CHEMISTRY A must-have book for anyone who wants to know everything about the science of chemistry Learn that energy can never be created nor destroyed Learn how chemistry affects your everyday life A knowledge of chemistry will enhance your life Brian Nordstrom TH E S MART G U I D E TO Chemistry BY B R IAN NOR DSTROM The Smart Guide To Chemistry Published by Smart Guide Publications, Inc 2517 Deer Chase Drive Norman, OK 73071 www.smartguidepublications.com Copyright © 2012 by Brian Nordstrom All rights reserved No part of this book, including interior design, cover design, illustrations and icons may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions The author and publisher specifically disclaim any responsibility for any liability, loss, or risk, personal or otherwise, which is incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents of this book For information, address: Smart Guide Publications, Inc 2517 Deer Creek Drive, Norman, OK 73071 SMART GUIDE and Design are registered trademarks licensed to Smart Guide Publications, Inc International Standard Book Number: 978-1-937636-03-6 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 11 12 13 14 15 10 Printed in the United States of America Cover design: Lorna Llewellyn Copy Editor: Ruth Strother Back cover design: Joel Friedlander, Eric Gelb, Deon Seifert Back cover copy: Eric Gelb, Deon Seifert Illustrations: James Balkovek Production: Zoë Lonergan Indexer: Cory Emberson V.P./Business Manager: Cathy Barker AC KNOWLEDG M ENTS I would like to thank the outstanding teachers who have so greatly enriched my life over the years Special gratitude goes to the following people: My high school physics teacher, Sidney Quigley, Berkeley chemistry professors Samuel Markowitz, Kenneth Street, Neil Bartlett, Harold S Johnston, and Nobel laureate Glenn T Seaborg, Berkeley physics professors George Trilling, Robert Brown, William Chinowsky, and Nobel laureate Emilio Segrè, Berkeley history professor Rafael Sealey and Berkeley wildlife biologist A Starker Leopold I would also like to thank my many professional colleagues and mentors over the years, with special thanks to chemist Charles Koelsche, who always believed in me Lastly, but not least, I would like to thank the Smart Guide series publisher, without whose long hours of work this book would not have happened TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S PART ONE: The Nature of Matter 1 The Wonderful World of Atoms and Molecules What Chemistry Is Chemistry: The Central Science Chemistry: The Basis of a Global Industry What Chemists Do Analytical Chemists Organic Chemists Biochemists Inorganic Chemists Physical Chemists 10 Nuclear Chemists 11 Chemical Engineers 11 Educational Requirements to be a Chemist 11 Conclusion: Chemistry as a Human Enterprise 13 A Brief History of Chemistry 15 Early Chemistry in Ancient Civilizations 15 Alchemy during the Middle Ages 16 The Chemical Revolution of the Eighteenth Century 17 Phlogiston 17 The Development of Modern Chemistry during the Nineteenth Century 19 Modern Atomic Theory 20 The Periodic Table 20 Organic Compounds 22 Thermochemistry and Chemical Kinetics 23 The Discovery of Radioactivity 24 Chemistry in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries 24 Quantum Theory 25 Chemical Bonds 26 The Discovery of Fission and Fusion 26 Elements beyond Uranium 27 Chemistry and Biology 27 Conclusion: Chemistry Beyond Earth 27 The Language of Science 29 Scientific Notation 29 Units and Their Abbreviations 31 vi The Smart Guide to Chemistry The International System (SI) of Units 31 Metric Prefixes 32 Derived Units 33 Nonmetric Units 33 Temperature Scales 33 Absolute Temperature Scales 34 Absolute Zero 35 Conclusion 35 Elements and Compounds 37 The Composition of Atoms 37 Chemical Elements 39 Allotropes 41 Isotopes 41 Chemical Compounds 44 Isomers 46 Conclusion 48 Mixtures of Substances 49 Mixtures and Their Properties 49 Ways to Separate the Components of Mixtures 50 The Variety of Solutions 51 Units of Concentration for Solutions 52 Percent by Weight 52 Percent by Volume 53 Molarity 53 Mole Fraction 54 Molality 54 Conclusion 55 Names and Formulas of Chemical Compounds 57 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 57 Positive Ions 58 The Stock System 60 Positive Ions that Do Not Contain a Metal 61 Negative Ions 62 Simple Negative Ions 62 Complex Negative Ions 63 Phosphate Ions 64 Halogen Ions 64 Formulas of Ionic Compounds 64 The Smart Guide to Chemistry vii Naming Molecular Compounds 66 A Question About +4 Ions 68 Trisodium Phosphate 69 Conclusion 69 PART TWO: The Transformations of Matter 71 Chemical Reactions 73 The Law of Conservation of Mass 74 Writing Equations for Chemical Reactions 75 Examples of Chemical Reactions 76 Reactions in the Gas Phase 76 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 77 Precipitation Reactions 77 Conservation of Charge 77 Acid-base Reactions 78 Other Chemical Reactions 78 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions 78 Molecular Weight 79 Calculating the Mass of a Product in a Chemical Reaction 80 Conclusion 80 Precipitation Reactions 81 Solubility Rules 81 Precipitation Reactions 86 Total Molecular Equations 86 Total Ionic Equations 87 Net Ionic Equations 87 Spectator Ions 88 More Examples of Net Ionic Equations 89 Conclusion 89 Acids and Bases 91 Definitions of Acid and Bases 91 The Arrhenius Definition 92 The Brönsted-Lowry Definition of Acids and Bases 93 Bases 94 Strengths of Acids and Bases 96 Neutralization Reactions 96 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 97 viii The Smart Guide to Chemistry The pH Scale 99 Conclusion 101 10 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 103 Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers 104 Why Oxidation Numbers Are Important 106 Combustion Reactions 108 The Activity Series of the Metals 109 Corrosion 113 Photosynthesis and Respiration 113 Conclusion 114 11 Electrochemical Processes 115 Historical Background 115 Galvanic Cells 116 The Standard Hydrogen Potential 116 Standard Potentials 117 The Meaning of Standard Potentials 118 Commercial Batteries 121 Ohm’s Law 121 Electrolytic Cells 123 Conclusion 124 12 Energy and Chemical Reactions 125 A Brief History of Energy 126 Energy and Work 127 Kinetic Energy 127 Gravitational Potential Energy 127 Thermal Energy 128 Chemical Energy 128 Radiant Energy 128 Electrical Energy 128 Nuclear Energy 129 Work 129 Special Kinds of Processes 130 The Law of Conservation of Energy 130 Examples of Different Kinds of Work and Heat Exchanges 133 Automobile Engines 133 Atmospheric Temperature Lapse Rate 133 Phase Changes 134 Conclusion 135 The Smart Guide to Chemistry ix 13 Radioactive Processes and Applications 137 Symbols Used in Nuclear Reactions 138 Other Particles besides Atomic Nuclei 138 The Discovery of Radioactive Decay 139 The Nature of Radioactive Decay 140 Alpha Decay 140 Beta Decay 142 Gamma Decay 142 Other Modes of Radioactive Decay 143 Half-Life 143 The Equation for Radioactive Decay 145 Applications of Radionuclides in Science 145 Carbon Dating 145 Uranium and Thorium Dating 147 Applications of Radionuclides in Medicine 149 Using Radioactive Substances to Diagnose Disease 149 Using Radiation Therapy to Treat Disease 150 Conclusion 150 14 Nuclear Reactions and Applications 151 Transmutation Reactions 151 Nuclear Fission 152 The Aftermath of Fukushima 154 Nuclear Fusion 155 Production of Superheavy Elements 156 Conclusion 156 PART THREE: The Organization of Matter 159 15 The Periodic Table of the Elements 161 Families of Elements 162 Properties of Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 163 The Discovery and Naming of Elements 165 How Elements Are Named 167 Relative Abundance of Elements 168 The Not-So-Rare Earths 169 Relative Abundance of Elements in the Human Body 170 The Transuranium Elements 171 Conclusion: The Future of the Periodic Table 173 354 The Smart Guide to Chemistry Units of Concentration for Solutions 52–55 Molarity 53–54 Percent by Volume 53 Percent by Weight 52 Variety of Solutions 51 Modern Models of the Atom 185–198 Conclusion 198 Louis de Broglie and the Wave Nature of Matter 190 Niels Bohr and the Planetary Model of the Atom 185–189 Aufbau Principle 195 Electronic Configurations 196 Energy Level Diagrams 198 Pauli Exclusion Principle 194 Planetary Model of the Atom 188–189 Quantum Numbers 192–194 Quantum Theory 186–188 Relationship between Quantum Numbers and the Arrangement of Electrons 194 Why No More than Two Electrons Can Occupy the Same Orbital 195 Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 191–198 Molina, Mario J 308 Moseley, Henry 24, 25 N Names and Formulas of Chemical Compounds 57–69 About +4 Ions 68 Conclusion 69 Formulas of Ionic Compounds 64–65 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 57–58 Naming Molecular Compounds 66–67 Negative Ions 62–64 Complex Negative Ions 63 Halogen Ions 64 Phosphate Ions 64 Simple Negative Ions 62 The Suffixes ite and ate 63–64 Positive Ions 58–61 Positive Ions that Do Not Contain a Metal 61 The Stock System 60–61 The Suffixes ous and ic 60 Transition and Post-Transition Metals 59–60 Trisodium Phosphate 68 Nature of the Chemical Bond Conclusion 216 Covalent Bonds: Sharing Electrons 213–216 Electronegativity 215 Lewis Electron Dot Structures 214–215 Nonpolar Covalent Bonds 215–216 Polar Covalent Bonds 215 Ionic Bonds: Transferring Electrons 213 Nature of Stored Energy 211–212 Positive and Negative of Electrostatic Forces 212 Newton, Isaac 19, 126, 130, 176, 191, 211, 231 Newton’s laws of motion 126, 231 Nobel Prize 22, 27, 139, 140, 173, 181, 182, 183, 188, 189, 191, 194, 309, 312 Nuclear Reactions and Applications Conclusion 156 Nuclear Fission 152–155 Aftermath of Fukushima 154–155 Chernobyl 154 Three Mile Island 154 Nuclear Fusion 155–156 Production of Superheavy Elements 156 GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research 156 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) 156 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) 156 Superheavy Element Laboratory of the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research 156 Transmutation Reactions 151–152 Nuclear Regulatory Commission 189 O Ohm, Georg Simon 116 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 103–114 Activity Series of the Metals 109–112 Combustion Reactions 108 Corrosion 113 Importance of Oxidation Numbers 106–108 Photosynthesis and Respiration 113–114 Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers 104–106 P Periodic Properties of Elements 199–207 Conclusion 207 Families of Elements 199 Alkali Metals 200–201 Trends in Electron Affinities 204 Trends in Electronegativities 204–205 Trends in Ionization Energies 203–204 Trends in Melting Points of Metals 206–207 Trends in Sizes of Atoms in the Periodic Table 201–202 Trends in Sizes of Ions Nonmetals 202–203 Periodic Table of the Elements 161–173 Conclusion: The Future of the Periodic Table 173 Discovery and Naming of Elements 165–166 Families of Elements 162 How Elements Are Named 167 Properties of Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 163–165 Relative Abundance of Elements 168–170 Relative Abundance of Elements in the Human Body 170 The Not-So-Rare Earths 169 Transuranium Elements 171–173 International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry [IUPAC] 171 Physical Properties of Solutions 243–256 Conclusion 256 Effect of Polarity on Solubility 243–246 Examples of the Effect of Polarity on Solubility 245–246 Mixing Polar and Nonpolar Substances 244 Index Mixing Two Nonpolar Substances 245 Mixing Two Polar Substances 244–245 Effect of Pressure on Solubility Henry’s Law 251 Effect of Temperature on Solubility 247–250 Dissolving Gases in Liquids 249–250 Dissolving Solids in Liquids 247–248 Effect on the Boiling Point of a Liquid When a Solute Is Added 255 Effect on the Freezing Point of a Liquid When a Solute Is Added 253–255 Effect on the Vapor Pressure of a Liquid When a Solute Is Added 252–253 Planck, Max 186 Precipitation Reactions 81–89 Conclusion 89 Precipitation Reactions 86–89 Net Ionic Equations 87 Other Net Ionic Equations 89 Spectator Ions 88–89 Total Ionic Equations 87 Total Molecular Equations 86–87 Solubility Rules 81–86 Priestley, Joseph 17, 18 Properties of Gases 227–235 Avogadro’s Law 230–231 Boyle’s Law 228 Charles’s Law 228–230 The Need for an Absolute Temperature Scale 229–230 Conclusion 235 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 233–234 How We Calculate Partial Pressure 234 Graham’s Law of Effusion 234–235 Ideal Gas Law 231–233 Definition of an Ideal Gas 232 Kinetic Theory of Gases 232–234 Units of Measurement 227–228 R Radioactive Processes and Applications 137–150 Applications of Radionuclides in Medicine 355 356 The Smart Guide to Chemistry 149–150 Using Radiation Therapy to Treat Disease 150 Using Radioactive Substances to Diagnose Disease 149–150 Applications of Radionuclides in Science 145–149 Carbon Dating 145–147 Uranium and Thorium Dating 147–149 Conclusion 150 Discovery of Radioactive Decay 139 Nature of Radioactive Decay 140–145 Alpha Decay 140–142 Beta Decay 142 Equation for Radioactive Decay 145 Gamma Decay 142 Half-Life 143–144 Other Modes of Radioactive Decay 143 Nuclear Reactions and Applications 151–156 Symbols Used in Nuclear Reactions 138 Other Particles besides Atomic Nuclei 138 Ramsey, William 22 Rankine, William 35 Robert Millikan 230, 231 Rowland, F Sherwood 308 Rutherford, Ernest x, 139, 152, 172, 175, 182, 185 S Schrödinger, Erwin 185, 191 Seaborg, Glenn T iii, 27, 167, 172 Segrè, Emilio iii, 166 Shapes of Molecules 217–226 Conclusion 226 Expanded Octets 225 Hybrid Orbitals 225–226 Hydrogen Bonding 222–223 Intermolecular Forces 221–222 Dipole-dipole Forces 222 Lewis Electron Dot Structures for Molecules 217–218 London Forces 223–224 Polar and Nonpolar Molecules 221 Resonance Structures 224 Shapes of Larger Molecules 226 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory 219–221 Soddy, Frederick 140 Solutions and How We Describe Them 237–241 Conclusion 241 Other Kinds of Solutions 238–240 Saturated Solutions 240–241 Solutions: Aquatic Environments 238 Solutions: Solutes and Solvents 237 Solutions: The Atmosphere 238 Stock, Alfred 60 Sydney Chapman 306 T Thomas Graham 235 Thompson, J J 22 Three Mile Island 154, 318 U University of California at Berkeley 27 Urey, Harold 264 V Volta, Alessandro 115, 128 W Watson, James 27 Wilhelm Röentgen 139, 172, 180–181 Wilkins, Maurice 27 William Thomson 35 Wőhler, Friedrich 22 World of Atoms and Molecules 3–13 chemistry defined 3–6 basis of a global industry 5–6 the central science 4–5 Conclusion: Chemistry as a Human Enterprise 13 Educational Requirements to be a Chemist 11–12 what chemists 6–11 analytical chemists 6–8 biochemists 8–9 chemical engineers 11 inorganic chemists 9–10 nuclear chemists 11 organic chemists physical chemists 10–11 World of Carbon 323–335 Alcohols 330–332 Ethanol 331–332 Isopropyl Alcohol 332 Methanol 330–331 Alkanes 326–327 Alkenes 328 Alkynes 328 Aromatic Compounds 328–329 Stability of Benzene 329 carbonyl Carboxylic Acids 333–334 Compounds that Contain Nitrogen 334 Esters 334 Characteristics of Functional Groups Counting in Greek 325–326 Compounds Containing a Carbonyl Group 332–334 Conclusion 335 Cycloalkanes 328 Derivatives of Benzene 329–330 Phenols 329–330 Toluene 330 Ethers 332 Properties of Alkanes 327 Saturated Hydrocarbons 326 Structural Formulas of Molecules 323–329 Index 357 The Smart Guide Series Making Smart People Smarter Available Titles Smart Guide To Astronomy Smart Guide To Bachelorette Parties Smart Guide To Back and Nerve Pain Smart Guide To Biology Smart Guide To Bridge Smart Guide To Chemistry Smart Guide To Classical Music Smart Guide To Deciphering A Wine Label Smart Guide To eBay Smart Guide To Fighting Infections Smart Guide To Forensic Careers Smart Guide To Forensic Science Smart Guide To Freshwater Fishing Smart Guide To Getting Published Smart Guide To Golf Smart Guide To Green Living Smart Guide To Healthy Grilling Smart Guide To High School Math Smart Guide To Hiking and Backpacking Smart Guide To Horses and Riding Smart Guide To Life After Divorce Smart Guide To Making A Fortune With Infomercials Smart Guide To Managing Stress Smart Guide To Medical Imaging Tests Smart Guide To Nutrition Smart Guide To Patents Smart Guide To Practical Math Smart Guide To Single Malt Scotch Smart Guide To Starting Your Own Business Smart Guide To The Perfect Job Interview Smart Guide To The Solar System Smart Guide To Understanding Your Cat Smart Guide To US Visas Smart Guide To Wedding Weekend Events Smart Guide To Wine The Smart Guide Series Making Smart People Smarter Smart Guides are available at your local bookseller or from the following Internet retailers www.SmartGuidePublications.com www.Amazon.com www.BarnesandNoble.com Smart Guides are popularly priced from $18.95 Smart Guides are also available in Kindle and Nook editions ABOUT THE AUTHOR Brian Nordstrom quickly developed an interest in the physical sciences due to his excellent physics, chemistry, and astronomy professors at the University of California, Berkeley, during the 1960s The more he studied those subjects, the more he wanted to learn Eventually he graduated with an interdepartmental major in physical science It was difficult for him to choose a single field for graduate work, but he decided on physical chemistry as the best blend of his interests in chemistry and physics Returning to Berkeley in the early 1970s, Brian joined the research group in atmospheric chemistry led by Professor Harold S Johnston Both undergraduate and graduate studies introduced him to many of the key scientists who were responsible for major discoveries in the sciences during the second half of the twentieth century His scientific interests evolved to encompass chemical kinetics, environmental science, computational chemistry, and the history and philosophy of science After receiving his Master’s degree in chemistry in 1975, Brian joined the chemistry faculty at California State University, Chico The teaching bug “bit” him, and he’s been a college chemistry professor ever since He joined the faculty at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in Prescott, Arizona, in 1980, where he has risen through the ranks to full professor and served for several years as the associate dean of the College of Arts and Sciences In 1989, Brian completed a doctorate in education at Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, with an emphasis on college curriculum and instruction His research in chemical education, chemical kinetics, and computational chemistry has resulted in several publications and conference presentations When not pursuing his professional interests, Brian enjoys traveling, camping, hiking, birding, nature study, photography, and reading His travels these days include visits with his four children, their spouses, and his eight grandchildren ... xiv The Smart Guide to Chemistry 28 The Chemistry of Ozone 301 The Chemistry of Ozone in the Troposphere 302 Pollution of the Air We Breathe... E S MART G U I D E TO Chemistry BY B R IAN NOR DSTROM The Smart Guide To Chemistry Published by Smart Guide Publications, Inc 2517 Deer Chase Drive Norman, OK 73071 www.smartguidepublications.com... Conclusion: The Future of the Periodic Table 173 x The Smart Guide to Chemistry 16 Early Models of the Atom 175 Democritus and the Ancient