Modern chemistry student edition 2012 2

Chapter review practice problems 40 Suppose a 5.00 L sample of O2 at a given temperature and pressure contains 1.08 × 1023 molecules How many molecules would be contained in each of the following at the same temperature and pressure? a 5.0 L H2 b 5.0 L CO2 c 10.0 L NH3 41 How many moles are contained in each of the following at STP? a 22.4 L N2 b 5.60 L Cl2 c 0.125 L Ne d 70.0 mL NH3 42 Find the mass, in grams, of each of the following at STP a 11.2 L H2 b 2.80 L CO2 c 15.0 mL SO2 d 3.40 cm3 F2 43 Find the volume, in liters, of each of the following at STP a 8.00 g O2 b 3.50 g CO c 0.0170 g H2S d 2.25 × 105 kg NH3 44 Acetylene gas, C2H2, undergoes combustion to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor If 75.0 L CO2 is produced, a how many liters of C2H2 are required? b what volume of H2O vapor is produced? c what volume of O2 is required? 45 Assume that 5.60 L H2 at STP reacts with excess CuO according to the following equation: CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g) Make sure the equation is balanced before beginning your calculations a How many moles of H2 react? b How many moles of Cu are produced? c How many grams of Cu are produced? 46 If 29.0 L of methane, CH4, undergoes complete combustion at 0.961 atm and 140°C, how many liters of each product would be present at the same temperature and pressure? 47 If air is 20.9% oxygen by volume, a how many liters of air are needed for complete combustion of 25.0 L of octane vapor, C8H18? b what volume of each product is produced? 48 Methanol, CH3OH, is made by causing carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases to react at high temperature and pressure If 4.50 × 102 mL CO and 8.25 × 102 mL H2 are mixed, a which reactant is present in excess? b how much of that reactant remains after the reaction? c what volume of CH3OH is produced, assuming the same pressure? 49 Calculate the pressure, in atmospheres, exerted by each of the following: a 2.50 L HF containing 1.35 mol at 320.0 K b 4.75 L NO2 containing 0.86 mol at 300.0 K c 5.50 × 104 mL CO2 containing 2.15 mol at 57°C 50 Calculate the volume, in liters, occupied by each of the following: a 2.00 mol H2 at 300.0 K and 1.25 atm b 0.425 mol NH3 at 37°C and 0.724 atm c 4.00 g O2 at 57°C and 0.888 atm 51 Determine the number of moles of gas contained in each of the following: a 1.25 L at 250.0 K and 1.06 atm b 0.80 L at 27°C and 0.925 atm c 7.50 × 102 mL at -50.0°C and 0.921 atm 52 Find the mass of each of the following a 5.60 L O2 at 1.75 atm and 250.0 K b 3.50 L NH3 at 0.921 atm and 27°C c 125 mL SO2 at 0.822 atm and -5°C Section Diffusion and Effusion REVIEWing main Ideas 53 Describe in your own words the process of diffusion 54 At a given temperature, what factor determines the rates at which different molecules undergo diffusion and effusion? 55 Ammonia, NH3, and alcohol, C2H6O, are released together across a room Which will you smell first? Chapter Review 373 Chapter review PRACTICE PROBLEMS 56 Quantitatively compare the rates of effusion for the following pairs of gases at the same temperature and pressure: a hydrogen and nitrogen b fluorine and chlorine 57 What is the ratio of the average velocity of hydrogen molecules to that of neon atoms at the same temperature and pressure? 58 At a certain temperature and pressure, chlorine molecules have an average velocity of 324 m/s What is the average velocity of sulfur dioxide molecules under the same conditions? Mixed Review REVIEWing main Ideas 59 A mixture of three gases, A, B, and C, is at a total pressure of 6.11 atm The partial pressure of gas A is 1.68 atm; that of gas B is 3.89 atm What is the partial pressure of gas C? 60 A child receives a balloon filled with 2.30 L of helium from a vendor at an amusement park The temperature outside is 311 K What will the volume of the balloon be when the child brings it home to an air-conditioned house at 295 K? Assume that the pressure stays the same 61 A sample of argon gas occupies a volume of 295 mL at 36°C What volume will the gas occupy at 55°C, assuming constant pressure? 62 A sample of carbon dioxide gas occupies 638 mL at 0.893 atm and 12°C What will the pressure be at a volume of 881 mL and a temperature of 18°C? 63 At 84°C, a gas in a container exerts a pressure of 0.503 atm Assuming the size of the container has not changed, at what temperature in Celsius degrees would the pressure be 1.20 atm? 64 A weather balloon at Earth’s surface has a volume of 4.00 L at 304 K and 755 mm Hg If the balloon is released and the volume reaches 4.08 L at 728 mm Hg, what is the temperature? 374 Chapter 11 65 A gas has a pressure of 4.62 atm when its volume is 2.33 L If the temperature remains constant, what will the pressure be when the volume is changed to 1.03 L? Express the final pressure in torrs 66 At a deep-sea station that is 200 m below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, workers live in a highly pressurized environment How many liters of gas at STP must be compressed on the surface to fill the underwater environment with 2.00 × 107 L of gas at 20.0 atm? Assume that temperature remains constant 67 An unknown gas effuses at 0.850 times the effusion rate of nitrogen dioxide, NO2 Estimate the molar mass of the unknown gas 68 A container holds 265 mL of chlorine gas, Cl2 If the gas sample is at STP, what is its mass? 69 Suppose that 3.11 mol of carbon dioxide is at a pressure of 0.820 atm and a temperature of 39°C What is the volume of the sample, in liters? 70 Compare the rates of diffusion of carbon monoxide, CO, and sulfur trioxide, SO3 71 A gas sample that has a mass of 0.993 g occupies 0.570 L Given that the temperature is 281 K and the pressure is 1.44 atm, what is the molar mass of the gas? 72 How many moles of helium gas would it take to fill a balloon with a volume of 1000.0 cm3 when the temperature is 32°C and the atmospheric pressure is 752 mm Hg? 73 A gas sample is collected at 16°C and 0.982 atm If the sample has a mass of 7.40 g and a volume of 3.96 L, find the volume of the gas at STP and the molar mass CRITICAL THINKING 74 Applying Models a Why we say the graph in Figure 2.2 illustrates an inverse relationship? b Why we say the data plotted in Figure 2.4 indicate a direct relationship? 75 Inferring Conclusions  If all gases behaved as ideal gases under all conditions of temperature and pressure, solid or liquid forms of these substances would not exist Explain Chapter review 76 Relating Ideas  Pressure is defined as force per unit area Yet Torricelli found that the diameter of the barometer dish and the surface area of contact between the mercury in the tube and in the dish did not affect the height of mercury that was supported Explain this seemingly inconsistent observation in view of the relationship between pressure and surface area 77 Evaluating Methods  In solving a problem, what types of conditions involving temperature, pressure, volume, or number of moles would allow you to use a the combined gas law? b the ideal gas law? 78 Evaluating Ideas  Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes holds true for relative volumes at any proportionate size Use Avogadro’s law to explain why this proportionality exists 79 Interpreting Graphics  The graph below shows velocity distribution curves for the same gas under two different conditions, A and B Compare the behavior of the gas under conditions A and B in relation to each of the following: a temperature b average kinetic energy c average molecular velocity d gas volume e gas pressure Fraction of molecules Condition A Condition B 80 Interpreting Concepts  The diagrams below represent equal volumes of four different gases A B C D Use the diagrams to answer the following questions: a Are these gases at the same temperature and pressure? How you know? b If the molar mass of gas B is 38 g/mol and that of gas C is 46 g/mol, which gas sample is denser? c To make the densities of gas samples B and C equal, which gas should expand in volume? d If the densities of gas samples A and C are equal, what is the relationship between their molar masses? RESEARCH AND WRITING 81 Design and conduct a meteorological study to examine the interrelationships among barometric pressure, temperature, humidity, and other weather variables Prepare a report explaining your results 82 Conduct library research on attempts made to approach absolute zero and on the interesting properties that materials exhibit near that temperature Write a report on your findings 83 How scuba divers use the laws and principles that describe the behavior of gases to their advantage? What precautions they take to prevent the bends? Velocity 84 Explain the processes involved in the liquefaction of gases Name some substances that are gases under normal room conditions and that are typically used in the liquid form Explain why this is so mc06sec11000052a 1st pass 7/30/4 C Murphy Chapter Review 375 Chapter review 85 Write a summary describing how Gay-Lussac’s work on combining volumes relates to Avogadro’s study of gases Explain how certain conclusions about gases followed logically from consideration of the work of both scientists USING THE HANDBOOK 86 Review the melting point data in the properties tables for each group of the Elements Handbook (Appendix A) What elements on the periodic table exist as gases at room temperature? 87 Review in the Elements Handbook (Appendix A) the listing of the top 10 chemicals produced in the United States Which of the top 10 chemicals are gases? 88 Most elements from Groups 1, 2, and 13 will react with water, acids, or bases to produce hydrogen gas Review the common reactions information in the Elements Handbook (Appendix A) and answer the following questions: a What is the equation for the reaction of barium with water? b What is the equation for the reaction between cesium and hydrochloric acid? c What is the equation for the reaction of gallium with hydrofluoric acid? d What mass of barium would be needed to react with excess water to produce 10.1 L H2 at STP? e What masses of cesium and hydrochloric acid would be required to produce 10.1 L H2 at STP? 89 Group metals react with oxygen to produce oxides, peroxides, or superoxides Review the equations for these common reactions in the Elements Handbook (Appendix A), and answer the following: a How oxides, peroxides, and superoxides differ? b What mass of product will be formed from a reaction of 5.00 L O2 with excess sodium? The reaction occurs at 27°C and atm 376 Chapter 11 ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT 90 The air pressure of car tires should be checked regularly for safety reasons and for prevention of uneven tire wear Find out the units of measurement on a typical tire gauge, and determine how gauge pressure relates to atmospheric pressure 91 During a typical day, record every instance in which you encounter the diffusion or effusion of gases (for example, when smelling perfume) 92 Performance  Qualitatively compare the molecular masses of various gases by noting how long it takes you to smell them from a fixed distance Work only with materials that are not dangerous, such as flavor extracts, fruit peels, and onions 93 Performance  Design an experiment to gather data to verify the ideal gas law If your teacher approves of your plan, carry it out Illustrate your data with a graph, and determine if the data are consistent with the ideal gas law TEST PREP Standards-Based Assessment MULTIPLE CHOICE Pressure can be measured in A grams C pascals B meters D liters A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 150 mL when its pressure is 0.923 atm If the pressure is increased to 0.987 atm and the temperature remains constant, what will the new volume be? A 140 mL C 200 mL B 160 mL D 240 mL What is the pressure exerted by a 0.500 mol sample of nitrogen in a 10.0 L container at 20°C? A 1.2 kPa C 0.10 kPa B 10 kPa D 120 kPa A sample of gas in a closed container at a temperature of 100.0°C and 3.0 atm is heated to 300.0°C What is the pressure of the gas at the higher temperature? A 35 atm C 59 atm B 4.6 atm D 9.0 atm An unknown gas effuses twice as fast as CH4 What is the molar mass of the gas? A 64 g/mol C g/mol B 32 g/mol D g/mol If L N2 and L H2 are mixed and react according to the equation below, how many liters of unreacted gas remain? Assume temperature and pressure remain constant SHORT ANSWER Give a molecular explanation for the observation that the pressure of a gas increases when the gas volume is decreased The graph below shows a plot of volume versus pressure for a particular gas sample at constant temperature Answer the following questions by referring to the graph No calculation is necessary a What is the volume of this gas sample at standard pressure? b What is the volume of this gas sample at 4.0 atm pressure? c At what pressure would this gas sample occupy a volume of 5.0 L? V vs P for a Gas at Constant Temperature 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 Volume (L) Answer the following items on a separate piece of paper 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) A L B L C L D L Avogadro’s law states that A equal numbers of moles of gases at the same conditions occupy equal volumes, regardless of the identity of the gases B at constant pressure, gas volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature C the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its amount in moles D at constant temperature, gas volume is inversely proportional to pressure 2.0 3.0 4.0 Pressure (atm) EXTENDED RESPONSE 10 Refer to the plot in question Suppose the same gas sample were heated to a higher temperature, and a new graph of V versus P were plotted Would the new plot be identical to this one? If not, how would it differ? 10 11 12 Test Tip If you are permitted to, draw a line through each incorrect answer choice as you eliminate it Standards-Based Assessment 377 CHAPTER 12 Online Chemistry HMDScience.com Section Types of Mixtures Section The Solution Process Section Concentration of Solutions Online Labs include: Separation of Pen Inks by Paper   Chromotography A Close Look at Soaps and   Detergents The Counterfeit Drugs The Fast Food Arson The Untimely Death Testing Reaction Combinations   of H2 and O2 Premium Content Why It Matters Video HMDScience.com Solutions (c) ©Jean-Paul Chassenet/Photo Researchers, Inc; (br) ©Chris Knapton/Alamy Solutions Section Types of Mixtures Main Ideas Solutions are homogeneous mixtures Key Terms soluble solution solvent solute suspension colloid The particles in a suspension are large electrolyte nonelectrolyte Colloids have particles of intermediate size It is easy to determine that some materials are mixtures because you can see their component parts For example, soil is a mixture of substances, including small rocks and decomposed animal and plant matter You can see this by picking up some soil in your hand and looking at it closely Milk, on the other hand, does not appear to be a mixture, but in fact it is Milk is composed principally of fats, proteins, milk sugar, and water If you look at milk under a microscope, it will look something like Figure 1.1a You can see round lipid (fat) droplets that measure from to 10 µm in diameter Irregularly shaped casein (protein) particles that are about 0.2 µm wide can also be seen Both milk and soil are examples of heterogeneous mixtures because their composition is not ­uniform Salt (sodium chloride) and water form a homogeneous mixture The sodium and chloride ions are interspersed among the water molecules, and the mixture appears uniform throughout, as illustrated in Figure 1.1b Electrolytes are ionic solutions that conduct electricity   >  Main Idea Solutions are homogeneous mixtures Suppose a sugar cube is dropped into a glass of water You know from experience that the sugar will dissolve Sugar is described as “soluble in water.” By soluble we mean capable of being dissolved As it dissolves, a sugar lump gradually disappears as sugar molecules leave the surface of their crystals and mix with water molecules Eventually all the sugar molecules become uniformly distributed among the water molecules, as indicated by the equally sweet taste of any part of the mixture All visible traces of the solid sugar are gone Such a mixture is called a solution A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances uniformly dispersed throughout a single phase Figure 1.1 (bl) ©Eye of Science/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures Water molecule Sodium ion, Na+ Chloride ion, Cl(a) M  ilk is a heterogeneous mixture that consists of visible particles in a nonuniform arrangement (b) S  alt water is an example of a homogeneous mixture Ions and water mol­ecules are in a random arrangement Solutions 379 Components of Solutions Figure 1.2 Solutes and Solvents  The solute in a solution can be a solid, liquid, or gas Water molecule, H2O Ethanol molecule, C2H5OH In a solution, atoms, molecules, or ions are thoroughly mixed, resulting in a mixture that has the same composition and properties ­throughout In the simplest type of solution, such as a sugar­-­water solution, the particles of one substance are randomly mixed with the particles of another substance The dissolving medium in a solution is called the solvent, and the substance dissolved in a solution is called the solute The solute is generally designated as that component of a solution that is of lesser quantity In the ethanol­-water solution shown in Figure 1.2, ethanol is the solute and water is the solvent Occasionally, these terms have little meaning For example, in a 50%­-­50% solution of ethanol and water, it would be difficult and unnecessary to say which is the solvent and which the ­solute In a solution, the dissolved solute particles are so small that they cannot be seen They remain mixed with the solvent indefinitely, as long as the existing conditions remain unchanged If the solutions in Figure 1.2 are poured through filter paper, both the solute and the solvent will pass through the paper The solute-particle dimensions are those of atoms, molecules, and ions—which range from about 0.01 to nm in d ­ iameter Types of Solutions (a) The ethanol­-­water solution is made from a liquid solute in a liquid solvent Water molecule, H2O Copper ion, Cu2+ Chloride ion, Cl- Solutions may exist as gases, liquids, or solids Some possible solute­­solvent combinations of gases, liquids, and solids in solutions are summarized in Figure 1.3 Note each has a defined solvent and solute Many alloys, such as brass (made from zinc and copper) and sterling silver (made from silver and copper), are solid solutions in which the atoms of two or more metals are uniformly mixed By properly choosing the proportions of each metal in the alloy, many desirable properties can be obtained For example, alloys can have more strength and greater resistance to corrosion than the pure metals Pure gold (24K), for instance, is too soft to use in jewelry Alloying it with silver and copper greatly increases its strength and hardness while retaining its appearance and corrosion resistance Figure 1.4 (on the next page) shows a comparison between pure gold and a gold alloy 14-karat gold is a solution because the gold, silver, and copper are evenly mixed at the atomic level Figure 1.3 Some Solute-Solvent Combinations for Solutions (b) The copper(II) chloride–water solution is made from a solid solute in a liquid solvent Note that the composition of each solution is ­uniform 380 Chapter 12 Solute state Solvent ­state Example gas gas oxygen in ­nitrogen gas liquid carbon dioxide in ­water liquid liquid alcohol in ­water liquid solid mercury in silver and ­tin (dental ­amalgam) solid liquid sugar in ­water solid solid copper in ­nickel (Monel™ ­alloy) Figure 1.4 Pure Gold vs Gold Alloy  Pure gold is too soft to use in jewelry Alloying it with other metals increases its strength and hardness, while retaining its appearance and corrosion resistance Gold Gold (a) 24-karat gold is pure gold Silver (b) 14-karat gold is an alloy of gold with silver and copper 14-karat gold is 14/24, or 58.3%, g ­ old Copper Main Idea The particles in a suspension are large If the particles in a solvent are so large that they settle out unless the mixture is constantly stirred or agitated, the mixture is called a suspension Think of a jar of muddy water If left undisturbed, particles of soil collect on the bottom of the jar The soil particles are denser than the solvent, water Gravity pulls them to the bottom of the container Particles over 1000 nm in diameter—1000 times as large as atoms, molecules, or ions—form suspensions The particles in suspension can be separated from heterogeneous mixtures by passing the mixture through a f­ ilter Main Idea Colloids have particles of intermediate size (tl) ©Neal Mishler/Getty Images Particles that are intermediate in size between those in solutions and suspensions form mixtures known as colloidal dispersions, or simply colloids Particles between nm and 1000 nm in diameter may form colloids After large soil particles settle out of muddy water, the water is often still cloudy because colloidal particles remain dispersed in the water If the cloudy mixture is poured through a filter, the colloidal particles will pass through the filter, and the mixture will remain cloudy The particles in a colloid are small enough to be suspended throughout the solvent by the constant movement of the surrounding molecules The colloidal particles make up the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersing medium Many common things you use regularly, such as milk, hair spray, and photographic film, are colloids Similar to solutions, colloids can be classified according to their dispersed phase and dispersed medium For example, a solid might be dispersed in a liquid, as is the case with many paints, or a gas might be dispersed in a liquid, as is the case with foams such as whipped cream The different types of colloids have common names you may recognize For example, an emulsion is a liquid in a liquid, like milk And clouds and fog, liquids dispersed in gas, are liquid aerosols Figure 1.5 on the next page lists these different types of colloids and gives some examples of each one Solutions 381 Figure 1.5 Classes of Colloids Class of ­colloid Phases Example sol solid dispersed in ­liquid paints, mud gel solid network extending throughout ­liquid gelatin liquid emulsion liquid dispersed in a ­liquid milk, mayonnaise foam gas dispersed in ­liquid shaving cream, whipped cream solid aerosol solid dispersed in ­gas smoke, airborne particulate matter, auto exhaust liquid aerosol liquid dispersed in gas fog, mist, clouds, aerosol spray solid emulsion liquid dispersed in ­solid cheese, butter Tyndall ­Effect Figure 1.6 Tyndall Effect  A beam of light distinguishes a colloid from a solution The particles in a colloid will scatter light, making the beam visible The mixture of gelatin and water in the jar on the right is a colloid The mixture of water and sodium chloride in the jar on the left is a true ­solution Many colloids appear homogeneous because the individual particles cannot be seen The particles are, however, large enough to scatter light You have probably noticed that a headlight beam is visible from the side on a foggy night Known as the Tyndall effect, this occurs when light is scattered by colloidal particles dispersed in a transparent medium The Tyndall effect is a property that can be used to distinguish between a solution and a colloid, as demonstrated in Figure 1.6 The distinctive properties of solutions, colloids, and suspensions are summarized in Figure 1.7 The individual particles of a colloid can be detected under a microscope if a bright light is cast on the specimen at a right angle The particles, which appear as tiny specks of light, are seen to move rapidly in a random motion This motion is due to collisions of rapidly moving molecules and is called Brownian motion, after its discoverer, Robert ­Brown Brownian motion is not simply a casual curiosity for interesting lighting effects In fact, it is one of the strongest macroscopic observations that science has for assuming matter is ultimately composed of particulate atoms and molecules Only small, randomly moving particles could produce such effects Figure 1.7 Properties of Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions Solutions Colloids Suspensions Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous Particle size: 0.01–1 nm; can be atoms, ions, molecules Particle size: 1–1000 nm, dispersed; can be aggregates or large molecules Particle size: over 1000 nm, suspended; can be large particles or ­aggregates Do not separate on standing Do not separate on standing Particles settle ­out Cannot be separated by filtration Cannot be separated by filtration Can be separated by ­filtration Do not scatter light Scatter light (Tyndall effect) May scatter light, but are not ­transparent 382 Chapter 12 theory  an explanation for some phenomenon that is based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning teoría  una explicación de algunos fenómenos que está basada en la observación, la experimentación y el razonamiento transmutation  the transformation of atoms of one element into atoms of a different element as a result of a nuclear reaction transmutación  la transformación de los átomos de un elemento en átomos de un elemento diferente como resultado de una reacción nuclear thermochemical equation  an equation that includes the quantity of energy as heat released or absorbed during the reaction as written ecuación termoqmica  una ecuación que incluye la cantidad de energía en forma de calor que se libera o absorbe durante la reacción como se expresa transuranium element  a synthetic element whose an atomic number is greater than that of uranium (atomic number 92) elemento transuranio  un elemento sintético cuyo número atómico es mayor que el del uranio (número atómico 92) thermochemistry  the branch of chemistry that is the study of the energy changes that accompany chemical reactions and changes of state termoquímica  la rama de la química que se ocupa del estudio de los cambios de energía que acompan las reacciones qmicas y los cambios de estado titration  a method to determine the concentration of a substance in solution by adding a solution of known volume and concentration until the reaction is completed, which is usually indicated by a change in color titulación  un método para determinar la concentración de una sustancia en una solución al adir una solución de volumen y concentración conocidos hasta que se completa la reacción, lo cual normalmente es indicado por un cambio de color transition element  one of the metals that can use the inner shell before using the outer shell to bond elemento de transición  uno de los metales que tienen la capacidad de usar su orbital interno antes de usar su orbital externo para formar un enlace transition interval  the range in concentration over which a variation in a chemical indicator can be observed intervalo de transición  el rango de concentración en el cual se puede observar una variación en un indicador químico R146 Glossary triple point  the temperature and pressure conditions at which the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a substance coexist at equilibrium punto triple  las condiciones de temperatura y presión en las que las fases sólida, líquida y gaseosa de una sustancia coexisten en equilibrio triprotic acid  an acid that has three ionizable protons per molecule, such as phosphoric acid ácido triprótico  un ácido que tiene tres protones ionizables por molécula, como por ejemplo, el ácido fosfórico U unified atomic mass unit  a unit of mass that describes the mass of an atom or molecule; it is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom with mass number 12 (abbreviation, amu) unidad de masa atómica unificada  una unidad de masa que describe la masa de un átomo o molécula; es exactamente 1/12 de la masa de un átomo de carbono un número de masa de 12 (abreviatura: uma) unit cell  the smallest portion of a crystal lattice that shows the threedimensional pattern of the entire lattice celda unitaria  la porción más pequa de una red cristalina, la cual muestra el patrón tridimensional de la red completa unsaturated hydrocarbon  a hydrocarbon that has available valence bonds, usually from double or triple bonds with carbon hidrocarburo no saturado  un hidrocarburo que tiene enlaces de valencia disponibles, normalmente de enlaces dobles o triples carbono unsaturated solution  a solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution does and that is able to dissolve additional solute solución no saturada  una solución que contiene menos soluto que una solución saturada, y que tiene la capacidad de disolver más soluto V valence electron  an electron that is found in the outermost shell of an atom and that determines the atom’s chemical properties electrón de valencia  un electrón que se encuentra en la capa más externa de un átomo y que determina las propiedades químicas del átomo vaporization  the process by which a liquid or solid changes to a gas vaporización  el proceso por el cual un líquido o un sólido se transforma en un gas volatile liquid  a liquid that evaporates readily or at a low temperature líquido volátil  un líquido que se evapora rápidamente o a una baja temperatura voltaic cell  a primary cell that consists of two electrodes made of different metals immersed in an electrolyte; used to generate voltage pila voltaica  una celda primaria formada por dos electrodos hechos de diferentes metales sumergidos en un electrolito; se usa para generar voltaje volume  a measure of the size of a body or region in three-dimensional space volumen  una medida del tamo de un cuerpo o región en un espacio de tres dimensiones VSEPR theory  a theory that predicts some molecular shapes based on the idea that pairs of valence electrons surrounding an atom repel each other teoría VSEPR  una teoría que predice algunas formas moleculares base en la idea de que los pares de electrones de valencia que rodean un átomo se repelen unos a otros W wavelength  the distance from any point on a wave to an identical point on the next wave longitud de onda  la distancia entre cualquier punto de una onda y un punto idéntico ubicado en la onda siguiente weak acid  an acid that releases few hydrogen ions in aqueous solution ácido débil  un ácido que libera pocos iones de hidrógeno en una solución acuosa weak electrolyte  a compound that dissociates only to a small extent in aqueous solution electrolito débil  un compuesto que se disocia solamente en una pequeña medida en solución acuosa weight  a measure of the gravitational force exerted on an object; its value can change with the location of the object in the universe peso  una medida de la fuerza gravitacional ejercida sobre un objeto; su valor puede cambiar en función de la ubicación del objeto en el universo word equation  an equation in which the reactants and products in a chemical reaction are represented by words ecuación verbal  una ecuación en la cual los reactivos y los productos de una reacción qmica están representados palabras Glossary R147 Index Page references followed by  f refer to figures Page references followed by t refer to tables A absolute zero, 351 absorption, 96, 96 f accuracy, 42–44, 42 f acetic acid as buffer, 572–573 common-ion effect in, 569–570, 570 f hydrolysis of ions in, 576 f, 577 ionization constant, 571–573, 572t properties, 445 strength of, 448–449, 449 f, 458 acetone, 698 acetylene, 685 acid-base indicators colors of, 472 f, 484 f, 485t equivalence point and, 488–489, 488 f, 489 f function of, 483–484, 483 f pH paper, 442, 442 f, 445, 484, 487 f in titrations, 487–493, 487 f, 488 f, 489 f, 490 f–491 f acid ionization constants, 571–572, 572t acidosis, R33 acid rain, 265, 463, 463 f, 482 acids, 440–463 See also pH amphoteric compounds, 459–461, 460 f, 461 f Arrhenius, 447–448, 447 f, 448t, 456t Brønsted-Lowry, 452–455, 454 f, 456t conjugate, 457–459, 459t, 574–575 decomposition of, 266 displacement reactions in, 267 household, 446 hydrolysis of salts, 574–578, 574 f, 576 f, 577 f hydronium and hydroxide ions in, 473–474 industrial, 444–445 ionization constants, 571–572, 572t Lewis, 455–456, 456t monoprotic and polyprotic, 453–455, 454 f neutralization reactions, 442, 446, 461–463, 462 f, 489–493 nomenclature, 218–219, 218t, 442–443, 442t, 443t organic, 448–449 properties, 442 R148 Index strength of, 448–449, 448t, 458–459, 459t, 473t, 481 actinides, 128, 140, 149t activated complexes, 533–535, 533 f activation energy, 532–535, 532 f, 533 f, 720, 720 f active sites, 719 activity series, 271–273, 272t actual yield, 301 addition polymers, 696, 696 f addition reactions, 693–694 adenine, 726, 726 f, R40 f adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 723, 723 f adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 722–725, 723 f, 725t, R40 f AIDS/HIV infection, 718 air bags, 360 air pollution, R52 alcohols, 689, 689 f, 689t aldehydes, 689t, 691, 691 f alkali metals, 134, 134 f, R2–R7, R2 f, R4t alkaline batteries, 621, 621 f alkaline-earth metals, 134, 134 f, R8–R13, R8 f, R10t alkanes, 674–682, 675t, 676t, 677t, 680t, 681t alkenes, 682–685, 682t, 685 f alkyl groups, 677–680, 677t alkyl halides, 689t, 690, 693 alkynes, 685–686, 686 f allotropes, 683 alloys, 380–381, 380t, 381 f, R18–R20, R19t, R20 f, R27, R27t alpha particles, 70, 71 f, 645t, 646, 646 f, 650 f, 653, 653 f aluminum alloys, R27, R27t electron configuration, 111t industrial production of, 633 oxides, R51, R51t properties, 18 f, R24–R25, R24 f, R25 f, R26t in water purification, 259–260 amalgams, 380t, R18 f amines, 689t, 691 amino acids chemical structures of, 712, 712 f, R35, R35 f in the genetic code, 732 in peptides and proteins, 713–714, 714 f synthesis of, 730 ammonia in amines, 691 as base, 449, 449t, 456 oxidation of, 293 polarity of, 195, 195 f production of, 563, 564–566 structure of, 189, 189 f, 192 ammonium ions, 184, 184 f, 576–578, 577 f amorphous solids, 320, 323 amphoteric compounds, 459–461, 460 f, 461 f amphoteric oxides, R51 anabolism, 725 angular momentum quantum number, 101–102, 102t anhydrides, R50 anions hydrolysis of, 574–575, 574 f ionic radii, 151–152, 151t nomenclature, 208–209, 209 f, 209t oxyanions, 213–215, 214t, 218 anodes, 68 f, 618, 618 f antibodies, 712, 716t aqueous solutions, 410–432 attraction between dissociated ions, 432 boiling-point elevation, 426–427 calculating hydronium and hydroxide ion concentration of, 473–474 dissociation in, 411–415, 411 f, 414 f electrolysis, 420–421, 420 f freezing-point depression, 424–426, 424t, 430–432, 431t ionization, 417, 417 f net ionic equations, 415–416 osmotic pressure, 428–429, 428 f precipitation reactions, 413–416, 413t, 414 f standard solutions, 489 strong and weak electrolytes, 418–419, 418 f vapor-pressure lowering, 422–423, 422 f, 423 f area, units of, R58t argon, 108–109, 111t, 112 Aristotle, 41, 63 aromatic hydrocarbons, 687 Arrhenius, Svante 447 Arrhenius acids and bases, 447–450, 447 f, 448t, 449t, 450 f, 456t arsenic, 112t, 131, 217, R44–R45, R45t artificial transmutations, 651–652, 651 f, 652 f, 652t asbestos, R41 atmospheres (units), 344–345, 344t atmospheric pressure, 342–343, 342 f, 343 f, 345 atomic masses, 77–78, 78t, 117, 125, R60t–R61t atomic mass unit, unified (u), 72t, 76, R59t atomic number, 73, R60t–R61t atomic radii, 142–144, 142 f, 143 f, 144 f, 155 atoms, 62–83 in ancient science, 41, 63 atomic number, 73, R60t–R61t atomic theory, 63–65, 65 f average atomic masses, 77–78, 78t Bohr model, 96–97, 96 f, 97 f definition, 6, 6 f, 68 isotopes, 73–76, 74 f, 74t, 75t mass numbers, 74, 74t orbitals, 100–104, 101 f, 102 f, 102t, 103 f, 104t plum pudding model, 69 quantum model, 98–104, 101 f, 102 f, 102t, 103 f, 104t relative atomic masses, 76–77 sizes of, 72 structure of, 68–72, 70 f, 71 f, 72t, 104t subatomic particles, 642 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 722–725, 723 f, 725t, R40 f Aufbau principle, 105, 110, 110 f automobiles, 360, 547, 628, 631, 631 f, 689, R27, R27 f average atomic masses, 77–78, 78t, 117 Avogadro’s law, 359–360, 359 f, 360 f Avogadro’s number, 79, 82, R59t B balancing equations formula equations, 250–251, 253 by inspection, 256–260, 275 redox equations, 601–605, 610 using models, 270 ball-and-stick models, 187–188, 187 f, 188 f, 671 f Balmer spectral series, 97, 97 f band of stability, 642–643, 643 f barium, 115, 584–586, R8–R9, R8 f, R10t barometers, 343, 343 f, 356 base dissociation constants, 576 base-pairing, 727–728, 727 f, R40 bases, 445–463 See also pH amphoteric compounds, 459–461 Arrhenius, 447, 449–450, 449t, 456t Brønsted-Lowry, 452–455, 454 f, 456t calculating hydronium and hydroxide ion concentration in, 473–474 conjugate, 457–459, 459t, 574–575 dissociation constants, 576 household, 446 hydrolysis of salts, 574–578, 574 f, 576 f, 577 f Lewis, 455–456, 456t neutralization reactions, 461–463, 462 f properties, 445–446 strength of, 449–450, 449t, 450 f, 458–459, 459t batteries, 621–622, 621 f, 622 f, 631, 631 f Becquerel, Henri, 645, 653 benzene, 687, 687 f beryllium, 110, 110t, R8–R9, R8 f, R10t Berzelius, Jöns Jacob, 420 beta particles, 645t, 646, 646 f, 653, 653 f binary acids, 218–219, 218t, 442–443, 442t See also acids binary compounds, 210, 265 binary molecular compounds, 215–217, 216t, 217t binding energy per nucleon, 642, 642 f biochemistry, 706–731, R35–R40 amino acids, 712, 712 f, 713–714, R35, R35 f carbohydrates, 707–709, 708 f, 709 f, 722, R37–R38 DNA, 727–728, 727 f, 728 f genetic engineering, 730–731, 730 f lipids, 710–711, 710 f, 711 f, R38–R39 metabolism, 722–725, 723 f, 724 f, 725t nucleic acid structure, 726, 726 f proteins, 713–721 RNA, 729–730, 729 f bioluminescence, 96 blocks, of elements, 130–131, 131 f blood See also hemoglobin artificial, 395, 395 f, 718 buffers in, 575 carbon dioxide in, R32–R33, R33 f sickle cell anemia, 717, 717 f transfusions, 718 Bohr, Niels, 95 f, 96–97, 96 f, 97 f boiling, 318, 326–327, 326 f, 327 f boiling-point elevation, 426–427, 433 boiling points, 7 f bonding types and, 193, 194t of crystalline solids, 322t determining, 433 of liquids, 326–327, 326 f, 327 f of organic compounds, 680t, 681, 681t, 688t of water, 326, 326 f, 333, R59t bond angles, 189–191, 189 f, 190t, 332 bond energy, 171, 172t, 177t bonding See chemical bonding bond length, 171, 172t, 177t bond strength, 186 boron, 107, 110, 110t, 173, R24–R25, R24 f, R26t boron family elements, R24–R27, R24 f, R26t, R27t boron trifluoride, 188, 188 f, 193 Bosch, Karl, 563 Boyle, Robert, 349, 356–357, 369 Boyle’s law, 349–350, 349 f, 350 f bromine, 112t, 138, 153t, 154, 223t, R54–R55, R54 f, R55 f, R56t bromthymol blue, 485t, 488 Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases, 452–455, 454 f, 456t Brownian motion, 382 Buckyballs, 683 buffers, 572–573, 572 f, 575 butane, 671, 671t, 675t C caffeine, 458 calcium dietary, R12, R12t electron configuration, 112, 112t properties, R8–R9, R8 f, R10t reactivity, 134, 134 f, R9, R9 f calorimeters, 501, 509, 509 f Cannizzaro, Stanislao, 125 capillary action, 317, 317 f carbohydrates chemical structure, R37–R38, R37 f, R38 f condensation reactions, 708–709, 708 f, 709 f digestion of, 724 disaccharides, 708, 708 f, R37, R37 f monosaccharides, 707–708, 708 f, R37, R37 f polysaccharides, 709, 709 f carbon allotropes, 683 in aromatic hydrocarbons, 687, 687 f Buckyballs, 683 carbon cycle, R31, R31 f covalent bonding in, 176–178, 177t electron configuration, 110t, 140, 192, 192 f forms of, 512 in iron ore reduction, R30, R30 f isotopes, 78t, 655 oxidation numbers, 223t properties, R28–R29, R29t carbonated beverages, 391, 391 f carbon-14 dating, 655 See also radioactive dating carbon dioxide in the carbon cycle, R31, R31 f molecular geometry of, 191 nonpolarity of, 195 f properties, R31 in respiration, R32–R33, R33 f carbon family of elements, R28–R43 See also under names of individual elements carbon monoxide, 261, R31, R34, R34t carbonyl groups, 691 carboxyl groups, 692, 692 f carboxylic acids, 689t, 692, 692 f careers in chemistry analytical chemist, 488 chemical technician, 284 computational chemist, 194 environmental chemist, 386 forensic chemist, 730 materials scientist, 137 petroleum engineer, 678 pharmacist, 210 casein, 716, 716t catabolism, 724–725, 724 f, 725t catalysis, 538, 539 f catalysts catalytic converters, 547 in chemical equations, 252 enzymes as, 719–720, 719 f heterogeneous vs homogeneous, 538 reaction rate and, 538, 538 f, 539 f catalytic converters, 547 catenation, 670, 670 f cathode rays, 68–69, 68 f, 69 f cathodes, 68 f, 618, 618 f cathodic protection, 624, 624 f cations hydrolysis of, 575–576 ionic radii, 151–152, 151t, 156 nomenclature, 208, 209t, 212–213, 212 f cellulose, 709, 709 f, R38 f Celsius temperature scale, 501 centrifuges, 12, 12 f cesium, 78t, 115, 167, R2–R3, R2 f, R3 f, R4t chain reactions, 657–658, 657 f changes of state, 324–330 boiling, 318, 326–327, 326 f, 327 f chemical, 8–11, 9 f equilibrium and, 324–325, 324t, 325 f freezing, 318, 324t, 327–328, 333 melting, 320, 324t, 328–329 phase diagrams, 329–330, 329 f, 330 f Charles, Jacques, 351 Charles’s law, 351–352, 351 f, 352 f, 369 chemical bonding, 164–197 carbon, 669–670, 669 f, 670 f covalent, 168–179 definition, 165 electronegativity and, 166–167, 166 f, 167 f enthalpy of vaporization, 186, 186t, 327, 327 f, 333 intermolecular forces, 193–197, 194t, 195 f, 196 f, 197 f ionic, 180–184 metallic, 185–186, 185 f, 186t, 194t types of, 165–167, 166 f, 167 f VSEPR theory, 187–191, 188 f, 189 f, 190t chemical changes, 9–10 chemical equations, 248–260 balancing, 250–253, 256–260, 270, 275, 601–605, 610 coefficients in, 249, 251, 254–255 elements in elemental state, 248–249 net ionic equation, 415–416 requirements of, 248–249 significance of, 254–256, 255 f symbols in, 251–253, 252t thermochemical, 505 word, 249–250, 254 Index R149 chemical equilibrium, 554–586 acid ionization constants, 571–572, 572t base dissociation constants, 576 buffers, 572–573, 572 f calcium-carbonate system, 566 common-ion effect, 569–570, 570 f determining equilibrium constants, 558, 587 equilibrium expression, 557–561, 557 f, 559t factors in, 564–567, 565 f, 567 f hydrogen-iodine system, 558–560, 559t ionization constant of water, 472–473, 472t, 566, 573 precipitation calculations, 584–586 reactions that go to completion, 567–569, 568 f reversible reactions and, 555–557 salt hydrolysis, 574–578, 574 f, 576 f, 577 f solubility products, 579–586, 581t chemical equilibrium expression, 558, 587 chemical formulas, 168 calculation of, 233–237 for covalent-network compounds, 218 empirical, 233–235, 698 formula masses, 225–226 for ionic compounds, 210 molar masses, 79, 79 f, 226–230, 228 f for molecular compounds, 215–217, 216t, 217t for monatomic ions, 208–209, 209t oxidation numbers, 220–223, 223t for polyatomic ions, 213–215, 214t significance of, 207–208 structural, 670–671, 671 f chemical kinetics, 536 See also kinetics of reactions chemical properties, 8–10 chemical purity, 14, 14 f, 14t chemical reactions, 246–274 See also chemical equations; chemical equilibrium; kinetics of reactions; oxidationreduction reactions acid-base, 457–463, 459t, 460 f, 461 f, 462 f activated complexes, 533–535, 533 f R150 Index activation energy, 532–535, 532 f, 533 f, 538, 720, 720 f activity series, 271–273, 272t addition, 693–694, 694 f amino acid, 712 collision theory, 530–531, 531 f, 537 combustion, 269, 269 f, 508–509, 509 f, R60t combustion synthesis, 274, 274 f condensation, 694, 708–709, 708 f, 712 decomposition, 265–266, 266 f definition, 247 double-displacement, 268–269, 268 f, 414–415, 414 f, 416 driving force of, 516–520, 518 f, 519t elimination, 695, 695 f endothermic, 505–507, 507 f, 516, 519t enthalpy of, 504–512, 506 f, 507 f, 513 f exothermic, 393–394, 505–506, 506 f, 519t, 532 half-reactions, 597–599 indications of, 247–248 limiting vs excess reactants, 296–300, 296 f mechanisms of, 529–530, 529 f neutralization, 442, 446, 461–463, 462 f, 489–493 nuclear, 644, 657–658, 657 f percentage yield, 301–302 precipitation, 413–415, 414 f rate laws, 539–546, 548 reactions that go to completion, 567–569, 568 f reversible, 252–253, 256, 555–556 single-displacement, 267–268, 267 f, 271 substitution, 693 synthesis, 262–265, 263 f, 274 chemicals, definition of, chemistry, science of, 3–5 See also history of chemistry chlorine chemical bonding, 167, 167 f, 173, 173 f electron configuration, 111t isotopes, 75–76 oxidation numbers, 223t, 598–599 oxyacids of, 460 f, 461 properties, 363 f, R54–R55, R55 f, R56t size of, 142 f water treatment by, R56–R57, R56 f chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 690, 693 chlorophyll, 722, R13 f cholesterol, 711 chromium, 112t, 113, 596, 596 f, R14–R16, R15 f, R16 f, R17t cis isomers, 672, 682 f, 682t citric acid cycle, 724 cloning, 731, 731 f cobalt, 112t, 113, R14–R16, R15 f, R16 f, R17t, R23t coefficients, equation, 249, 251, 254–255, 507 collagen, 716, 716t colligative properties, 422–432 boiling-point elevation, 426–427, 433 electrolytes and, 429–432, 429 f, 431t freezing-point depression, 424–426, 424t, 430–432, 431t, 433 of nonvolatile substances, 422–423, 422 f, 423 f osmotic pressure, 428–429, 428 f vapor-pressure lowering, 422–423, 422 f, 423 f collision theory, 530–531, 531 f, 537 colloids, 381–383, 382 f, 382t combined gas law, 354–355, 369 combustion reactions, 269, 269 f, 508–509, 509 f, R60t combustion synthesis, 274, 274 f common-ion effect, 569–570, 570 f composition stoichiometry, 283 compounds amphoteric, 459–461, 460 f, 461 f binary, 210–211, 265 definition, enthalpy of formation, 507–508, 512–514, 513 f ionic, 180–184, 181 f, 182 f, 183t, 208–215 molecular, 168–169, 183, 215–217, 417 nomenclature, 208–213 organic, 669 oxidation numbers, 220–223, 223t, 598–599 percentage composition, 230–232, 238 polyatomic ions in, 213–214, 214t solubility of, R65t compressibility, 313, 316, 320, 356 concentration, 396–402 chemical equilibrium and, 565–566, 565 f molality, 400–402, 400 f, 430 molarity, 396–399, 397 f, 403, 471, 489–493, 490 f–491 f notation, 471 reaction rates and, 537–538, 537 f, 538 f, 548 titration and, 489–493, 490 f–491 f condensation, 324, 324t condensation polymers, 697 condensation reactions, 694, 708–709, 708 f, 712 conduction bands, R42, R42 f conductivity, electrical, 7, 18 conjugate acids and bases, 457–459, 459t, 574–575 conservation of mass, 64–65, 65 f, 287 contact theory, 420 continuous spectrum, 94 control rods, 658, 658 f conversion factors molar mass, 228–230, 228 f, 285 mole ratios, 233–235, 284–285, 288–294, 303 SI units, 38–40, 48, 84 using, 38–40, 48, 84 copolymers, 695, 697 copper in the body, R23t in electrochemical cells, 617–622, 617 f, 618 f, 619 f, 620 f electron configuration, 112t, 113 ionization energy, 156 isotopes, 78, 78t oxidation and reduction of, 607, 607t in photochromic lenses, 598 properties, 18 f, 19, R14–R16, R15 f, R16 f, R17t reactivity, R15, R15 f in tap water, 451 corrosion, 515, 623–624, 623 f, 624 f cosmic rays, 654 covalent bonding, 168–179 compared to ionic, 183, 183 f electron-dot notation, 174–176, 174 f electronegativity and, 165–167, 166 f, 167 f hybridization, 191–193, 192 f, 193t intermolecular forces, 193–197, 194t, 195 f, 196 f, 197 f Lewis structures, 174–178, 204 nomenclature, 215–217, 216t, 217t octet rule, 172–173, 173 f polyatomic ions, 184, 189–190, 218, 218 f, 275 redox reactions and, 598–599 resonance structures, 179 VSEPR theory, 187–191, 188 f, 189 f, 190t covalent molecular crystals, 322t, 323 covalent-network bonding, 179, 218, 322, 323 f covalent network crystals, 322, 322t, 323 f Crick, Francis, 727 critical mass, 658 critical point, 329, 329 f critical temperature, 329, 329 f Crookes, William, 562 crystalline solids, 320 binding forces in, 321–323, 322t, 323 f breakage and, 30, 30 f, 183, 183 f hydrates, 389, 389 f ionic bonding in, 181–182, 181 f, 182 f substitutions in, R20, R20 f types of, 321–323, 321 f, 322t Curie, Marie and Pierre, 645 cycloalkanes, 676 cysteine, 712 f, 714, 714 f cytosine, 726, 726 f, R40 f D Dalton’s atomic theory, 64–65 Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 345–348, 346 f Daniell Cells, 618 f, 619, 619 f data collection, 27–28 daughter nuclides, 650 Davy, Humphry, 420 d-block elements, 136–138, 136 f, 155–156 de Broglie, Louis, 98 Debye, Peter, 432 decay series, 650–651, 650 f decomposition reactions, 265–266, 266 f decompression sickness, 348 delocalized electrons, 185, 322, 687, 687 f Democritus, 41, 63 denaturation, 720–721, 720 f, R37 density calculation of, 37 of familiar materials, 36t, 37 of gases, 36, 313, R63t of liquids, 316, 316 f of organic compounds, 688t of solids, 320 units of, 34t, 36–37, 36t of water, 333, R63t deposition, 324t, 328 derived units, 34–37, 34t, 36t deuterium, 74, 74 f, 75t diamonds, 512, 683 diatomic molecules, 168, 187–188, 187 f, 249t, 360 diffraction, 98, 99 f diffusion of gases, 313, 313 f, 318 f, 366–368, 366 f of liquids, 316, 316 f of solids, 321 digestion, 721, 724–725, 724 f dimensional analysis, 38–39 dipeptides, 712 dipoles, 194–196, 195 f, 196 f diprotic acids, 454, 454 f directly proportional quantities, 53–54, 53 f, 53t disaccharides, 708, 708 f, R37, R37 f dispersed phase, 381 displacement reactions, 267–269, 267 f, 268 f disproportionation, 608–609, 609 f dissociation, 411–415, 411 f, 414 f dissolution, 385–386, 385 f, 517–518, 518 f See also solubility disulfide bridges, 714, 714 f DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 727–728, 727 f, 728 f DNA fingerprinting, 730, 730 f DNA replication, 728, 728 f doping, R42–R43 Dorn, Ernst, 109, 128 double bonds, 176–178, 177 f, 177t, 682–683 double-displacement reactions, 268–269, 268 f, 414–415, 414 f, 416 Downs Cells, 633 Drew, Charles, 718 dry cells, 621–622, 621 f, 622 f dry ice, 472 f ductility, 18, 186 E effervescence, 391, 391 f effusion, 314, 366–368, 366 f Einstein, Albert, 93–94, 641–642 Einstein’s equation, 641–642 elastic collisions, 311 elastins, 716, 716t electrical potential, 624–627, 625 f, 626t, 634 electric charge, 69, 71 electric circuits, 618 electric current, 32t, 383–384, 384 f, 442, 446 electrochemical cells, 617–619, 617 f, 618 f, 619 f electrochemistry, 616–633 corrosion, 623–624, 623 f, 624 f definition, 617 electrical potentials, 624–627, 625 f, 626t, 634 electrochemical cells, 617–619, 617 f, 618 f, 619 f electrolysis, 265, 632–633, 632 f electrolytic cells, 629–633, 629 f, 630 f, 631 f, 632 f rechargeable cells, 631, 631 f voltaic cells, 620–628, 620 f, 621 f, 622 f, 623 f electrode potentials, 624–627, 625 f, 626t, 634 electrodes, 618, 618 f, 625, 625 f electrolysis, 265, 420–421, 420 f, 421 f, 632–633, 632 f electrolytes, 383–384, 384 f balance of, R5, R5 f colligative properties and, 429–432, 429 f, 431t in electrochemical cells, 618, 618 f strong vs weak, 418–419, 418 f electrolytic cells, 629–633, 629 f, 630 f, 631 f, 632 f electromagnetic radiation, 91–94, 647, 647 f See also light electromagnetic spectrum, 91–93, 92 f electron affinity, 149–151, 149 f, 150 f electron capture, 647 electron configurations, 105–116 atomic radii and, 142–144, 142 f, 143t, 144 f, 155 of d-block elements, 136–138, 136 f electron-dot notation, 174–176, 174 f notation of, 106–107 period number and, 110–115, 110t, 111t, 112t, 114t of s-block elements, 134, 134 f summary of, 105–106, 105 f, 106 f, 130–131, 139t, 157 valence electrons, 152, 152t writing, 157 electron-dot notation, 174–176, 174 f, 180–181 electronegativity acid strength and, 461 chemical bonding and, 166–167, 166 f, 167 f dipole-dipole forces, 194–196, 195 f, 196 f period trends, 153–156, 153 f, 154 f electrons, 90–116 in Bohr model, 96–97, 96 f, 97 f charge of, 69 in covalent bonds, 169, 169 f, 171–172, 171 f, 172 f delocalized, 185, 322, 687, 687 f discovery of, 68–69, 68 f, 69 f in electrochemical cells, 617–622, 617 f, 618 f, 619 f, 620 f Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 99 in Lewis acids and bases, 455–456, 456t line-emission spectrum, 94–95, 94 f, 95 f mass of, 69, 72t, R59t in metallic bonding, 185–186, 185 f orbitals, 100–104, 101 f, 102 f, 102t, 103 f, 104t photoelectric effect, 93–94, 93 f properties, 72t unshared pairs, 175, 189–190, 189 f, 190t valence, 152, 152t as waves, 98–100, 99 f, 101 f electroplating, 630–631, 630 f elements, 16–20 See also families activity series, 271–273, 272t alkali metals, 134, 134 f, R2–R7, R2 f, R4t in ancient science, 41 artificial transmutations, 651–652, 652 f, 652t atomic masses, 77–78, 78t, 117, 125, R60t–R61t atomic numbers, 73, 77–78, 78t, R60t–R61t in the body, R22–R23, R22 f, R23t definition, Elements Handbook, R2–R57 enthalpy of formation, 508 molar mass, 79, 79 f, 226–230, 228 f periodic table of, 132 f–133 f symbols for, 16, 16t, R60t–R61t transmutation of, 644, 651–652, 652 f, 652t Index R151 elements (continued) transuranic, 652, 652 f, 652t, 660–661 types of, 18–20, 18 f, 19 f elimination reactions, 695, 695 f emission, 96, 96 f emission-line spectrum, 94–95, 94 f, 95 f Empedokles, 41 empirical formulas, 233–235, 698 emulsions, 381, 382t endothermic reactions, 505–507, 507 f, 516, 519t, 532 f end point, 488, 488 f energy, 500–520 activation, 532–535, 532 f, 533 f, 538, 720, 720 f ATP, 722–725, 723 f, 725t, R40 f boiling and, 326–327, 327 f bond, 171–172, 172t, 177t catalysts and, 538, 539 f changes of state and, 10–11, 326–335, 327 f electron affinity, 149–151, 149t, 150 f electron configuration and, 105–106, 105 f of electrons, 94–97, 95 f, 96 f, 97 f enthalpy of combustion, 508–509, 509 f, R60t enthalpy of formation, 507–508, 512–514, 513 f enthalpy of reaction, 504–507, 506 f, 507 f enthalpy of solution, 393–394, 393 f, 394t entropy, 516–518, 517 f, 518 f, 519t free, 518–520, 519t in hydrogen bonding, 169, 169 f ionization, 145–148, 145t, 146 f, 147t, 156 kinetic, 311–312, 366 lattice, 182, 183t nuclear binding, 641–642, 642 f of photons, 94–95 quantum, 93 specific heat, 502–504, 503t units of, 501 enthalpy activation energy and, 532–535, 532 f, 533 f calculating, 509–512, 521 of combustion, 508–509, 509 f, R60t of formation, 507–508, 512–514, 513 f, R121t in free energy, 519–520, 519t of fusion, 328, 334 Hess’s law, 509–512, 521 R152 Index of reaction, 504–507, 506 f, 507 f, 513 f, 516 in reversed equations, 510 of solution, 393–394, 393 f, 394t of vaporization, 186, 186t, 327, 327 f, 333 enthalpy changes, 504 entropy, 516–520, 517 f, 518 f, 519t enzymes, 719–721 coenzymes, R36, R36 f pH and, 721, R36–R37 as proteins, 712 specificity of, 719–720, 719 f temperature and, 720, 720 f enzyme-substrate complexes, 719–720, 719 f equations See chemical equations equilibrium See chemical equilibrium equilibrium, in state changes, 324–325 equilibrium constants, 558 See also chemical equilibrium acid ionization, 571–572, 572t base dissociation, 576 determining, 587 ionization constant of water, 472–473, 472t, 566, 573 solubility products, 579–586, 581t equilibrium vapor pressure, 325, 325 f equivalence point, 488–489, 488 f, 489 f error, 43–44 esters, 689t, 692 ethane, 674, 675t ethanol, 326 f, 390, 671 f, 689 ethene, 685, 685 f ethers, 689t, 690 ethyne, 685 evaporation, 317–318, 318 f, 324–325, 325 f excess reactants, 296, 296 f excited state, 94 exothermic reactions activation energy in, 532, 532 f enthalpies of solution and, 393–394, 394t, 519t thermochemical equations for, 505–506, 506 f expansion of gases, 312 explosives, 540, 563 exponents, 48–50 extensive properties, F families, R24–R53 alkali metals, 134, 134 f, R2–R7, R2 f, R4t alkaline-earth metals, 134, 134 f, R8–R13, R8   f, R10t boron, R24–R27, R24  f, R26t, R27t carbon, R28–R43 halogens, R54–R57, R56t nitrogen, R44–R47, R45t, R47t oxygen, R48–R53, R50t, R51t transition metals, 136–138, R14–R23, R17t Faraday, Michael, 420–421, 421  f fats See lipids fatty acids, 710, R38–R39, R38 f f-block elements, 128, 140–141, 155–156 Fermi, Enrico, 660 fertilizer production, 562–563, R47, R47t fibrous proteins, 716, 716t fifth-period elements, 113, 114t film badges, 654, 654 f filtration, 12, 12 f fireworks, R10–R11, R10 f fission, 657–658, 657 f, 658 f, 660–661 flame tests, R3, R3 f, R9, R9 f, R45, R45 f, R49, R49 f flavorings, 691 f fluids, 312–313, 315 fluoridation, 269, R57 fluorine covalent bonding, 173, 173 f electron configuration, 110t electronegativity, 153, 153t properties, 363 f, R54–R55, R55 f, R56t reactions, 264, 267–268 tooth decay and, 267, R57 forces intermolecular, 193–197, 194t, 195 f, 196 f, 197 f nuclear, 72, 642–644, 643 f, 644 f pressure and, 341–342, 341 f, 342 f units of, 342 forensic chemists, 730 formula equations, 250 See also chemical equations formula masses, 225–227, 236–237 formula units, 180 fossil fuels, 681, 681t fourth-period elements, 112–113, 112t fractional distillation, 681, 681 f Franklin, Rosalind, 727 free energy, 518–520, 519t free radicals, R52 freezing, 318, 324t, 327–328, 333 freezing-point depression, 424–426, 424t, 430–432, 431t, 433 freezing points, 327–329, 433, R59t freons, 690 frequency, 92–93, 92 f fructose, 707–709, 708 f, 709 f, R37 f fuel cells, 622, 622 f, 628 fullerene, 683 functional groups, 688–692, 688t, 689t fusion, 655–656, 659, 659 f G gallium, 112t, R24–R25, R24 f, R26t galvanic cells See voltaic cells galvanizing, 624 gamma rays, 645t, 647, 647 f, 653, 653 f gas constant, 364–365, 364t, R59t gases, 340–368 Avogadro’s law, 359–360, 359 f, 360 f Boyle’s law, 349–350, 349 f, 350 f, 369 Charles’s law, 351–352, 351 f, 352 f, 369 from chemical reactions, 248, 248 f, 268–269, 568 combined gas law, 354–355, 369 density of, 36, 313, R63t deviations from ideal behavior, 314, 314 f Gay-Lussac’s law, 353–354, 353 f, 369 Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes of gases, 358 Graham’s law of effusion, 366–368, 366 f Henry’s law, 348, 391–393, 391 f, 392 f ideal gas law, 363, 363 f kinetic-molecular theory of, 311–314, 312 f, 313 f, 314 f molar volumes, 360–361 noble, 20, 20 f, 127–128, 127 f, 314 partial pressures, 345–348, 346 f, 565 pressure, 341–347, 341 f, 342 f, 343 f, 344t properties, solubility in water, R64t stoichiometry of reactions, 361–362 gasohol, 689 gasoline, 390, 681t Gay-Lussac, Joseph, 353 Gay-Lussac’s law, 353–354, 353 f, 369 Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes of gases, 358 Geiger, Hans, 70, 70 f Geiger-Müller counters, 654, 654 f genes, 729 genetic code, 728, 732 genetic engineering, 730–731, 730 f geometric isomers, 672, 672 f glacial acetic acid, 445 glass, 30, 320, R41 globular proteins, 716, 716t gluconeogenesis, 725 glucose, 707–709, 708 f, 709 f, R32, R37 f glutamic acid, 712 f, 714, 714 f, 717 f glycerol, 689, 689 f glycogen, 709, 709 f, R38 f glycolipids, 711 gold, 18 f, 62 f, 380–381, 381 f, R14, R17t Graham’s law of effusion, 366–368, 366 f gram/mole conversions, 80 graphite, 512, 683 graphs, 28 f, 53 f, 55 f greenhouse gases, 547 ground state, 94, 97, 97 f ground-state electron configuration, 105 groups, 17 See also families guanine, 726, 726 f, R40 f H Haber, Fritz, 563 Haber process, 563, 564–566 Hahn, Otto, 660–661, 660 f half-cells, 618–619, 618 f, 624–627, 625 f, 626t half-life, 648–649, 648 f, 648t, 662 half-reaction method of balancing equations, 601–605, 610 half-reactions, 597–599 Hall-Héroult process, 633 halogens, R54–R57 activity series, 271–272, 272t in alkyl halides, 689t, 690, 690 f, 693 properties, 139, 139 f, R54–R55, R54 f, R55 f, R56t reactions, 264, 267–268 hazard labels, xxvi-xxvii heat, 247, 247 f, 501–504, 502 f, 503t Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 99 helium, 75t, 109, 128, 135 hemoglobin in carbon monoxide poisoning, 261, R34, R34t heme molecule in, R32, R32 f iron in, R23, R23t in sickle cell anemia, 717, 717 f structure of, 715, R36, R36 f Henry’s law, 348, 391–393, 391 f, 392 f hertz, 92 Hess’s law, 509–512, 521 heterogeneous catalysts, 538, 547 heterogeneous mixtures, 11 f, 12, 379 f heterogeneous reactions, 536–537 heterotrophs, 722 highest-occupied energy level, 110 history of chemistry air pressure, 356–357, 356 f ancient Greek science, 41 combustion, 286–287, 287 f electrolysis, 420–421, 420 f, 421 f nitrogen fertilizer production, 562–563 nuclear fission, 660–661 organic chemistry, 673, 673 f periodic table, 108–109, 109 f, 125–127, 126 f homogeneous catalysts, 538 homogeneous mixtures, 11 f, 12, 379 f See also solutions homogeneous reactions, 530 homologous series, 674 Hooke, Robert, 356 hormones, 716t Hückel, Erich, 432 Human Genome Project, 728 human growth hormone, 731 Hund’s rule, 106, 106 f hybridization, 191–193, 192 f, 193t hybrid orbitals, 192, 192 f hydrates, 231–232, 389, 389 f hydration, 389, 389 f, 417 hydrocarbons, 674–687 alkanes, 674–682, 675t, 676t, 677t, 682t alkenes, 682–685, 682t, 685 f alkynes, 685–686, 686 f aromatic, 687, 687 f cycloalkanes, 676 functional groups, 688–692, 688t, 689t isomers, 671–672 nomenclature, 676–680, 676t, 677t, 683, 686 saturated, 674 structural formulas, 670–671 unsaturated, 682–687, 682t hydrochloric acid, 417, 417 f, 445, 454 f, 458, 462–463, 462 f hydrogen Bohr model of, 96–97, 96 f, 97 f electron configuration, 134–135 in fuel-cell cars, 628 fusion of, 659, 659 f hydronium ions, 417, 447–448, 447 f, 448t, 459, 459t isotopes, 73–74, 74 f, 74t, 75t, 78t line-emission spectrum, 94–95, 94 f, 95 f reactions with, 442, 558–560 solid, 320 hydrogenation, 693–694, 694 f hydrogen bonding bond length and energy, 171–172, 171 f, 172t covalent bonding in, 166, 167 f, 169 f dipole-dipole forces in, 196, 196 f in DNA, 727, 727 f, R40 f in water, 331–332, 331t, 332t hydrogen peroxide, 608–609, 719 hydrolysis, 574–578, 574 f, 576 f, 577 f, 708–709, 709 f, 723, 723 f hydronium ions in acid solutions, 447–448, 447 f, 448t, 459 calculating concentration of, 473–474 ionization and, 417 pH scale and, 475–476, 475 f hydroxide ions, 473 hydroxides, 266, 450, 450 f hydroxyl groups, 461, 689, 689t hyphen notation, 75 hypotheses (singular, hypothesis), 28–29, 29 f I ibuprofen, 229–230 ice, 324t, 328–329 ideal conditions, 288 ideal gas constant, 364–365, 364t, R59t ideal gases, 311–314, 312 f, 313 f, 314 f, 363, 363 f ideal gas law, 363, 363 f immiscibility, 390, 390 f indicators See acid-base indicators induced dipoles, 195–196, 196 f inner-shell electrons, 110 insoluble substances, 579 insulin, 712, 716, 716t, 731, R35–R36 intensive properties, interference, 98, 99 f, 100 intermediates, 530 intermolecular forces, 193–197, 194t, 195 f, 196 f, 197 f interstitial crystals, R20, R20 f inversely proportional quantities, 54, 54t, 55 f iodine, 114t, 223t, 558–560, 559t, R54–R55, R54 f, R55 f, R56t ionic bonding, 180–184 boiling points and, 194t covalent bonding compared with, 183, 183 f electronegativity and, 165–167, 166 f ionic compounds crystals, 322, 322t dissociation, 389, 389 f, 411–415, 411 f, 413 f, 414 f formation of, 180–184, 181 f, 182 f, 183 f, 183t nomenclature, 210–211, 213–214 salts as, 219 ionic radii, 151–152, 151t, 156 ionization of aqueous solutions, 417, 417 f chemical equilibrium and, 569 energy, 145–148, 145t, 146 f, 147t, 156 self-ionization of water, 471–472, 471 f, 472t, 565–566 ionization constants, 472–473, 472t, 566, 571–573, 572t ionization energy (IE), 145–148, 145 f, 146 f, 147t, 156 Index R153 ions, 145 hydronium, 417, 447–448, 447 f, 448t, 459, 459t ionization and, 417, 417 f monatomic, 208–209, 209t names of common, R62t polyatomic, 184, 189–190, 218, 218 f, 275 iron alloys, R18–R19, R19 f blast furnace reduction, R30, R30 f in the body, R23, R23t corrosion of, 623–624, 623 f, 624 f electron configuration, 112t, 113–114 ionization energy, 156 nomenclature, 212 oxidation of, 263, 263 f, 298–299 properties, R14–R16, R15 f, R16 f, R17t isomers, 670, 671–672, 671t, 672 f isotopes, 73–76, 74 f, 74t, 75t, 78t IUPAC nomenclature, 676 J joules, 501 K Kelvin temperature scale 351–352, 501 ketones, 689t, 691, 691 f kinetic energy, 311–312, 366 kinetic-molecular theory Boyle’s law, 349, 349 f Dalton’s law, 346, 346 f of gases, 311–314, 312 f, 313 f, 314 f of liquids, 315–318, 316 f, 317 f, 318 f of solids, 319–323, 319 f, 320 f, 321 f, 322t, 323 f kinetics of reactions, 528–547 enzymes and, 720, 720 f rate-determining steps, 544–545 rate-influencing factors, 536–538, 537 f, 538 f, 539 f, 546 rate laws, 539–546, 548 reaction process, 529–535, 531 f, 532 f, 533 f specific rate constant, 541–543 Krebs cycle, 724 krypton, 109, 112t, 128 R154 Index L lactose, 708–709, R37 f lanthanides, 128, 140–141, 149t lattice energy, 182, 183t Lavoisier, Antoine, 287, 287 f law of conservation of mass, 64–65, 65 f, 287 law of definite proportions, 64–65, 65 f law of multiple proportions, 64 law of partial pressures, 345–348, 346 f lead in car batteries, 631, 631 f nomenclature, 212, 212 f poisoning, 451 properties, R28–R29, R28 f, R29t LeChâtelier, Henri Louis, 564 LeChâtelier’s principle, 564, 569–570 length, 32t, 33–34, 34 f, R58t leptons, 642 Lewis, G N., 455 Lewis acid-base reaction, 456 Lewis acids and bases, 455–456, 456t Lewis structures, 174–178, 204 light from chemical reactions, 247, 247 f diffraction and interference, 98, 99 f, 100 as particles, 93–94 photoelectric effect, 93–94, 93 f speed of, R59t as waves, 91–93, 92 f lime, 264, 482 limiting reactants, 296–300 lipids digestion of, 724 fatty acids, 710, R38–R39, R38 f hydrogenation, 693–694, 694 f phospholipids, 711, 711 f, R39, R39 f structure of, R38–R39, R38 f, R39 f liquids boiling, 326–327, 326 f, 327 f equilibrium vapor pressure, 325, 325 f freezing, 318, 324t, 327–328, 333 miscibility of, 390, 390 f properties, 8, 315–318, 316 f, 317 f, 318 f supercooled, 320 volatile, 325 liters, 35, 35 f lithium, 110, 110t, 147–148, 147t, R2–R3, R2 f, R3 f, R4t litmus paper, 488 lock and key model, 720 logarithms, 477–481, 494 London dispersion forces, 197, 197 f, 680–681 lone pairs, 175, 189–191, 190t, 283 f luster, 18 lye, 710 Lyman spectral series, 97, 97 f M macromolecules, R35 See also biochemistry magic numbers, 643 magnesium in chlorophyll, R13, R13 f dietary, R12–R13, R13t electron configuration, 111t properties, R8–R9, R8 f, R10t reactivity, 263 f, R9, R9 f magnetic quantum number, 102–103 magnetite, 298–299 main-group elements, 138–140, 139t MALDI mass spectrometry, 224 malleability, 18, 186 Malthus, Thomas, 562 manganese, 112t, 113, R16, R16 f, R23t manometers, 343, 343 f margarine, 694, 694 f Marsden, Ernest, 70, 70 f mass, atomic, 77–78, 78t, 117, 125, R60t–R61t conservation of, 64–65, 65 f, 287 conversion to moles, 292–294 critical, 658 of electrons, 69, 72t, R59t formula, 225–226, 236–237 molar, 37, 79, 79 f, 226–228, 228 f, 236–237 molecular, 225–226, 236–237 of neutrons, 72t numbers of atoms and, 78–80 percentage composition, 230–232, 238 of protons, 71, 72t, R59t relative atomic, 76–77 units of, 32–33, 32t, R58t mass defect, 641 mass number, 74, 74t mass spectrometry, 224, 224 f Material Data Safety Sheets (MSDS), xxvi–xxvii materials scientists, 137 matter, 2–20 See also states of matter building blocks of, 6–7 chemical properties and changes, 8–10, 10 f classical ideas about, 41 classification, 11–14, 11 f, 12 f, 13 f definition, kinetic-molecular theory of, 311–314, 312 f, 313 f, 314 f particle theory of, 63 physical properties and changes, 7–8, 9 f measurements, 26–55 accuracy and precision in, 42–44, 42 f direct proportions, 53–54, 53 f, 53t inverse proportions, 54, 54t, 55 f scientific method, 27–29, 28 f, 29 f scientific notation, 48–50, 56 significant figures, 21, 44–48, 45t, 46t, 477 SI units, 31–40 Meitner, Lise, 660–661, 661 f melting, 320, 324t, 328–329 melting points, 320, 322t, 688t Mendeleev, Dmitri, 108, 125–127, 126 f meniscus, 317 mercaptans, 600 mercury amalgams, R18 f poisoning, R21, R21 f properties, 10 f, 136 f, R14, R17t reversible reactions, 555–556, 555 f mercury batteries, 622, 622 f messenger RNA (mRNA), 729, 732 metabolic pathways, 722 metabolism, 722–725, 723 f, 724 f, 725t metallic bonding, 185–186, 185 f, 186t, 194t metallic crystals, 322–323, 322t metalloids, 19–20, 138–139 metals See also transition metals activity series, 271–273, 272t alkali, 134, 134 f, R2–R7, R2 f, R4t alkaline-earth, 134, 134 f, R8–R13, R8 f, R10t alloys, 380–381, 380t, 381 f, R18–R20, R19t, R20 f as catalysts, 261, 547 corrosion, 515, 623–624, 623 f, 624 f decomposition reactions, 265–266, 266 f displacement reactions, 267–268 metallic bonding, 185–186, 185 f, 186t as oxidizing and reducing agents, 606–607, 607t properties, 7, 18–19, 18 f, 185–186, 186t reaction with acids, 442 self-protecting, R26 synthesis reactions, 262–265, 263 f transition, 136–138, R14–R23 methane, 188, 188 f, 192, 192 f, 675t methyl orange, 485t, 488 metric units, R58t Miescher, Friedrich, 727 Millikan, Robert A., 69 millimeters of mercury, 344–345, 344t miscibility, 390, 390 f mixtures, 11–12, 11 f colloids, 381–383, 382 f, 382t solutions, 379–381, 379 f, 380 f, 380t, 381 f suspensions, 381 models, 29 ball-and-stick, 187–188, 187 f, 188 f, 189 f, 195 f, 671 f Bohr, 96–97, 96 f, 97 f constructing, 67 lock and key, 720 nuclear shell, 643, 647 space-filling, 671 f moderators, 658, 658 f molal boiling-point constants, 424t, 426–427 molal freezing-point constants, 424, 424t molality, 400–402, 400 f, 430 molar enthalpy of formation, 507–508 molar enthalpy of fusion, 328, 334 molar enthalpy of vaporization, 327, 327 f, 333 molarity, 396–399, 397 f, 403, 489–493, 490 f–491 f molar masses, 79, 79 f, 226–230, 228 f, 236–237, 285, 290–294, 290 f molar volumes, 360–361, R59t molecular compounds, 168 See also covalent bonding ionization of, 417, 417 f nomenclature, 215–217, 216t, 217t properties, 183, 183 f molecular formulas, 168, 233, 236–237 molecular geometry, 187–197 hybridization, 191–193, 192 f, 193t intermolecular forces, 193–197, 194t, 195 f, 196 f, 197 f VSEPR theory, 187–191, 188 f, 189 f, 190t molecular masses, 225–226, 236–237 molecules, 7, 168 mole ratios, 233–235, 284–285, 288–294, 289 f, 303 moles, 79–80, 288–294 monatomic ions, 208–209, 209t monomers, 695–697 monoprotic acids, 453 monosaccharides, 707–708, 708 f, R37, R37 f Moseley, Henry, 127 multiple bonds, 176–178, 177 f, 177t muriatic acid See hydrochloric acid N NADPH, 722 names See nomenclature nanotubes, 668 f National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 31 natural gas, 681 Nernst, Walther, 563 net ionic equations, 415–416, 569 neutralization reactions, 461–463, 462 f hydrolysis and, 576 f, 577–578, 577 f salts from, 442, 446 in titrations, 487–493, 487 f, 490 f–491 f neutrons, 68, 72t, R59t newtons, 342 nickel in the body, R23t electron configuration, 112t, 113, 136 properties, R14–R16, R16 f, R17t nitric acid, 293, 444–445, 444 f nitrogen covalent bonds in, 177, 177 f, 177t fertilizers, 562–563, R47, R47t fixation, 174, 562, R46, R46 f nomenclature, 217, 217t oxidation reactions, 223t, 511–512, 560–561, 566–567, 567 f properties, R44–R45, R45t nitrogen-containing bases, 726, 726 f, 728, 732 nitrogen family elements, R44–R47, R45t, R47t nitrogen narcosis, 348 nitrous oxide, 547 noble gases, 20, 20 f discovery of, 108–109, 109 f as ideal gases, 314 in the periodic table, 127–128, 127 f noble gas notation, 111, 111t nomenclature See also notation for acids, 218–219, 218t, 442–443, 442t, 443t for covalent-network compounds, 218 for ionic compounds, 210–211 for molecular compounds, 215–217, 216t, 217t for monatomic ions, 208–209, 209t for organic compounds, 676–680, 676t, 677t, 683, 686 oxidation numbers and, 222–223, 223t, 606t for oxyanions, 213–214, 214t, 443t for salts, 219 Stock system, 209, 212–213, 223 nonelectrolytes, 384, 384 f, 423 nonmetals, 19, 19 f, 138 nonpolar-covalent bonds, 166–167, 166 f, 167 f, 194t nonvolatile substances, 422–423, 422 f, 423 f normal boiling point, 326, 326 f, 329 f normal freezing point, 327, 329 f notation See also nomenclature for aqueous solutions, 411, 471, 558 for cycloalkanes, 676 for electrochemical cells, 619 for electron configuration, 106–107, 111, 111t electron-dot, 174–176, 174 f, 180–181 for isotopes, 75, 75t for nuclides, 651 for proportionality, 540 for reversible reactions, 556 nuclear binding energy, 641–642, 642 f nuclear chemistry, 640–661 applications, 655 artificial transmutations, 651–652, 651 f, 652 f, 652t band of stability, 642–643, 643 f chain reactions, 657–658, 657 f decay series, 650–651, 650 f fission, 655–658, 657 f, 658 f, 660–661 fusion, 655–656, 659, 659 f half-life, 648–649, 648 f, 648t, 662 mass defect, 641 nuclear binding energy, 641–642, 642 f nuclear radiation, 645, 653–656, 653 f, 654 f, 655 f nuclear waste, 655–656 radiation detection, 654, 654 f types of decay, 645–647, 645t, 646 f, 647 f nuclear forces, 72, 642–644, 643 f, 644 f nuclear power plants, 658, 658 f nuclear reactions, 644, 657–658, 657 f nuclear reactors, 658 nuclear shell model, 643, 647 nuclear symbol, 75 nucleic acids, 726–731 DNA, 727–728, 727 f, 728 f genetic engineering, 730–731, 730 f RNA, 729–730, 729 f structure of, 726, 726 f, R40, R40 f nucleons, 641–642, 642 f nucleus, atomic, 68–72, 71 f, 72t, 642–644, 643 f, 644 f nuclides, 75, 641, 645, 651–652, 652t nylon, 697 O Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), xxvi–xxvii octet rule, 172–173, 173 f oleic acid, 710, R38 f orbitals, 101–104 See also electron configurations in covalent bonding, 171–172, 171 f hybridization, 191–193, 192 f, 193t Index R155 orbitals (continued) models, 100, 101 f notation, 106–107 order of filling, 110 f quantum numbers and, 101–104, 102 f, 102t, 103 f, 104t order of reaction, 540–541 organic acids, 448–449, 692, 692 f organic chemistry, 668–697 alcohols, 689, 689 f, 689t aldehydes, 689t, 691, 691 f alkanes, 674–681, 675t, 676t, 677t, 680t, 681t alkenes, 682–685, 682t, 685 f alkyl halides, 689t, 690, 690 f, 693 alkynes, 685–686, 686 f amines, 689t, 691 carbon bonding, 669–670, 669 f, 670 f carboxylic acids, 689t, 692, 692 f esters, 689t, 692 ethers, 689t, 690 functional groups, 688–692, 688t, 689t history of, 673, 673 f hydrocarbons, 670, 670 f, 674–687 isomers, 670–672, 671t, 672 f ketones, 689t, 691, 691 f organic reactions, 693–697, 694 f, 695 f, 696 f polymers, 695–697, 696 f structural formulas, 670–671, 671 f unsaturated hydrocarbons, 682–687, 682t organic reactions, 693–697, 694 f, 695 f, 696 f osmotic pressure, 428–429, 428 f oxidation, 596 oxidation numbers, 220–223, 223t, 595–596, 595t, 598–599 oxidation-reduction reactions, 594–609 balancing equations for, 601–605, 608, 610 in blast furnaces, R30, R30 f covalent bonds and, 598–599 disproportionation, 608–609, 609 f in electrochemical cells, 617–619 half-reactions, 597–598 nomenclature, 606t oxidation number rules, 595t oxidation states, 220–223, 223t, 595–596, 595t oxidizing and reducing agents, 606–609, 606t, 607t R156 Index in photochromic lenses, 598 oxidation states, 220–223, 223t, 595–596, 595t oxides, 264–265, R50–R51, R51t oxidizing agents, 606–609, 606t, 607t oxyacetylene torches, 686, 686 f oxyacids, 218–219, 218t, 443, 443t, 460 f, 461 oxyanions, 213–215, 214t, 218, 443t oxygen discovery of, 287 electron configuration, 110t, 111 isotopes, 78t molar mass, 228–229 ozone, 179, 547, 690, R52 properties, 10 f, R48–R49, R50t reactions with, 262–263, 263 f, 269, 269 f, 286–287 resonance structures in, 179 ozone, 179, 547, 690, R52 P paper chromatography capillary action in, 317, 317 f in mixture separation, 12, 12 f parent nuclides, 650 partial pressures, 345–348, 346 f, 565 particle accelerators, 651, 651 f particles alpha, 70, 71 f, 645t, 646, 653, 653 f beta, 645t, 646, 646 f colloids, 381–383, 382 f, 382t positrons, 645t, 646–647 solvated, 393, 393 f subatomic, 68, 642 pascals, 344–345, 344t Paschen spectral series, 97, 97 f Pauli exclusion principle, 106, 106 f Pauling, Linus, 153, 153t p-block elements, 138–140, 139t pepsin, 721 peptide bonds, 712 percentage composition, 230–232, 238 percentage error, 43 percentage yield, 301–302 perchloric acid, 458 perfluorocarbons, 395, 395 f, 718 periodic law, 124–127, 126 f See also periodic table of the elements periodic table of atomic radii, 143 f periodic table of electron affinities, 149 f periodic table of electronegativities, 153 f periodic table of ionization energies, 145 f periodic table of the elements, 132 f–133 f artificial nuclides in, 652, 652 f, 652t designing, 129 electron configuration and, 110–116, 110t, 111t, 112t, 114t groups in, 127–128, 127 f, 128 f, 135 (see also families) history of, 125–127, 126 f new elements in, 108–109 organization of, 16–17, 17 f periodicity in, 128, 128 f periods and blocks of, 130–131, 131 f, 134–141, 136 f, 155–156 periodic trends acidic and basic oxides, R51, R51t atomic radii, 142–144, 142 f, 143 f, 144 f, 155 of d- and f-block elements, 155–156 electron affinity, 149–151, 149t, 150 f electronegativity, 153–156, 153t, 154 f ionic radii, 151–152, 151t, 156 ionization energy, 145–148, 145t, 146 f, 147t, 156 valence electrons, 152, 152t periods, of elements, 17, 130–131, 130t peroxide ions, 608–609 petroleum, 681, 681t petroleum engineers, 678 pH, 470–493 acid and base strength and, 481, 481t buffered solutions, 572–573, 572 f calculations involving, 477–481, 481t, 494 of common materials, 476t definition, 475 enzyme activity and, 721 hydrolysis of salts and, 574–578, 574 f, 576 f, 577 f indicators, 483–484 (see also acid-base indicators) liming of streams, 482, 482 f of neutral, acidic, and basic solutions, 472, 476t pH scale, 475–476, 475 f, 476t proteins and, 721 of rain water, 486 self-ionization of water and, 471–472, 471 f, 472t, 565–566 of tap water, 451 titration, 487–493, 488 f, 489 f, 490 f–491 f phase diagrams, 329–330, 329 f, 330 f phases, 324, 324t phenolphthalein, 485t, 488, 488 f pH indicators See acid-base indicators pH meters, 484, 484 f phospholipids, 711, 711 f, R39, R39 f phosphoric acid, 443 f, 443t, 445, 454–455 phosphorus electron configuration, 111t fertilizers, R47, R47t oxidation numbers, 223t properties, 19, R44–R45, R44 f, R45t radioactive decay, 649 photochemical processes, R52 photochemical smog, R52 photochromic lenses, 598 photoelectric effect, 93–94, 93 f photons, 94–95 photosynthesis, 290–291, 707, 722, 722 f pH paper, 8 f, 442, 442 f, 445, 484, 487 f physical changes, 7–8, 9 f physical chemistry, 4, 66, 421 physical chemists, 66 physical constants, R59t physical properties, 7–8, 9 f pickling, 445 picometers (pm), 72 Planck, Max, 93 Planck’s constant, 93, R59t plasma (blood), 718 plasma (state of matter), 8, 640 f platinum, 136 Plunkett, Roy, pOH, 475 polar bonds, 166–167, 166 f, 167 f, 194t polar-covalent bonds, 166–167, 166 f, 167 f, 194t polarity acid strength and, 448 in crystals, 322–323, 322t dipole-dipole forces, 194–196, 195 f, 196 f dissolution and, 389–390, 390 f of hydroxyl groups, 461 ideal gas behavior and, 314 London dispersion forces and, 197, 197 f in phospholipids, 711, 711 f, R39, R39 f polar bonds, 166–167, 166 f, 167 f, 194t polonium, 645, 662, R48, R50t polyamides, 697 polyatomic ions, 184, 189–190, 218, 218 f, 275 polyesters, 697 polyethylene, 696, 696 f polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 730 polymer products, 137 polymers, 695–697, 696 f polypeptides, 712 polyprotic acids, 453–455, 454 f polysaccharides, 709, 709 f porous barriers, 618–619, 618 f positrons, 645t, 646–647 potassium in electrolyte balance, R5–R6, R5t, R6 f electron configuration, 112, 112t fertilizers, R47, R47t properties, R2–R3, R2 f, R3 f, R4t reactivity of, 134 f potential difference, 624–626, 634 potential energy, 169, 169 f pounds per square inch (psi), 344t precipitates from chemical reactions, 248, 248 f, 568, 568 f from double-displacement reactions, 268, 268 f, 414–416, 414 f precipitation calculations, 584–586 precipitation reactions, 413–415, 413t, 414 f precision, 42–44, 42 f preenzymes, 721 prefixes acids, 219 carbon-atom chain, 676t molecular compounds, 215–217, 216t, 217t oxyanions, 214 Stock system and, 223 units, 32, 33t, R58t pressure, 341, 341 f atmospheric, 342–343, 342 f, 343 f, 345 Boyle’s law, 349–350, 349 f, 350 f combined gas law, 354–355 critical, 329 f, 330 effect on chemical equilibrium, 564–565 force and, 341–342, 341 f, 342 f Gay-Lussac’s law, 353–354, 353 f measuring, 343, 343 f osmotic, 428–429, 428 f partial, 345–348, 346 f, 565 solubility and, 391 units of, 35, 344–345, 344t vapor, 325–326, 325 f, 326 f, 346, 422–423 water-vapor, R63 f Priestley, Joseph, 265, 286 primary standards, 489 primary structure, 715 principal quantum number, 101, 101 f products, 9, 247 propane, 362, 674, 675t properties, chemical and physical, 7–10, 9 f proportionality, 53–55, 53 f, 53t, 54t, 55 f, 540 proteins, 713–721 amino acids in, 713, 717, 717 f biological functions, 716, 716t denaturation, 720, 720 f digestion of, 721, 724 as enzymes, 520, 716t, 719–721, 719 f, 720 f pH and, 721, R37 as polypeptides, 712 shape and structure, 715, 715 f side-chain reactions, 714, 714 f synthesis, 694, 729–730, 732 protium, 74, 74 f, 75t proton-exchange membrane (PEM fuel cells), 628 protons, 68 atomic number and, 73 nuclear binding energy and, 642–643, 643 f properties, 71, 72t, R59t p-type semiconductors, R43, R43 f pure substances, 11 f, 13–14, 13 f, 14 f, 14t purine bases, 726 purity of reagents, 14, 14 f, 14t pyrimidine bases, 726 Q qualitative analysis, R16, R16 f qualitative information, 27 quantitative information, 27 quantity, 31 quantum, 93 quantum numbers, 101–104, 101 f, 102 f, 102t, 103 f, 104t See also electron configurations quantum theory, 94–95, 99 quarks, 642 quaternary structure, 715 R radiation, 645, 653–656, 653 f, 654 f, 655 f radiation exposure, 653–654, 654 f radioactive dating, 655 radioactive decay, 645–652 decay series, 650–651, 650 f half-life, 648–649, 648 f, 648t, 662 types of, 645–647, 645t, 646 f, 647 f radioactive tracers, 655, 655 f radioactive wastes, 655–656 radium, 645, 648, 648 f, R8–R9, R8 f, R10t radon, 109, 128, 654 Ramsay, William, 108–109, 109 f, 127–128 rate-determining steps, 544–545 rate laws for reactions, 539–546, 548 Rayleigh, Lord (John William Strutt), 108, 108 f, 127 reactants, 9, 247, 296–300, 296 f reaction mechanisms, 529–530, 529 f reaction rates, 536, 557, 557 f See also kinetics of reactions reaction stoichiometry, 283–285 See also stoichiometry reaction waves, 274, 274 f real gases, 314, 314 f rechargeable cells, 631, 631 f recombinant DNA technology, 731 redox reactions, 597–599, 608 See also oxidationreduction reactions reducing agents, 606–609, 606t, 607t reduction, 597 See also oxidation-reduction reactions reduction potential, 624 relative atomic masses, 76–77 rems, 653 resonance structures, 179, 687, 687 f respiration, R32–R33, R32 f, R33 f reverse osmosis, 429 reversible reactions, 252–253, 256, 555–556 ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 729 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 729–730, 729 f roentgens, 653 rounding numbers, 46, 46t rubidium, 114t, 116, R2–R3, R2 f, R3 f, R4t Rutherford, Ernest, 70, 71 f S sacrificial anodes, 624 salt bridges, 618–619, 618 f salts, 463 as electrolytes, 383–384, 384 f on freezing roads, 432 f hydrates, 231–232, 389, 389 f hydrolysis of, 574–578, 574 f, 576 f, 577 f from neutralization reactions, 442, 446, 462–463, 462 f nomenclature, 219 solubility product constants, 579–586, 581t, 586 sample problems approach, 50–52 saponification, 710 saturated hydrocarbons, 674 See also alkanes saturated solutions, 387, 387 f scanning electron microscope (SEM), 3–4, 3 f scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 3 f, 66, 728 f, 729 f Schrödinger wave equation, 99–100, 101 f scientific method, 27–29, 29 f scientific notation, 48–50, 56 scintillation counters, 654 scuba diving, 348 secondary structure, 715 second ionization energy, 147–148, 147t second-period elements, 110–111, 110t self-ionization of water, 471–472, 471 f, 472t, 565 self-oxidation, 609 self-reduction, 609 Index R157 semiconductors, 322–323, R42–R43, R42 f, R43 f semipermeable membranes, 428–429, 428 f shielding, 658 significant figures, 21, 44–48, 45t, 46t, 477 silicon, 111t, 218, R28–R29, R28 f, R29t silver alloys, R19t, R20 f electron configuration, 114t in photochromic lenses, 598 properties, R14, R15 f, R17t solubility, 579–580 single-displacement reactions, 267–268, 267 f, 271 SI units, 31–40, R58t base units, 32–34, 32t conversion factors, 38–40, 48, 84 derived units, 34–37, 34t, 36t prefixes in, 32, 33t sodium in electrolyte balance, R5, R5t electron configuration, 111, 111t industrial production of, 633 oxidation state, 596, 596 f properties, R2–R3, R2 f, R3 f, R4t sodium chloride crystal structure, 181–182, 181 f, 182 f, 320 f dissociation of, 411–412, 411 f, 574 f as electrolyte, 383–384, 384 f ionic bonding in, 180–181, 180 f, 181 f lattice energy, 182, 183t sodium hydroxide, 462–463, 462 f, 710 sodium-potassium pump, R6, R6 f solids, 8, 319–323, 320 f, 321 f, 322t, 323 f sols, 382t See also colloids solubility, 386–388 calculating, 583–586 definition, 582 dissociation, 411–415, 411 f, 413 f, 413t, 414 f of gases in water, R64t precipitation calculations, 584–586 precipitation reactions, 413–415, 413t, 414 f pressure and, 391 saturation, 387, 387 f solubility charts, R64t, R65t solubility products, 579–582, 581t R158 Index temperature and, 388t, 392–393, 392 f solubility product constants, 580–586, 581t soluble substances, 379 solutes dissolution rate, 385–386, 385 f electrolytes, 383–384, 384 f, 418–419 solubility, 386–388, 386 f, 387 f, 388t solute-solvent interactions, 388–393, 389 f, 390 f, 391 f, 392 f types of, 380, 380t solution equilibrium, 386–387, 386 f solutions, 378–402 See also aqueous solutions buffered, 572–573, 572 f components of, 380, 380 f dissolution rate, 385–386, 385 f enthalpies of, 393–394, 393 f, 394t entropy in, 517–518, 518 f in Henry’s law, 348, 391–393, 391 f, 392 f liquid-liquid miscibility, 390, 390 f molality, 400–402, 400 f molarity, 396–399, 397 f, 403 nonelectrolytes in, 383–384, 384 f observing, 383 pressure and, 391 properties, 379 f, 382t saturated vs unsaturated, 387, 387 f solubility, 386–388, 386 f, 387 f, 388t solute-solvent interactions, 388–393, 389 f, 390 f, 391 f, 392 f standard, 489 supersaturated, 387 types of, 380–381, 380t solvated particles, 393, 393 f solvents, 380, 380 f, 389 specific heat, 502–504, 503t specific rate constant, 541–543 spectator ions, 415, 463, 464 speed, 35 f speed of light, R59t spin quantum number, 104, 106 stainless steel, R19, R19 f standard electrode potential, 625–626, 625 f, 626t standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), 625, 625 f standard molar volume of a gas, 360–361 standard solutions, 489 standard temperature and pressure (STP), 344 starch, 709, 709 f, R38, R38 f states of matter, 310–335 changes of state, 324–330, 324t, 326 f, 327 f, 329 f, 330 f gas properties, 311–314, 312 f, 313 f, 314 f liquid properties, 315–318, 316 f, 317 f, 318 f solid properties, 319–323, 319 f, 320 f, 321 f, 322t, 323 f steel, R19, R19 f, R30 steroids, 711 Stock system, 209, 212–213, 223, 223t stoichiometry, 282–302 composition vs reaction, 283 gas, 361–362 limiting reactants, 296–300 mass-mass calculations, 294–295 mass-mole conversions, 290–294 molar mass and, 285 mole conversions, 288–290 mole ratios and, 284–285, 303 percentage yield, 301–302 Strassman, Fritz, 660–661 strong acids, 448–449, 448t, 458–459, 459t, 473t, 481 strong bases, 449–450, 449t, 450 f, 458–459, 459t strong electrolytes, 418, 418 f strontium, 114t, R8–R9, R8 f, R10t, R11, R11 f structural formulas, 175 structural isomers, 671, 671 f subatomic particles, 68, 642 sublimation, 324t, 328–329 substitution reactions, 693 substrate molecules, 719–720, 719 f sucrose, 708–709 chemical reactions, 695, 695 f, 708–709, 708 f, 709 f chemical structure, 168 f, 708 f, R37 f vapor pressure and, 423, 423 f suffixes hydrocarbons, 678, 683, 686 molecular compounds, 216 oxyanions, 214–215 sugars, 384, 384 f, 707–709, 708 f sulfur chemical bonding, 167 crystalline forms, R48 f electron configuration, 111t oxidation numbers, 223, 223t properties, R48–R49, R48 f, R49 f, R50t sulfuric acid, 444 in acid rain, 463, 463 f in car batteries, 631, 631 f as diprotic acid, 454, 454 f nomenclature, 443t production and uses of, 444, R53, R53 f, R53t structure of, 443 f superconductors, 18 supercooled liquids, 320 supersaturated solutions, 387 surface area, 385, 385 f, 536–537 surface melting, 328 surface tension, 317, 317 f surfactants, 395 suspensions, 381, 382t, 383 symbols, unit R58t symbols used in equations, 251–253, 252t, R59t synthesis reactions, 262–265, 263 f, 274 T temperature absolute zero, 351 Charles’s law, 351–352, 351 f, 352 f combined gas law, 354–355 critical, 329, 329 f dissolution rate and, 386 effect on chemical equilibrium, 566–567, 567 f enzyme activity and, 720, 720 f of gases, 312 Gay-Lussac’s law, 353–354, 353 f heat and, 501–502, 502 f reaction rate and, 537 scales, 351–352, 501 SI units of, 32t solubility and, 388t, 392–393, 392 f tensile strength, 18 tertiary structure, 715 Thales of Miletus, 41 theoretical yield, 301 theories, 29, 29 f thermite reaction, 528 f, R25 f thermochemical equations, 505 thermochemistry, 501–520 calorimeters, 501, 509, 509 f definition, 501 enthalpy of combustion, 508–509, 509 f, R60t enthalpy of formation, 507–508, 512–514, 513 f enthalpy of reaction, 504–507, 506 f, 507 f entropy, 516–518, 517 f, 518 f free energy, 518–520, 519t heat and temperature, 501–502, 502 f Hess’s law, 509–512, 521 specific heat, 502–504, 503t stability and, 508 third ionization energy, 147, 147t third-period elements, 111–112, 111t Thomson, Joseph John, 69 thymine, 726, 726 f, R40 f time, units of, 32t titanium, 112t, 113 titration, 487–493 acid-base, 487–489, 488 f, 489 f balancing equations for, 603–605 end point, 488 equivalence point, 488 procedures, 489–493, 490 f–491 f redox, 603–605 Torricelli, Evangelista, 343, 343 f, 356, 356 f torr, 344, 344t trace elements, R22–R23, R22 f, R23t See also transition metals transfer RNA (tRNA), 729 trans isomers, 672, 682 f, 682t transition intervals, 484, 485t transition metals, 136–138, R14–R23 alloys, R18–R20, R19t, R20 f in the body, R22–R23, R22 f, R23t gemstones, R17–R18, R17 f, R18t mercury poisoning, R21, R21 f properties, 136–138, 136 f, R14–R16, R15 f, R16 f, R17t transmutation, 644, 651–652, 651 f, 652 f, 652t transuranic elements, 652, 652 f, 652t, 660–661 triglycerides, 710, R39, R39 f triple bonds, 177, 177 f, 177t, 685–686 triple point, 329, 329 f, R59t triprotic acids, 454 tritium, 74–75, 74 f, 75t trypsin, 721 tungsten, 113, 136 f Tyndall effect, 382, 382 f U W uncertainty principle, 99 unified atomic mass unit (u), 72t, 76, R59t unit cells, 321 units See SI units unsaturated hydrocarbons, 682–687, 682t unsaturated solutions, 387, 387 f uracil, 726, 726 f, 729, R40 f uranium chain reaction, 657–658, 657 f decay series, 650–651, 650 f discovery of, 660 isotopes, 75, 78t oxidation numbers, 221–222 water, 331–333 as amphoteric substance, 459–460 boiling point, 326, 326 f, 333, R59t as Brønsted-Lowry acid, 452 changes of state in, 8, 9 f density, 333, R63t dipole interactions, 195–196, 196 f from double-displacement reactions, 269 electrolysis of, 632, 632 f freezing point, R59t hydrogen bonding in, 196, 196 f ice, 324t, 328–329, 331–332, 332 f ionization constant, 472–473, 472t, 566, 573 molecular geometry, 189, 189 f, 192, 192 f phase diagram, 329–330, 329 f, 333 as pure substance, 13, 13 f self-ionization, 471–472, 471 f, 472t, 565–566 structure of, 331–332, 331 f tap, 451 triple point, 329, 329t, R59t water-vapor pressure, R63t water purification, 259–260, 429 water treatment, R56–R57, R56 f Watson, James, 727 wavelength, 91–93, 92 f waves diffraction and interference, 98, 99 f, 100 electrons as, 98, 99 f light as, 91–93, 92 f Schrödinger wave equation, 99–100, 101 f weak acids, 448–449, 448t, 571–572, 572t weak bases, 449–450, 449t, 450 f weak electrolytes, 418 f, 419 weight, 33 weighted averages, 77–78, 117 Wilkins, Maurice, 727 Wöhler, Friedrich, 673, 673 f word equations, 249–250, 254 V vacuums, 356–357 valence electrons, 152, 152t vaporization, 186, 317–318, 318 f, 324t, 327, 327 f vapor pressure, 325–326, 325 f, 326 f, 346 vapor-pressure lowering, 422–423, 422 f, 423 f variables, 28 Verneuil, Auguste, R17–R18 visible spectrum, 92 f vitamins, 711, R36, R36 f volatile liquids, 325 Volta, Alessandro, 420 voltage (potential difference), 624–626, 634 voltaic cells, 620–628 corrosion in, 623–624, 623 f, 624 f electrode potentials, 624–627, 625 f, 626t, 634 electrolytic cells compared with, 629–630, 629 f examples of, 621–622, 621 f, 622 f operation of, 620, 620 f volume Boyle’s law, 349–350, 349 f, 350 f Charles’s law, 351–352, 351 f, 352 f combined gas law, 354–355 molar, 360–361 units of, 34t, 35, 35 f, R58t VSEPR theory, 187–191, 188 f, 189 f, 190t X X-ray diffraction patterns, Y Yucca Mountain nuclear waste site, 656 Z zinc in the body, R23t in cathodic protection, 624, 624 f in dry cells, 621, 621 f in electrochemical cells, 617–622, 617 f, 618 f, 619 f, 620 f electron configuration, 112t, 113 properties, R14–R16, R15 f, R16 f, R17t as reducing agent, 607, 607 f, 607t zinc-carbon dry cells, 621, 621 f Index R159 Hydrogen Semiconductors H 1s Group Group Li Be Lithium 6.94 Beryllium 9.012 182 [He]2s 11 Period Sodium 22.989 769 28 Magnesium 24.3050 Group 17 1s 10 B [He]2s 22p 13 C Carbon 12.01 [He]2s 22p 14 Silicon 28.085 Phosphorus 30.973 762 [Ne]3s 23p Sulfur 32.06 [Ne]3s 23p Chlorine 35.45 [Ne]3s 23p Argon 39.948 [Ne]3s 23p 33 34 35 36 Group Group Group 10 Group 11 Group 12 [Ne]3s 23p [Ne]3s 23p 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Se Br Kr Selenium 78.96 Bromine 79.904 Krypton 83.798 [Ar]3d 104s 24p Arsenic 74.921 60 [Ar]3d 104s 24p [Ar]3d 104s 24p [Ar]3d 104s 24p [Ar]3d 104s 24p 50 51 52 53 54 Tellurium 127.60 Iodine 126.904 47 Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge Scandium 44.955 912 [Ar]3d 14s Titanium 47.867 Vanadium 50.9415 Chromium 51.9961 Manganese 54.938 045 Iron 55.845 Cobalt 58.933 195 [Ar]3d 24s [Ar]3d 34s [Ar]3d 54s [Ar]3d 54s [Ar]3d 64s [Ar]3d 74s Nickel 58.6934 Copper 63.546 Zinc 65.409 Gallium 69.723 Germanium 72.63 [Ar]3d 84s [Ar]3d 104s [Ar]3d 104s [Ar]3d 104s 24p 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 [Kr]5s1 55 Zr Zirconium 91.224 Nb Niobium 92.906 38 [Kr]5s [Kr]4d 15s [Kr]4d 25s [Kr]4d 45s1 56 57 72 73 Mo Molybdenum 95.94 [Kr]4d 55s 74 Tc Technetium (98) Ru Ruthenium 101.07 [Kr]4d 65s1 [Kr]4d 75s 75 76 Rh Rhodium 102.905 50 [Kr]4d 85s 77 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Cesium 132.905 4519 Barium 137.327 Lanthanum 138.905 47 Hafnium 178.49 Tantalum 180.947 88 Tungsten 183.84 Rhenium 186.207 Osmium 190.23 Iridium 192.217 [Xe]6s1 87 [Xe]6s 88 [Xe]5d 16s 89 [Xe]4 f 14 5d 26s 104 [Xe]4f 145d 36s 105 [Xe]4f 145d 46s 106 [Xe]4f 145d 56s [Xe]4f 145d 66s 107 108 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Francium (223) Radium (226) Actinium (227) Rutherfordium (261) Dubnium (262) Seaborgium (266) Bohrium (264) [Rn]7s [Rn]7s [Rn]6d 17s The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 112 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC Elements whose average atomic masses appear bolded and italicized are recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to have several stable isotopes Thus, the average atomic mass for each of these elements is officially expressed as a range of values A range of values expresses that the average atomic mass of a sample of one of these elements is not a constant in nature but varies depending on the physical, chemical, and nuclear history of the material in which the sample is found However, the values in this table are appropriate for everyday calculations A value given in parentheses is not an average atomic mass but is the mass number of that element's most stable or most common isotope [Rn]5 f 146d 27s [Rn]5 f 146d 37s [Rn]5f 146d 47s [Rn]5 f 146d 57s Hs Hassium (277) [Rn]5f 146d 67s Pd Palladium 106.42 [Kr]4d 10 78 Pt Ag Silver 107.8682 [Kr]4d 105s 79 Au [Xe]4f 145d 76s Platinum 195.084 [Xe]4f 145d 96s Gold 196.966 569 109 110 111 Mt Meitnerium (268) [Rn]5 f 146d 77s Ds Darmstadtium (271) [Rn]5f 146d 97s [Xe]4f 145d 106s Rg Roentgenium (272) [Rn]5f 146d 107s Cd Cadmium 112.411 [Kr]4d 105s 80 Hg Mercury 200.59 In Indium 114.818 [Kr]4d 105s 25p 81 Tl Thallium 204.38 Sn Tin 118.710 [Kr]4d 105s 25p 82 Pb Lead 207.2 As Sb Antimony 121.760 [Kr]4d 105s 25p 83 Bi Bismuth 208.980 40 [Xe]4f 145d 106s [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p 112 113 114 115 Cn Copernicium (285) [Rn]5f 146d 107s 18 Aluminum 26.981 5386 Group Y [He]2s 22p Ar Group Yttrium 88.905 85 17 Neon 20.1797 Cl Group Sr 16 [He]2s 22p Ne S Group Strontium 87.62 15 [He]2s 22p F Fluorine 18.998 4032 P Group 38 [He]2s 22p O Oxygen 15.999 Si [Ne]3s [Ar]4s N Nitrogen 14.007 Al Ca Rb * Group 16 Calcium 40.078 Rubidium 85.4678 Group 15 K 37 Group 14 Boron 10.81 Nonmetals Halogens Noble gases Other nonmetals [Ne]3s 23p Electron configuration Group 13 Potassium 39.0983 [Ar]4s Average atomic mass 12 Mg 19 Aluminum 26.981 5386 Name [He]2s Na [Ne]3s1 Al Symbol He Helium 4.002 602 Metals Alkali metals Alkaline-earth metals Transition metals Other metals 13 Atomic number (also known as metalloids) Key: Hydrogen 1.008 Group 18 Te [Kr]4d 105s 25p 84 Po Polonium (209) [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p 116 Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh* [Rn]5f 146d 107s 27p [Rn]5f 146d 107s 27p [Rn]5f 146d 107s 27p [Rn]5f 146d 107s 27p Ununtrium (284) Ununquadium (289) Ununpentium (288) Ununhexium (292) I [Kr]4d 105s 25p 85 At Astatine (210) [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p 117 Xe Xenon 131.293 [Kr]4d 105s 25p 86 Rn Radon (222) [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p 118 Uus* Uuo* [Rn]5f 146d 107s 27p [Rn]5f 146d 107s 27p Ununseptium (294) Ununoctium (294) The discoveries of elements with atomic numbers 113–118 have been reported but not fully confirmed 58 Ce 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu Cerium 140.116 Praseodymium 140.907 65 Neodymium 144.242 Promethium (145) Samarium 150.36 Europium 151.964 Gadolinium 157.25 Terbium 158.925 35 Dysprosium 162.500 Holmium 164.930 32 Erbium 167.259 Thulium 168.934 21 Ytterbium 173.04 Lutetium 174.967 [Xe]4f 76s [Xe]4f 75d 16s [Xe]4f 96s [Xe]4f 106s [Xe]4f 116s [Xe]4f 126s [Xe]4f 136s [Xe]4f 146s [Xe]4f 145d 16s 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 [Xe]4 f 15d 16s [Xe]4 f 36s [Xe]4 f 46s [Xe]4f 56s [Xe]4 f 66s Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Thorium 232.038 06 Protactinium 231.035 88 Uranium 238.028 91 Neptunium (237) Plutonium (244) Americium (243) Curium (247) Berkelium (247) Californium (251) Einsteinium (252) Fermium (257) Mendelevium (258) Nobelium (259) Lawrencium (262) [Rn]6d 27s [Rn]5f 26d 17s [Rn]5 f 36d 17s [Rn]5 f 46d 17s [Rn]5f 67s [Rn]5f 77s [Rn]5f 76d 17s [Rn]5f 97s [Rn]5f 107s [Rn]5f 117s [Rn]5f 127s [Rn]5f 137s [Rn]5f 147s [Rn]5f 146d 17s ... of C12H22O11 C12H22O11 = 3 42. 34 g/mol mol C12H22O11 17.1 g C12H22O11 × ​        ​= 0.0500 mol C12H22O11 3 42. 34 g C12H22O11 125 g H2O  ​  = 0. 125 kg H2O ​ _   1000 g/kg 0.0500 mol C12H22O11... converted to k­ ilograms g C12H22O11 ​        ​ mol C12H22O11 = _ molar mass C12H22O11 kg kg H2O = g H2O ­× _ ​    ​  1000 g mol C12H22O11  ​  molality C12H22O11 = ​     kg H2O Solve Use the periodic... 2CrO4 Solve mol K2CrO4 = 194 .2 g ­K2CrO4 mol K2CrO4 23 .4 g K2CrO4 × ​        ​ = 0. 120 mol K2CrO4 194 .2 g K2CrO4 0. 120 mol K2CrO4 6.0 M K2CrO4 = ​        ​ x L K2CrO4 soln x = 0. 020 L K2CrO4