Urban airborne particulate matter origin chemistry fate and health impacts

Environmental Science and Engineering Environmental Science For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/7487 Fathi Zereini Á Clare L S Wiseman Volume Editors Urban Airborne Particulate Matter Origin, Chemistry, Fate and Health Impacts 123 Volume Editors Prof Dr Fathi Zereini Institute for Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences Department of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, J W Goethe-University Altenhöferallee D-60438 Frankfurt am Main Germany e-mail: zereini@iau.uni-frankfurt.de Dr Clare L S Wiseman Adaptation and Impacts Research Group (AIRG) Institute for Environmental Studies (IES) University of Toronto Willcocks Street 33 M5S 3E8 Toronto ON, Canada e-mail: clare.wiseman@utoronto.ca ISSN 1863-5520 ISBN 978-3-642-12277-4 e-ISBN 978-3-642-12278-1 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-12278-1 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2010934783 Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use Cover design: deblik, Berlin Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface Particles have been a recognized ingredient in polluted air for decades if not centuries Despite the fact that their atmospheric concentrations have decreased substantially in developed countries over the last 50+ years, due to government policies and evolving technologies, particles continue to be a high priority environmental issue This is because of growing evidence, starting in the early 1990s, of significant health effects at lower ambient concentrations than expected and because of the recognition that our understanding of their net effect in regulating the Earth’s climate is insufficient In particular, the magnitude and direction of their indirect effect on the radiation budget and the extent to which particles will play a role in positive or negative climate feedbacks are not known Geoengineering responses to climate change may also involve atmospheric particles, but much more information is needed before the risks and benefits of such measures can be properly evaluated Engineered nanoparticles represent another pressing environmental issue for which our knowledge is incomplete There are many directions in need of research to further our understanding in support of wise environmental and public health management pertaining to particles In this book readers will find unique contributions to our knowledge on atmospheric and indoor particles and related pollutants or exposures The context for much of what is presented is geared towards pollution issues and health effects as opposed to climate and engineered nanoparticles However, many of the methods developed and/or applied in the papers in this book are quite relevant to particle research related to these latter two issues For example, there are several papers that describe and apply advanced particle measurement methods, including chemical analysis techniques, for trace and ultra-trace metals and gas/particle phase organics While these methods are shedding new light on the chemical characteristics and sources of particles to the benefit of risk assessment and exposure reduction strategies, they can be turned towards studying particle properties related to global aerosols and climate Other papers in this book present new data on concentrations and important chemical constituents, including levels in the biota, indoor dust and other microenvironments These are helping to complete the picture for particles, their sources and sinks across the globe, and human and v vi Preface biological exposures Yet other papers focus on quantifying exposure to combustion nanoparticles or studying the fate of motor vehicle exhaust catalyst materials, both of which provide scientific insights that will benefit efforts to study the potential impacts of engineered nanoparticles Rounding out this book are a number of subject reviews from health effects and the mechanisms of oxidative stress, to persistent organic pollutants and motor vehicle emissions and to the challenges of setting ambient and emissions standards PM2.5 and/or PM10 levels exceed current standards or guidelines in many countries and are they alarmingly high in several megacities, particularly in some developing nations Solving these public health problems represents a tremendous scientific challenge as well as an economic one This is especially the case in countries where the ‘easier’ policies have been implemented so the options that remain are potentially more complex and more costly to undertake Therefore, in addition to scientific research to quantify, by size, concentrations of total mass, chemical constituents and the main sources contributing to the problem, devising more cost-effective ways to achieve maximum benefits to public health is important This necessitates, as one of the papers in this book discusses, that research continues working towards identification of the types and/or sources of particles that pose greater risk, including consideration of the combined effects of particles and gaseous co-pollutants While this seems to be a straightforward endeavour, there is more than one particle type and or pollutant mix that can be considered ‘most harmful’ given the range of acute and chronic health outcomes linked to particle exposure Consideration of environmental impacts further expands the list of emission sources and subsequent particle types that might warrant preferential control I am sure that readers will find that this book provides a diverse, yet complementary range of information helpful in gaining the insight needed to make further headway on the challenges posed by particulate air pollution Jeffrey R Brook, Ph.D Senior Scientist, Environment Canada, Air Quality Research Division Assistant/Adjunct Professor, Dalla Lana School of Public Health and Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto Preface of the Editors The idea for this edited volume originated in 2008, after much discourse with colleagues regarding the need for a multidisciplinary book which pulls together the most up-to-date research on the chemistry and environmental fate of airborne particulate matter (PM) and its impact on exposed populations Over the last decade, a great deal of evidence has been gathered which shows that airborne PM plays a strong role in patterns of morbidity and mortality among urban populations Airborne PM with an aerodynamic radius of less than 2.5 lm has been especially implicated in eliciting negative human health effects in exposed individuals, particularly in more vulnerable persons such as children, the elderly and those with compromised immune systems and/or pre-existing health problems While it is clear that fine and ultrafine fractions of airborne PM can impact human health, however, it is not known what chemical constituents found in PM may contribute to patterns in observed morbidity and mortality Airborne PM contains a vast number of compounds, from metals to organic constituents such as lead and polyaromatic hydrocarbons, which have the potential to negatively impact human health The composition of airborne PM can vary significantly over time and space, depending on number of factors such as season, prevailing meteorological conditions and the time of day, week, month and year, and may be associated with certain sources such as traffic and industry or even activities in specific world regions Currently, most countries base their air quality and emissions policies and regulations on the measured mass of ambient PM (i.e PM10 and/or PM2.5) As the toxicity of the various constituents of airborne PM are likely to significantly vary, with some of the most toxic ones contributing little to the overall PM mass, this may not be the most effective way to minimize risks among exposed populations As we begin to shed more light on the role of specific constituents found in airborne PM in cardiopulmonary and other health effects, countries will be in a better position to regulate emission sources and shape policy in a manner that is more protective of human health Despite the work yet to be done, we have made progress in recent years in developing analytical methods to measure the chemical constituents of airborne vii viii Preface of the Editors PM, determining their sources and transport pathways, identifying the processes behind their environmental fate and transformation and the toxicological mechanisms involved in their human health effects In pulling together the research on this highly interdisciplinary topic area, we have made an attempt to be as comprehensive as possible in both disciplinary and geographical terms, involving highly respected researchers from different fields and different parts of the globe This edited volume has a total of eight chapters The contributions of invited authors have been divided into six chapters which correspond to specific theme areas that relate to the topic of airborne PM and its chemical composition, environmental fate, behaviour and impact on exposed populations, as follows: Airborne Particulate Matter: Sources, Composition and Concentration, Metals and Organic Compounds in Airborne Particulate Matter: Analytical Methods, Airborne Particulate Matter: Environmental Pathways, Behaviour and Fate in Urban Environments, Bioavailability and Toxicology of Airborne Particulate Matter, Airborne Particulate Matter Exposures and Health Risks and Protecting Human Health: Policy Measures and Scientific Uncertainty Chapters and include the author and subject indices, respectively The individual contributions of the authors, which number 30 in total, have been compiled and sorted accordingly It should be noted that many of the contributions fall under two or more of the major theme areas, given the interdisciplinary nature of much of the research that has been undertaken by the authors As editors, we attempted to assign the specific papers to certain theme areas as best we could give the foci of the respective topics This book has truly been a transnational effort, involving 78 individuals from Algeria, Austria, Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, Morocco, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, UK and USA The editors would like to personally thank each author for their contributions and cooperative efforts in helping us compile this book in a very timely and efficient manner We would also like to extend our gratitude to the reviewers and the insightful comments they provided regarding the individual contributions Many thanks go to Dr R Schierl from the Institute and Clinic for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of Munich, Prof Dr S Hann from the Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria, Prof Dr E Helmers from Applied University FH Trier, Germany, Dr Jeffrey Brook from Environment Canada and Prof Dr Athanasios Valavanidis from Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Greece Special thanks go to Prof Dr Harald Bathelt, Department of Political Science and Department of Geography & Program in Planning, University of Toronto, Canada und to our families for their support In addition, we would like to express our thanks to Mrs A Oelschläger from Springer, who made this publication possible We would also like to extend our gratitude to Mr H.-H Dülfer for his support in the formation of this book Frankfurt am Main, Germany Toronto, Canada February 2010 Prof Dr Fathi Zereini Prof Dr Clare L S Wiseman Contents Part I Airborne Particulate Matter: Sources, Composition and Concentration A Comparative Review of PM Levels, Sources, and Their Likely Fates in the Eastern Mediterranean Region Najat A Saliba and Rawad Massoud Concentration and Source Origin of Trace Metals in PM2.5 Collected at Selected Canadian Sites within the Canadian National Air Pollution Surveillance Program Valbona Celo and Ewa Dabek-Zlotorzynska Sources and Distributions of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Toxicity of Polluted Atmosphere Aerosols Gerhard Lammel, Jirˇí Novák, Linda Landlová, Alice Dvorská, ˇ upr, Jirˇí Kohoutek, Eberhard Reimer Jana Klánová, Pavel C and Lenka Škrdlíková Particulate Emissions from On-Road Vehicles Andreas Limbeck and Christoph Puls The Atmospheric Concentrations of Pb, Mn, Cr, and Cd on the Korean Peninsula Between 1991 and 2006 Kim Ki-Hyun, Nguyen Hang Thi and Ma Chang-Jin Long-Distance Transport of Urban and Industrial Metals and Their Incorporation into the Environment: Sources, Transport Pathways and Historical Trends Samuel K Marx and Hamish A McGowan 19 39 63 81 103 ix Subject Index A Abraham salvation parameters, 280 Absorption, 199 mechanism, 350 model, 281 of sulphur dioxide, 388 Absorptive capacity, 280 Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE), 130 Accretion reactions, 368 Acenaphthene (Ace), 282, 316 Acenaphthylene (Acy), 282, 316 Acid digestion, 20 Acidic dissolution, 224 Active sampling techniques, 151 Activity coefficient, 368 Acute cardiovascular events, 428 myocardial infarction, 541 ADS, 371, 376 particles, 372, 380 Adsorption, 280 mechanism, 279 theory, 278 Advantage of in vitro models, 436 Adventist Health Study of Smog, 538 Aerosol composition, 56 particles, 245 phase, 367 precursors, 364 African dust, 11 Agricultural chemicals, 166 processes, 619 Air pollutants, 581 pollution, 19, 387 quality, 19, 63, 245 Guidelines, 616 management, 599 to interfacial water equilibrium constant, 291 traffic, 34 Airborne metals, 100 particulate matter (PM), 18, 225 pollutants, Aircraft activities, 613 particulate emissions, 613 Air-exchange, 250 Airflow rates, 158 -systems, 146 Air–liquid interface (ALI) cell exposure system, 437 Air–sea exchange, 278, 296 Air–water exchange, 297 water interface, 290 adsorption constant, 290 partitioning coefficient, 287, 291 Airway epithelial cell lines, 438 Algeria, 387 ALI system, 437 Allergic responses, 545 sensitization, 545 Aluminosilicates, 73 Alveolar clearance, 531 deposition, 531 epithelial cell line, 439 macrophages, 531 tissue, 433 Ambient temperature, 284 American Cancer Society (ACS), 538, 539 Ammonia, 364 Ammonium, 72 chloride, 72 Anderson cascade impactor, 610 Androgen-responsive element (ARE), 45 Animal exposure models, 435 643 644 A (cont.) models, 435, 544 Anion exchange groups, 220 Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV), 218 Antarctica, 112, 113 Anthracene (Ant), 282, 316 (B(a)A), 282 (BaA), 316 (DB(ah)A), 282 (DBA), 316 Anthropogenic activities, 31 biomass combustion, 614 emissions, 611 organic compounds, 365 particle, 614 sources, effects Antiandrogenicity (AA), 45 Antiestrogenic effects, 57 Antiestrogenicity (AE), 45 Antimony (Sb), 471 Antioxidant enzymes, 439 response, 442 Apoptosis, 439, 443 Aqua regia, 225 Arctic, 119 Arrhythmias, 537 Arterial compliance, 434 oxygen saturation, 433 ASE method, 141 ASE-GC/MS method, 137 Ash, 461 Asia, 371 dust particles, 379 storm, 371 Asthma, 528, 535, 541 Asthmatic, 532, 534 Atherosclerosis, 428, 444, 528, 540 Atmospheric aerosols, 28 chemistry, 592 fate, 277 particulate matter, 56 Pb, 108 pollutants, 103 pollution, 107 samplers, 107 transportation, 103 Atomic emission detection (AED), 155 Autoimmune diseases, 562 effects, 562 Automobile catalysts, 560 exhaust, 11 catalysts, 560 industry, 75 Subject Index Automotive catalysts, 399 catalytic converters, 126 exhaust catalysts, 399 Autonomic imbalance, 443 Azinphosmethyl, 166 B Background concentrations, 26 level, levels, 167 Back-trajectory analysis, 50 BaP, 329 Barley, 403 plants, 401, 407 Basic air quality, 83 BC (black carbon), 576 Benzo(a)pyrene, 329 (BAP), 42 (BaP), 476 Binary nucleation, 486 Bioaccumulation, 127, 277 Bioaccumulative potential, 183 Bioavailability, 554, 564, 565, 567 Bioavailable, 554 Biodiesel fuel, 489 Bioindicator plants, 468, 478 Biological effects, 55, 127 organisms, 119 samples, 228 Biomarkers study, Biomass burning, 614 Combustion, 614 Biomass/wood combustion, 585 Biomonitoring, 467–469, 471, 475, 477 procedures, 478 studies, 469 Birth weight, 542 Black carbon, Blood pressure, 511, 512 pressure (BP), 434 Bosanquet formula, 390 Bosnia, 58 Brachial artery diameter (BAD), 434 Brake wear, 73 Branis, 245 Brominated compounds, 179 flame retardants, 342 Bronchial epithelium cells, 433 Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), 433 Bronze Age, 110, 111 Brownian coagulation, 379 diffusion, 383 Bulk phase absorption, 281 Subject Index rainwater, 372 Bus and tram drivers, 503, 514 drivers, 503 Businesses cook food, 614 C C arbuscula, 463 Calibration standards, 131 Carbamate pesticide, 159 Carbon monoxide, 103, 217 particles, 146 Carbonaceous radicals, 103, 217 species, 66 Carcinogenesis, 422 Carcinogenic effects of PAHs, 327 mechanisms, 417 Carcinogenicity, 277 Cardiac arrhythmias, 537 health, 583 Cardiopulmonary diseases, 540 mortality, 538 Cardiovascular, 443, 511, 546 changes, 512 consequences, 443 disease, 431, 541 diseases, 528, 534, 536–538 effects, 429 events, 540 morbidity, 536 mortality, 512, 537 system, 512 toxicity, 545 Cascade impactors, 150 Catalyst production, 566 Catalytic converter, 322 converters, 75, 401, 554, 561, 564 reactions, 217 Cell systems, 544 Cellular and molecular mechanisms, 436 responses, 437 Cellulose filters, 236 Cement dust, 462, 464 factory, 464 production, 104, 453 Cerebro-vascular disease, 541 Certification bins, 608 Chemical composition, equilibrium, 278 mass balance (CMB), 585 processes, reduction of Pd, 401 Chemokines, 439, 443 Children, 541, 553, 563, 564, 567 Children’s Health Study, 541 645 China, 371 Chromatographic column, 137 Chromium (Cr), 471 Chronic bronchitis, 536 obstructive bronchitis, 528, 532 pulmonary diseases (COPD), 537 Chrysene (Chr), 282, 316 Cigarette smoke, 614 Cladonia arbuscula, 463 Clean Air Act, 502, 575 Cleanrooms, 605 Clearance in the respiratory tract, 429 Climate change, 13 Clinical PM exposure studies, 432 Cloud phase, 363 Cluster, 366 ions, 223 Coagulation, 486, 487 Coal, 458 ash, 464 burning industrial, 32 combustion, 453, 454, 458, 459, 462–464 fired power power plant, 585 fly-ash, 454, 459, 460 mines, 463 mining, 453, 460, 462 Coalescence of cloud droplets, 379 Coastal regions, Cold season, 28, 33 Collection efficiencies, 157 Collision gas, 560 Collision/reaction system (ORS), 22 Collodion film replication method, 373 film technique, 382 Colorimetric assays, 439 Combustion, 461 ash, 461 of fuel, Complex cell culture system, 439 Concentrated ambient particle system (CAPS), 432, 527 Concentrations on ground, 391 Condensation, 367, 486 Contaminated soil, 119 Contamination source, 167 Continuous cell line, 438 Controlled human exposures, 431 Cooking processes, 614 Copper (Cu), 471 Coprecipitation, 226 Coronary heart disease, 541 Cr concentrations, 96 Crustal component, 32, 35 646 C (cont.) elements, 9, 29, 72 emissions, 11 fraction, 32 Culture medium, 437 Curly kale, 469, 470, 475–477 biomonitoring, 469 CV effects, 443 Cytokine production, 430 Cytokines, 443 Cytotoxic effects of PM, 439 Cytotoxicity, 412, 439 Czech Republic, 58 D Daily health endpoint, 584 Deca-BDEs, 342 Dechlorination, 356 Deposition, 487, 528 of UF particles, 429 pattern, 528 site, 429 Desert dust, Desertification, 371 Desorption, 279 Determination of Pd, 404 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 281 Dichloromethane, 152 Diesel, 310, 413, 414, 421, 488 and petrol engine type of vehicles, 327 emissions, 489 engine exhaust, 310 engine vehicles, 329 engines, 56 exhaust, 545, 581 exhaust particles (DEP), 414, 419, 420 soot, 417 truck, 609 vehicles, 311 Diesel-powered vehicles, 489, 492 Differential sedimentation, 379 Diffusion, 487, 529 Dilution, 486, 487 Dissolution, 293 scavenging, 296 Distal bronchial epithelium, 433 progression, 528, 531 DNA damage, 439 Domestic heating, Dose–effect relationship, 544 Dose-response, 599 Double charged species, 240 Driving conditions, 71 Dry deposition, 277 Subject Index process, 356 particle deposition, 278 Dust storm, 371 particles, 379, 380 Dutch Traffic Cohort Study, 539 E Eastern Mediterranean area, EC, 315, 322 (elemental carbon), 576 Ecological health, 117 Effect on hematological parameters, 436 Elderly, 553 persons, 431 Electrocardiograms, 434 Electromagnetic radiation, 194 Electron capture detection (ECD), 155 impact (EI), 154 Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), 412 Electrostatic precipitation, 438 precipitator (ESP), 438 Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS), 218 Elemental analysis, 374 carbon (EC), 64, 283 compositions in rain samples, 384 concentration, 380 concentration of rainwater samples, 381 maps, 382, 384 Emission factors, 64 of PGE, 217 rates, 68 regulations, 608 standards, 609, 613, 618 Endocrine system, 514 Endotoxins, 430 Engine emissions, 619 En-Metan, 387 Enrichment and matrix separation, 226 factor EF, 301 Entropy of fusion, 347 Environmental biomonitoring, 149 conditions, 81 exposure, 599 fate, 355 monitoring, 477, 502 Protection Agency (EPA), Epidemiological effects, 19 studies, 576 Epidemiology study, 582, 591 Epithelial barrier, 545 cell hyperplasia, 443 lining fluid and cells, 433 EPMA Measurements, 248 Subject Index EPR, 414–416 measurements, 421 spectra, 417, 419, 421–423 Equilibrium gas scavenging ratios, 290 partitioning, 278, 280 Ethyl acetate, 153 Euro IV emission standards, 311 EuroBionet, 471, 477 European Community Respiratory Health Survey, 542 Union (EU), 63, 603, 610 Evaluate PM toxicity, 429 Evaporation, 486, 487 Evaporation/sublimation, 367 Evaporative processes, 606 EXAFS spectrum, 200 Exhaust catalysts, 567 gases, 75 Exposure, 484 Assessment, 494, 604 assessment, 485 concentrations in CAPS, 432 experiments, 400 information, 580 misclassification, 543 of cells at the air–liquid interface (ALI), 437 pathways, 146 to pesticides, 159 dose, 599 Extraction, 283, 292 methods, 128 Solvent, 130, 132 techniques, 135 temperature, 130 time, 130 F Factor analyses, 584 Fate, 278 Fe/Si-rich particles, 247 Fe-containing particles, 250 Fiberoptic bronchoscopy, 433 Fibrinolytic function, 434 Fine aerosols, 281 particle exposure, 615 particles, 90 traffic-generated particles (PM2.5), 312, 314 Fine traffic-generated particulate matter, 317, 319 Fire assay techniques, 225 assays, 224 assays (docimasy), 225 647 Flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry, 457 Flow Injection (FI), 229 mediated dilatation (FMD), 434 Fluoranthene (B(b)F), 282, 316 (B(k)F), 282, 316 (Flt), 282, 316 Fluorene (Flu), 282, 316 Fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs), 183 Fluvial sediments, 225 Formation, 486 Fossil fuel, 90, 104 Fractionation model, 354 of SVOCs, 354 Frequency of arrhythmias, 436 Fugacity, 278 ratio, 347 Fukuoka (Japan), 372, 376 Full-body exposure, 432 G Benzo, 316 Gas/particle partitioning, 281 aerosol-phase, 364 and particle phases, 277, 339 scavenging, 293 chromatograph, 154 components, 586 phase PAHs, 355, 356 scavenging, 296 ratios, 293 Gas/particle partitioning, 278, 294, 349 Gaseous air samples, 128 Gasoline, 413, 421, 488 Exhaust Particles (GEP), 414 Gas-particle distribution, 286 partition coefficient Kp, 339 partitioning, 278, 280, 286, 288, 339 partitioning coefficient, 278, 280 partitioning coefficients, 287 partitioning of SVOCs, 355 Gas-particle partitioning of SVOCs, 346 phase PCBs, 355 scavenging, 290 ratio, 290 Gaussian model, 388 GC–MS, 44, 283, 292 analysis, 130, 131 injector, 149 Genotoxic, 56 effects, 467 Genotoxicity, 55, 423 Geographical location, 83 GFAAS, 404 648 G (cont.) Ghazaouet, 390 city, 387, 394 Benzo, 283 Glass fibre filters, 148 Global Cu production, 104 emissions, 104 production, 104 Glutathione (GSH), 439 Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF), 439 Granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), 439 Graphite furnace, 457 atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS), 401, 404 Grasshopper effect, 356 Greenhouses, 159 Groundwater, 158 H Haematological effects, 511 Harvard Six Cities Study, 538, 539 Harvesting, 534 Health effect attributions, 587 effects, 428, 429, 509, 527 guidelines, 600, 601 impacts, 613 implications, Healthy human, 581 Heart rate (HR), 434 variability, 511, 512, 537 variability (HRV), 434 Heavy industry, 591 metal monitoring, 82 Heavy metals, 454 Heme oxygenase (HMOX-1), 439 Henry’s law constant, 289, 290, 297, 301 partitioning, 290 Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), 153 Hierarchical cellular oxidative stress model, 442, 443 High pollution, 581 resolution (HR) TEM, 401 transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), 401 Higher molecular weight SVOCs, 294 Highway proximity, 581 tunnel, 67 Histopathological changes, 436 Historical metal pollution, 133 Hi-volume PUF sampler, 131 Honey-bees, 159 Subject Index Hospitals, 605 Hot season, 48 House dust, 147 Household dust, 166 HRV, 443 Human airway barrier, 439 cell models, 440 cells, 436 derived cells, 438 emissions, 33, 34 health, 19, 26 lung cells, 246 populations, 120 exposure, 127, 618 studies, 433 Humid, Hydrogen bonding, 280 peroxide, 404 Hydroquinone, 419 Hydroxyl radicals, 412, 413, 416, 419, 422 Hyperlipidemia, 435 I Ice/snow scavenging, 289 Ideal gas constant R, 368 Immune effects, 147 Immunotoxicity, 170 Impaction, 529 Impactor samples, 44 system, 150 In vitro, 57, 411, 430, 438, 444, 544 assay, 544 experiments, 420 exposure of cells, 437 model, 439 studies, 430, 436, 438, 440, 562 In vivo, 57, 411, 417, 422, 430, 444 studies, 431, 436 Incoming solar radiation, 284 Indian Ocean, 139 Individual raindrop, 372 Indoor air, 145, 148 air quality, 145 dust, 145 environment, 145, 342 exposure, 145 micro environment, 256 particulate matter, 145, 246 pesticides, 167 sources, 255, 492, 493 UFP sources, 494 Indoors, 614 Induction of oxidative stress, 439 Subject Index Inductive Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS), 316, 374 Industrial activities, 90 emissions, 33 facilities, 90 processes, 611 Revolution, 120 source, 90, 606 Inertial impaction, 383 Inflammation, 439 Inhalable airborne particles, 150 Inhalation, 528 Inorganic ions, 146, 316, 322 sulfate, 72 species, 19 Instillation studies, 435 Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), 218 Interception, 383 Interfacial water to bulk water equilibrium constant, 291 Interferences, 240 Interleukins, 439 International Commission on Radiation Protection, 529 Intrabronchial instillation of PM, 433 Intrapharyngeal or intratracheal instillation, 435 Iron (Fe), 422, 471 metal particles, 253 oxide particles, 253 Ischemic heart disease, 537 Isobaric interferences, 240 metal species, 223 Isotope dilution (ID), 223 dilution (ID)-ICP-MS, 218 enriched spike, 223 ratios, 109 J Junge–Pankow adsorption model, 279, 281, 285, 286, 294, 340, 353 Junge–Pankow Koa-based absorption model, 340 K Benzo, 282, 316 Kelvin effect, 367 Kinematic viscosity, 298 KOA absorption model, 279, 285, 286, 350, 354 Koctanol–air absorption model, 294 Kyoto region, Japan, 373 649 L LA-ICP-MS, 236, 242 Laser Ablation-ICP-MS, 235, 237 granulometry, 401 Lasergranulometer, 403 Lead (Pb), 471 Leaded and unleaded petrol, 331 petrol, 311 Lichen, 464 Lichen Cladonia arbuscula, 463 Lichens, 453–455, 463 Limits of detection (LOD), 22 Linear exposure-health, 616 Lipid peroxidation, 471 Liquid aerosol-phase, 364 chromatography, 155 vapor pressure, 279, 280, 347 liquid extraction, 226, 227, 292 Local emissions, 582 range transport potential (LRTP), 356 pollution, 118, 120 transport, 11 term effects, 537 Long-term exposure, 246, 310, 541, 602 Lower molecular weight SVOCs, 295 Lung cancer, 528, 538, 540, 542 cells, 443, 581 epithelium barrier, 429 fibrosis, 443 fluid, 221 function, 514, 535 macrophages, 417 M Macrophage cell line, 438 inflammatory protein (MIP), 439 Major chemical species, 252 Marine aerosols, air, Markers of oxidative stress, 434 Marshall–Palmer rain droplet size distribution, 296 Mass concentration, 319 transfer coefficient, 297 Matrix separation, 226 solid-phase dispersion (MSPD), 153 Mechanical abrasion, 75 Mediators, 443 Membrane filters, 150 Memory effects, 228 Mercury (Hg) accumulation, 113 drop electrode, 224 Metal elements, 454, 461 pollution, 82 650 M (cont.) in Europe, 115 production, 113 plants, 607 Metallic compounds, 146 Metallothionein (MT) protein synthesis, 563 Metallurgical complex, 394 Metals, 554, 561 Meteorological data, 284 factors, 28 parameters, 284 Methyl bromide, 586 Metropolitan area, 580 Microbeam Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE), 375 Microenvironments, 485 Microorganisms, 146, 204 Micro-PIXE, 382, 384 analysis, 382 elemental maps, 377, 382 technique, 384 Microwave, 22 assisted digestion, 267 digestion, 226 digestion system, 130 Assisted Extraction (MAE), 130 Microwave-assisted oxidative digestion, 404 Mineral dust, 10 particles, 12 Mobile source emissions, Model by Pankow, 349 Modified FIAS-400 flow injection analysis, 404, 405 Molecular structure, 199 Monitor particle emissions, 610 Monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, 439 Morbidity and mortality, 429 Mortality, 532, 540, 546 Motor oil, 74 vehicle emission, 607, 618 factor, 587 vehicles, 63 MTT, 439 Mucociliar clearance, 531 Mucociliary clearance, 531 Multi-city studies, 576 element standard, 236 pollutant models, 584 Mutagenic effects of PAHs, 328 Mutagenicity, 277 Myocardial infarction, 435, 528, 532, 537, 541 Subject Index N Nanoparticles, 443 Naphthalene, 282, 316, 341 National Human Exposure Assessment Survey, 485 National Institutes of Standards and Technology, 438 National Morbidity, 576 Natural and anthropogenic sources, 26 crustal sources, 32 particle sources, 611 pathways, 146 Navicyte Horizontal Diffusion Chamber, 437 NiS-button, 225 NIST-certified, 138 Nitrate, 364 Nitric acid, 13 oxide, 591 Nitrogen oxides, 75, 217 phosphorus (NPD), 155 Nitroglycerin-mediated dilatation (NMD), 434 Nitromusk compounds, 183 Nitromusks, 182 Non-oxide polyatomic, 240 Sea-Salt (nss) Sulphate, 317 spectral interferences, 223 Northern Hemisphere, 110, 112 Nose-only exposure system, 435 Nucleation, 365, 366, 486 scavenging, 383 Nurses’ Health Study, 539 O Obstructive and restrictive lung disease, 435 OC, 315, 322 OC/EC ratio, 322 Occupational exposure, 503, 505, 508, 512, 514, 515 regulations, 601 Occupationally exposed, 514 OCPs, 290–294, 302 Octa-BDEs, 342 Octanol/air partition coefficient, 347 Octanol–air partition coefficient (Koa), 339, 350 air partitioning, 279 air partitioning coefficient (KOA), 280, 281 Oligomerization, 367 Optical particle counter (OPC), 373 Ore mining, 453 Organchlorine pesticides (OCPs), 127 Organic anthropogenic, carbon (OC), 9, 64, 283, 312 Subject Index compounds, 12, 64, 588, 611 contaminants, 147 fraction, 146 gases, 582 matter (OM), 283 non-ionic polar chemicals, 281 pollutants, 127 reference compounds, 204 Organics solubility, 39 Organochlorine compounds, 130, 285 pesticides (OCPs), 277 Organophosphate esters, 171 Organophosphorous pesticides, 166 Organotin compounds, 170 Outdoor aerosol samples, 248 atmosphere, 256 particles, 615 soil, 193 urban workers, 509 Oxidant damage, 442 Oxidative damage, 417, 423 mechanisms, 416 responses, 544 stress, 411, 417, 422, 430, 439, 440, 443, 544, 545, 553, 563, 583 initiated inflammation, 444 Ozone, 4, 584 P PAH, 300, 329, 468, 470, 477 concentration ratios, 327 mass size, 42 pollution, 42 sources, 58 PAHs, 280–283, 285, 286, 291–294, 292, 296, 302, 316, 327, 330, 332, 335, 346–348, 355, 356, 417, 418, 422 Palaeo-pollution, 120 Palladium (Pd), 399, 400, 554 emissions, 400 Pankow absorption model, 340, 350, 353 Particle and gas scavenging ratios, 289, 293 bound PCBs, 355 deposition, 483, 529 formation, 364, 365, 367, 600 induced X-ray emission (PIXE), 374 Mass, 606, 611 concentration, 376 fraction, 279 metrics, 600 Number, 610 scavenging, 293, 294 separation devices, 610 651 size, 235, 606 surface area, 279 gas partition, 349 bound PAHs, 356 bound SVOCs, 343 gas partition coefficient, 348 gas partitioning, 348 Particulate and gaseous SVOCs, 291 matter, 373 management, 601 particulate phase PAHs, 355 sulfate, 13 Partition coefficient Kp, 339 Partitioning, 368 behavior of PAHs, 288 coefficient, 368 Kaw, 289 of SVOCs, 347 Passive sampling techniques, 151 Pathophysiological mechanisms, 430, 436, 442, 444 Pb acid batteries, 212 bioaccessibility, 193 concentrations, 95 dust analysis, 213 exposure, 118 hydroxyl carbonate, 208 Pb isotope, 107 isotope ratio, 96 pollution, 113 speciation, 203 carbonate, 207 PBDEs, 342–344, 343, 346, 347, 354, 356 Pb–Fe oxyhydroxide phase, 207 goethite spectrum, 208 PCBs, 280–283, 285, 286, 341, 343, 346, 347, 353, 355, 356 PCDD/Fs, 353 Pd, 555, 560 bioavailability, 400 cations, 408 emissions, 219, 399 isotopes, 222 micrometer particles (Pd-MPs), 401 nanoparticles (Pd-NPs), 400, 401 solubility, 406, 409 species, 400 uptake, 406, 408 uptake by barley plants, 408 uptake in barley, 405 uptake in barley plants, 407 chloro-complexes, 227 Penta-BDEs, 342 652 P (cont.) Personal exposure, 485 levels, 246 studies, 543 monitoring, 485 Perylene (B(ghi)P)), 282 (BPe), 316 Pesticides, 158 Petrochemical industry, 32 Petrol vehicles, 310 PGE, 554–556, 561, 564–566 bioavailability, 565 toxicity, 561, 567 PGM, 399 Phagocytosis, 531 Phase enzymes, 442 Phenanthrene (Phe), 282, 316 Phosphate industry, 10 Photochemical degradation, 52 transformation, 356 Photodegradation of PBDEs, 356 Photoelectron wave, 199 Photolysis, 339, 356 Photolytic debromination of PBDEs, 356 Photooxidation, 356 Phthalate esters, 167 exposure, 147 Phthalates, 152 indoors, 167 Physicochemical properties, 81 Plant material, 404 tissues, 408 Platinum (Pt), 399, 553, 554 emissions, 400 group elements, 554 elements (PGE), 75 elements (PGE), 553 metals, 399 PM levels, 63 translocation, 439 PM10, 146 background, concentrations, 256 emission, 71 impactor, 236 levels, 63 PM2.5, 146 (for particles), 19 emissions, 72 mass, 332, 333 concentration, 319, 320, 334 Pneumonia, 534 Polar pesticides, 281 Police, 509 Subject Index officers, 511, 513 Policemen, 504, 509, 513, 515 Policy measures, 599 Pollutant transport, 11 Pollution, 389 histories, 109 transport trajectories, 110 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 146, 340 Polycarbonate filters, 148 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 127, 277, 340 Polychlorobenzenes, 153 Polycrystalline sample, 201 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), 8, 39, 103, 127, 146, 277, 312, 340, 412, 415, 468, 489, 581 musks, 182 Polyester membrane filters, 150 Polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), 183 Polymer substrates, 149 Polymerization, 367 Polymetallic sulphide, 387 Polyparameter linear free energy-relationships (ppLFERs), 280 Polyurethane foam (PUF), 43, 127 Polyvynylchloride (PVC), 167 Population exposures, 602 Post-depositional processes, 108 Power plants, 3, 591 Precipitation scavenging, 278, 290, 296, 384 Pre-concentration, 404 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), 153 Previous history of asthma, 431 Primary cells, 438 gaseous emissions, 74 organic aerosols (POA), 279 carbon, 588 particles, 3, 363, 501 Principal Components Analysis (PCA), 20 Pro-inflammatory, 443 Proinflammatory cytokines, 439 Propidium iodide (PI), 439 Proposed guidelines, 602 Pt, 555, 560 emission, 399 Pt/Rh catalyst, 217 Public health, 593, 599 Pulmonary function, 541 function test (PFT), 433, 513 inflammation, 544 Pyrene (B(a)P), 282 (BaP), 316 (Ind), 282, 316 Subject Index (Pyr), 282, 316 Pyrethrins, 159 Pyrometallurgical process, 387 Q QSPR, 281 Quadrupole ICP-MS (Q-ICP-MS), 222 Quality of indoor, 245 Quantitative structure–property relationship (QSPR), 281 Quartz fibre filters, 148 Quinoid, 420 compounds, 415 free radicals, 412 radicals, 417 redox cycling, 412 stable free radicals, 413 stable radicals, 501 Quinone, 419 semiquinone radicals, 412 R Rainfall, 284 Rainwater, 218, 373, 380 Raoult effect, 367 Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 411, 412, 442, 544, 563 Recovered fraction, 157 Recovery factor, 157 Redox cycling, 412, 420 Redox-active transition metals, 509 cycling quinoids, 509 Reductive co-precipitation, 560 Removal processes, 486, 487 Residual oil fly ash, 544 Respirable fraction, 428 Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, 429 effects, 429, 512, 541 diseases, 534 health, 542 morbidity, 546 symptoms, 512, 513, 535 system, 483 tract, 528, 529 Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), 439 Rhodium (Rh), 554, 555, 560 Risk assessment, 193, 599 factors, 584 Road bitumen, 66 dust, 74, 612 traffic dust, tunnel, 605 Roadway soil, 73 653 Rodents, 435 Roman period, 110 ROS, 413, 417, 422 generation, 442 production, 422 Rural background, 49 environments, 52 Ryegrass, 468–470, 472, 474, 477 exposure, 468 S Saharan desert, Sample Treatment, 152 Sampling, 373 methods, 152 Saturation vapour pressure, 366, 368 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 155 Transmission Ion Microscope (STIM), 375 Scavenging mechanism of ADS particles, 383 rates, 380 Schoolchildren, 582 Sea salt, 5, 585 Seasonal variations, 28 Seaton, 246 Secondary aerosol, 4, 364 anthropogenic emissions, 26 cells, 438 lines, 438 material, nitrate factor, 587 organic aerosols (SOA), 279 carbon, 588 oxidation products, particles, 501, 600 particulate, 63 sources, 49 sulfate, 585 Sedimentation, 529 Selected ion monitoring (SIM), 154 Selective area diffraction (SAD), 401–403 Semi-arid region, 11, 13 Semiquinone, 412, 417 radical, 415, 417 Semivolatile compounds, 366, 486 organic compounds (SVOCs), 275, 281, 339 species, 486 Semivolatiles, 339 Sensitization potential, 563 Short-term effect, 531 exposure, 532 PM exposure, 535 Singapore, 290, 293, 298, 311 Single particle, 375 654 S (cont.) analysis, 375 parameter linear free energy relationships (spLFERs), 280 Size distribution, 346 Snow, 454, 455, 457–464 melt, 459 Sociological factors, 581 Sodium perchlorate, 228 tetrachloromercurate, 389 Soil, 158, 454, 455, 457, 461–464 derived particles, 252 Soils, 107, 458, 462 Solid phase extraction (SPE), 227 microextraction (SPME), 154 water partitioning, 287 Solubility, 564 Soluble components, 581 Solution effect, 367 spikes, 236 Soot formation, 417 particles, 287 sorption, 288 water, 287 Sorbent parameters, 280 Sorption sites, 279 Source-sink processes, 97 South China Sea, 138 Southeast Asia, 282 Southern Hemisphere, 112 Ontario Centre for Atmospheric Aerosol Research (SOCAAR), 433 Soxhlet Extraction (SE), 130, 180 Spanish mining, 116 Spark ignition vehicles, 489 Spatial and temporal basis, 100 distribution, 100 Speciation, 193 Specific surface area, 279 Spectral interferences, 222 Spike, 157 solutions, 238 Spin trapping, 415, 416, 422 Spin-trapped, 420 radicals, 421 species, 415 Spin-traps, 413, 420 Spirometry test, 433 SRM 1649a, 135, 141 SRM 2585, 156 Staining test, 439 Standard methods, 151 or engineered materials, 438 Standardised bioassays, 564 Subject Index biomonitoring procedures, 469 exposure, 469, 470 grass culture method, 471 grass exposure method, 470 procedures, 469 Stomach acid extraction, 207 Stop-and-go traffic, 77 Street abrasion, 71 Stroke, 532, 541 Subcooled liquid vapor pressure, 340, 349 Sublimation process, 347 Subsaturated, 367 Subsaturation, 367 Subway platform samples, 249 Sulfate, 589 emissions, 589 containing particles, 252 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Sulphate, 364 Sulphur dioxide, 388–390 Sulphuric acid, 365–367 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), 128 Superoxide anion, 413, 415, 419, 421 Superoxide dismutases (SOD), 439 Supersaturation, 366 Surface adsorption, 281, 293 water, 158 Surgically-induced ischemic heart disease, 435 Susceptible groups, 431 individuals, 431 populations, 435 SVOCs, 278, 279, 281, 283, 285, 296, 298, 300, 301, 350, 354, 355 atmospheric concentration, 344 Synthesis of Pd particles, 400 Synthesized Pd particles, 408 Systemic inflammation, 434 T Te-coprecipitation, 225 Temporal distribution, 81 Tetrachloromercurate sodium, 389 Three-way catalytic converter (TWC), 217 Time-activity patterns, 486, 494 relationships, 496 Tokyo subway samples, 254 Total carbon (TC), 315 emission, 64 Exposure Assessment, 485 particle emissions, 71 mass emissions, 606 reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF), 218, 405 roadway PM, 66 Subject Index suspended particles (TSP), 3, particulate (TSP) matter, 146 Toxic effects, 117, 159 metal pollutants, 103 Toxicology studies, 592 studies, 575 Trace elements, 374, 464, 477 metal, 31, 315, 471, 472 analysis, 316 concentrations, 27 emissions, 74 species, 81 metals, 331, 332, 335, 457, 461, 468 concentration, 35 Tradescantia micronucleus test, 478 Traffic, 618 density, 67, 219 police, 512 policemen, 505, 513 generated fine particulate matter, 334 particles, 311, 320, 333–335 particulate matter, 311 PM2.5, 334 Transformation, 486, 487 Transition metals, 430, 501 Translocation of nanoparticles, 443 of particles, 439 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 155 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), 401, 414, 417 Transport pathways, 104 Tree-bark pocket, 150 Triphenyltin chloride (TPTC), 170 Tropical and coastal atmosphere, 282 Trypan blue exclusion, 439 TSP (total suspended particulates), 575 Tumor necrosis factor, 439 U UF particles, 429, 444 UFP, 484, 486–494 concentration, 494 emissions, 489 exposure, 491 assessment, 496 sources, 488 Ultra fine particles, 309, 532, 545 Ultrafine, 309, 468, 545 emissions, 580 particles (UFP), 412, 417, 483, 486, 531, 535, 600, 605, 615 size fractions, 56 Ultratrace analysis, 23 655 Ultra-violet, 196 Underground subway stations, 245, 246 Universal gas constant, 289 Uptake of Pd, 400, 401 Urban aerosols, areas, 27 Urban atmosphere, 63, 252 background, 92 emissions, 586 environments, 193 street particles, 246 workers, 504, 505, 508, 515 UV filters, 181 photolysis, 226 V Van der-Waals interactions, 280 Vapor phase, 355 pressure, 277, 279, 339, 346, 347, 349, 350 Vaporization, 279 Vascular function, 434 tests, 436 Vasoconstriction, 444 Vasodilatation, 434 Vegetative burning, 585 Vehicle components, 612 emissions, 4, 67, 608 exhausts, 310 generated UFP, 490, 491 Vehicles, 489 Vehicular emissions, 580 Vertical distribution, 310, 311, 318, 327, 329 of fine particles, 310 of particles, 309 profile, 319 transportation, 319 VOCs, 365, 367, 369 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 147, 281, 339, 364, 365 Vulnerable populations, 553, 567 W Wanninkhoff’s quadratic equation, 298 Warm periods, 31 Washout process, 383 Water-to-air equilibrium constant, 291 Western blotting/enzyme-linked immu-nosorbent assays (ELISAs), 439 Wet and dry deposition, 339 deposition, 278 Wet scavenging, 372 656 W (cont.) scavenging, 372, 382 WHO air quality, 602 guidelines, 602 Wind speed, 284 Wood combustion, 104 smoke, 587 Workplace concentrations, 246 World Health Organization (WHO), WST assays, 439 Subject Index X X-ray absorption, 196 diffraction, 196, 201 fluorescence, 201 techniques, 196 microanalysis, 247 techniques, 194, 212 Z Zinc, 458 ... of Airborne Particulate Matter, Airborne Particulate Matter Exposures and Health Risks and Protecting Human Health: Policy Measures and Scientific Uncertainty Chapters and include the author and. .. Metals and Organic Compounds in Airborne Particulate Matter: Analytical Methods, Airborne Particulate Matter: Environmental Pathways, Behaviour and Fate in Urban Environments, Bioavailability and. .. research on the levels and origins of airborne PM and related chemical Airborne Particulate Matter: Sources, Composition and Concentration processes and implications for human health in the Eastern