gutenmann, W H., Haagen-Smit, A J., Haagenson, P., 3, , 14 Haqenson, P L., Halacka, K., 56 Hale, E J., 64 Haley, G F., Hall, T A., 137 Hallas, L E., 70 Hallford, D M., 100 Halpern, S., 109 Hameed, S., 10 Hammann, I., Hampton, D., 64 Hampton, L., 36 Hanni, E., 86 Hanssen, J E., 37 Hardon, H J., 72 Harris, L R., 64 Harrison, D N., Harrison, F W., 3 Harrison, H., , , 1 Harrison, P M., 111 Harrison, R M., 34, 36 Hart, E R., 77 Hartman, W D., 3 Hartmannsgruber, R., 6, 11 Hawke, G S., 39 Heagle, A S., 45, 46 Hecht, T A., 28 Heck, W W., , Heggie, A C., 39 Heller, J., Hemphill, D D., Hendry, D G., 25, 30 Henshaw, B G., 75 Heron, P N., Herring, W S., 11 Hesstuedt, E., 31, 34 Hettler, W F., 113 Hicks, B B., 18 Higginbottom, C., Hignette, M., 113, 125 Hill, R., 65 Hintzc, W., 75 Hipskind, R S., Hoare, R J., 111 Hochrnan, H., 141 Hockaday, A., Hodge, V H., 61 Hodgson, K O., 109 Hoffman, J F., 65 Hofstra, G., 46 Hogan, A., Holdemann, J D., Holland, D I&.,1 2 Hollingsworth, Z., Holman, C D 34, 36, 37 Hoodless, R A., 61 Hopkin, S P., 118 Horak, O., Horsman, D C.,45 Hoshino, M., 29 Houzeau, A., Hov, O., 27, 31, 34 Howard, B., 2 Hubert, M., 134, Hubschman, J H., 114 Hudgens, R E., 100 Huey, C.,70 Hummerstone, L G., 110, 113 Huneault, H., 61 Hursey, P A., 56 Hursthouse, M B., Husain, L., 3, Husar, J D., 39 Husar, R B., 39 Hyde, R., 39 Icely, J D., 114 Igumnov, A S., 74 Imai, S., 29 Innes, J R M., 77 Inoue, G., 29 Inouye, C A., Ireland, M P., 115, 1 Isaksen, S A., 31, 34 Istin, M., 128 Iverson, W.P., , , 70, 75 Iwai, H., 56, , Iyengar, G V., 101 Jackson, J A., 61 Jacobson, J S., , Jacobyansky, A., 129 Jaffee, R J., 25, 28 Jeantet, A Y.,108, 109, 116,117,130 Jeffries, H E., 28, 29, 34 Jehle, D., 74 Jeltes, R., 38 Jenkins, K G A., 108, 111 Jenniss, S W., 80,85, Jermer, J., 75 Jewett, K L., 61, 67 Johnson, D E., 80,90 Johnson, W B., , Jones, J E., 80 Jones, P A., 49 Jones, W C., 3 Joseph, D W., , Junge, C E., 3, 20, 23 Kagi, J H R., Kamens, R M., 28, 29 Kanamari, N., Kapur, S P., Karl, T R., 41, Karpel, S., Kasten-Jolly, J., 58 Katsumura, T., 65 Katz, S A., , , Kehew, A E., 9 Kelleher, T J., 45 Kelly, J J., 13, Kelly, N A., 40 Kerr, J A., 25 Kerr, S N., 98 Kienholz, E W., 80,90 Kiesling, H E., 100 Kim, J I., 80 Kimmel, E C., 58, 59, 60 Kinard, J T., Kineaid, B., Kinitz, M., King, W.J., 41 Kirkbright, G F., 90 Kirleis, A W., 80 Kirschner, S L., 78 Kitano, Y.,127 Klavenes, D., Klein, L A., 78 Klein, M., 77 Kleiner, B., 33, 39, 42 Kley, D., Klimmer, R., 72 Klotzer, D., Knechtel, J R., 80 Knudsen, G W.,99 Komora, V F., Kopczynski, S L., 30 Kopp, J F., Korth, M W., Kramar, O., Krey, P W., Krijgsman, B J., 119 Krueger, A J., Kuster, K., Kuhlman, M R., 29 Kulaev, I S., 103, Kulkarni, V I., 75 Kummer, W A., 48 Kuntz, R L., Kurtz, E M., Kustin, K., 109 Laidlaw, R A., 75 Laird, A R., Lamb, B., 18 Lamb, R G., Landseidel, H., 75 Lang, M., Larrabee, I A., Laye, P G., 64 Author Index 142 Leeuwangh, P., 64 Lehninger, A L., Leighton, P A., Lenschow, D H., Lester, J N., 84 Levitt, S B., Levy, H., , L e w h , J C., Liberti, A., Linden, E., Lindquist, F., 38 Ling, Ch.,11 Lioy, P J., , , Lisk, D J., , 100 Liu, s c., Lloyd, A C.,25, Label, J., 38 Logan, J A., Long, W.D., Lonneman, W A., 30 Lovelock, J E., 24, 36 Lowe, D M., 1 Lowenstam, H A., 105, 113,126 Ludwig, F L., Luijten, J G A., , Lund, L J., 99 Lundy, D R., Lusis, M A., 39 Lutrick, M C.,99 Lux, D., 80 Maas, E V., 46 McAfee, J M., Macara, I G., McCartney, H A., , Macchi, G., 69 McElroy, M B., McFarland, M., McGrady, M M., 69 McGrory, C B., 3 Mcllveen, J F R., 34 McLellan, J 111 McLeod, G C., 109 McMahon, T A,, 18 McRae, G J., 30 McRae, J E., , McTaggart-Cowan, J D., 21 Maegerlein, S., 64 Magos, L., 59 Maguire, R J., , 64 Mahlman, J D., 7, Manabe, S., Mansurava, S E., Marel, F., Marten, G N., Martin, A.,37 Martin, G N., 125 Martin, J L M., 1 Martin, M H., Martin, T D., 87 Martinez, E L., 33 Martinez, J R., 25 , Martoja, M., 1 Martoja, R., 108 Masuoni, R., 101 M w n , A Z., , , 111,138 Massaw, F., Mathie, R T., Matsuzaki, M., 111 Maughan, R., 40 Mazaev, V T., Means, J- C., Meeks, S A., 30 Meenakshi, V R., 102 Megie, G., 11 Meinema, H A,, Mellbye, M E., Meyer, E L., 33 Meyers, R E., , Meyling, A H., Mohnen, V A., , Monaghan, C P., , 75 Moore, M N., 112, 115 Moore, P G., 112 Morgan, A J., 116, 118 Morrical, D G., 100 Morris, B., 116 Mott, K E., 7 Mount, T., , Moxim, W J., Middleton, P., Midtbo, K H.,31 Milde, G., 99 Miller, D F., 30 Miller, E M., Miller, J., Millers, F J., 69 Millson, M F., 49 Minzer, R A., Mitchell, A., 39 Mitchell, I., 7 Mitchell, P C H., 2 Miyawaki, M., 111 Mukammal, E I., Mullins, D E., Munk, N., Murano, K., Nagashha, T., 29 Nancollas, G H., Nash, N., 78 Nastrorn, G D., Naveh, Z., Nazarenko, V A., 69 Nazario, C M., 59 Neely, G E., 46 Negerbradt, G W.,47 Negrel, R., 106 Nelson, D W.,80 Neuman, W.F., 106 Neuman, W.P., 75 Neumayr, V.,99 Nevshaya, E M., 69 Newell, R E., Newmann, H H., 42 Nieboer, H., Niesar, K H., Nijman, W.,64 Nilsson, J R., 107, 118 Nott, J A., 107, 114, 118 Nuernberg, H., 101 Nylen, M U., 125, O’Brien, E J., O’Brien, R J., 25 O’Brien, R T., 98 Ogato, G., 46 Ogawa, Y , Ogura, K., 111 Ohlsson, S., 75 Okuda, M., , Oldfield, D., 72 Olsen, G J., Omar, M., 65 Ono, T., 59 Order, R J., 75 Orunesu, M., 1 Oshima, R J., 46 OverneU, J., 2 Ozcan, M., 67, 75 Paasche, E., Pack, D H., 36 Paetzold, H K., Page, A L., 9 Pakkala, I S., Palosaari, N., 58 Palotta, A J., 7 Parkinson, T F., Parr, R M., 101 Parrk, G E., , Parrish, P R., Parsons, C L., Pasceri, R E., 39, 40 Patapoff, M., 48 Paur, R J., 48 Pearson, R., Pearson, R G., Pelon, J., 11 Penkett, S A., 18 Penndorf, R., Pentreath, R J., 110 Perry, R., 84 Peters, J., 7 Peters, P D., Petrucelli, L., 7 Pettine, M., 69 Phillips, D J H., Phillips, N., Pinto, J P., 10 Pirie, €3 J S., , 112, 116,137 Pitchford, R J., Pittock, A B., 11 Pitts, J N., , 30, 3 , , 48 Plum, H., 49, Poller, R C.,64, 73, 75 Pollock, W.,5 Author Index Polster, M., 56 Popl, M., 74 Possanzini, M., 24 Possiel, N C.,33 Posthumus, A C., 45 Potts, G W., 113 Pottu-Boumendil, J , 133 Poulson, D F., 115 Pounds, E K., 46 Powers, L., 130 Prather, M J., Pratt, R., Prent, P., 116 Price, J W., 60, 73 Prinn, R., 20 Prough, R A., 60 Pruchniewicz, P G., 3, 13 Quintat, C., 116 Quon, J E., 42 Rainbow, P S., 116, 122 Ramp, W K., 106 Rapsomanikis, S., 70, 71 Ray, E E., 98 Razet, P., 134 Reed, R J., Regener, V H., , Reily, C L., 45 Reinert, R A., 46 Reisdorf, R P., 49 Reiter, E R., 4, , Resh, M D., 108 Rethfeld, H., Revlett, G H., 42 Richards, K S., 117 Ridley, W P., 71 Ripperton, L A., 29 Ritchie, A., 122 Ritchie, H R., 78 Ritchie, R R., 78 Ritter, C J., 80,83, 85 Robbins, P W., 128 Robertson, K W., 99 Robinson, E., 18 Roinel, N., 128 Rose, A H., 28 Rose, B A., 78 Rosenberg, H., 121,122 Ross, E D., 42 Ross, W D., 58 Rothwell, R., 39 Routhier, F., 14 Roy, C R., 21 Runeckles, U C., 45 Rusheed, A., Ruste, J., 117, 130 Ryan, D E., Saeger, H., 34 Sakagami, Y., 73 Sakamaki, F., 29 Salottolo, G D., 24 Saltbones, J., 38 143 Saltman, B E., 47 Salvato, B., 110 Sansoni, B., 101 Sasaki, N., 111 Savory, J G., 75 Scaffo, M B., 126 Schjoldager, J., 24, 37, 38 Schmidt, M., Schmidt, U., Schoenbein, C F., Schoenemann, H M., 100 Schonberg, M., Schuller, R M., 99 Schulz-Baldes, M., 118 Schurath, U., 38 Schwab, D W., 133 Seiler, W.,3 Seinen, W., 58 Seinfeld, J H., 28, 30 Selwyn, M J., 58 Senich, G A., 62 Senkbeil, E G., 114 Sennett, D H., 33 Sexton, K., 39 Sexton, K G., 28 Shapiro, M A., 6, , Shedlovsky, J., Shelar, E., Sheldon, A W., 67, 74, 76 Shibuya, K., 29 Shore, R E., 133 Sickles, J E., 29 Siebenlist, K., 58 Siedel, S L., 61 Sikora, L J., 80 Simkiss, K., 102, 105, 108, 111,114,121,122,138 Simon, S L., 128 Simpson, T L., 132, 133 Singh, H B., 3, 25 Sioli, H., 119 Sivertsen, B., 37 Skewes-Cox, P D., 30 Skinner, H A., 73 Slesinger, A., 59 Slesinger, A E., 65 Smith, A W., 78 Smith, D J., 59 Smith, G S., 98,100 Smith, P J., 59,65, 67, 69,76 Smith, R., 60,80 Soderquist, C J., 61, 67 Sohal, R S., 137 Solomon, S., Sommers, L E., 80 Sopper, W E., 98 Spangenberg, D B., 122 Spangler, E., 90 Spicer, C W., 29, 30, 39, 40 Spiro, T G., 130 Sposito, G., Springs, B., 129 Sproule, J S G., 67 Sprung, J L., 30 Squibb, K S., 109, 110 Stahman, R C., 28 Staley, D O., Stallard, R F., Stalmach, M A., 60 Stankov, B B., 21 Stasiuk, W N., 33 Stedman, D H., 18,21, 34 Stein, V T., 74 Steinberger, E H., 45 Stern, G., 80 Stetson, T B., Stevens, R D S., 39 Stewart, H N M., 36 Stewart, R W., 10 Sticksel, P R., 39,40 Stiffler, D M., 98 Stites, E., 126 Stoeppler, M., 101 Street, B W., 58, 61 Stuart, D C., Stump, A B., 133 Sturesson, U., 117 Suess, A., 64 Sullivan, E J., 36 Summerhays, J E., 33 Sumner, A T., 120 Sunde, J., 31 Sundstrom, G., 56 Svanberg, O., 56 Sverdrup, G M., 29 Tabatabai, M A., 80 Taketa, F., 58 Tapp, R L., 115, 137 Taylor, M., 102, 114, 122 Taylor, R S., Termine, J D., 126 Thayer, J S., 70, 71 Thust, U.,64, 74 Tiefenau, H K., Tiefermann, M W., Tingey, D., 46 Tobias, R S., 67, 69 Tokuyama, A 127 Tombach, I V., 33 Tompkins, M A., 60 Tooby, T E., 56 Toonkel, L., Tout, R E., Towe, K M., 113 Trachman, H., 59 Trantz, R., 128 Truchet, M., 108,134 Tsay, U H., 74 Tu, C M., 65 Tue, V T., 115 Tullins, T D., 109 Tyler, L D., 80 Uhacz, K., 67 Ulland, B M., 77 A utho r In d ex 144 Valerio, M G., 77 Vander Horst, A,, van der Kerk, G J M., 56 Vander Mallie, R J., Van Diujn, J., 47 Van Dop, H., 38 Van Ham, J., 24 Vasak, M., Velds, C A., 38 Vernon, F., 61 Verschoyle, R D., 58 Versluis-de Haan, G., Viarengo, A., 115 Viezee, W., Vincentus, M D., 109 Vind, H P., Volcani, B E., Volk, V V., von Brand, T., 125, Vonk, J W., 64 Vukovich, F M., 41 Wachs, T., Wada, O., 56, , Wadden, R A., Wade, S E., 100 Wagge, L E., 119 Wahl, B., 3 Wakelyn, N T., 30 Walker, G., 115, 116, 122 Walker, J C G., , Walker, N P C., Waller, R E., 36 Walter, T A,, Ward, G F., 40 Ward, G M., , Ward, G S., 59 Warner, J L., 33, , Warner, R R., 107 Wartburg, A., 5, 14 Watabe, N., , 3 Waterhouse, D F., 115 Watkins, D A M., Webb, E C., 128 Webb, J., 1 Weber, T A., 25 Wehner, W., 49 Weiss, R E., 138 Welsh, K M., Wesely, M L., 18 Westberg, H., 39 Wheeler, E., 111 White, W H., 39 Wiebe, H A., 39 Wiebkin, P., 60 Wiener, R W., 28 Wigglesworth, V B., 133 Wilbur, K M., Wilcox, R W., 11 Wilkinson, R R., Williams, B., 60 Williams, M E., Williams, M L., , 36 Williams, R J P., 137 Williams, R M., 18 Williams, R T., 59, 60 Willis, C., Wilson, K R., Wilson, W E., 39 Winer, A M., 25, , Winges, L., 30 Winters, C., 118 Wirth, H O., 49 Wise, L E., 75 Wisse, J A., 38 Wofsy, s c., Woggon, H., Wolfe, D A., 113 Wolff, G T., 39, 40, 42 Wong, P T S., 61, 70 Woo, C C., 109 Wood, J M., Wootton, R J., 115, 117 Wright, D A., 106 Wright, G D., , Wright, R S., 29 Wriston, J C., jun., 114 Wszolek, P C., Wukasch, R T., 46 Yadav, S S., 91 Yevitch, P., 109 Yoshioka, S., Yu, T H., , Yuan, T L., 99 Zamierowski, E E., 80, Zanicchi, G., 115 Zuckerman, J J., 49 Zullig, W.,11 ... Volume A Specialist Periodical Report Environmental Chemistry Volume A Review of the Literature published up to end 1982 Senior Reporter H J M Bowen Department of Chemistry, University of Reading... The Royal Society of Chemistry Set by Unicus Graphics Ltd, Horsham and printed in Great Britain by Whitstable Litho Ltd, Whitstable, Kent Preface Research in environmental chemistry continues... tin has such low toxicity that its environmental chemistry has been neglected Trialkyl-tin species have much greater toxicity and are used as biocides, so their environmental degradation needs to