Diesel generator handbook

Diesel Generator Handbook L L J Mahon CEng, FlEE, FBIM, FIOA, CDipAF AMSTERDAM BOSTON· HEIDELBERG· PARIS SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO· LONDON • SINGAPORE NEW YORK· • SYDNEY • OXFORD TOKYO Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803 First published 1992 Reprinted 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004 Copyright © 1992, L L J Mahon All rights reserved The right of L L J Mahon to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England 4LP Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher wn Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865843830, fax: (+44) 1865853333, e-mail: permissions@elsevier.co.uk You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://www.elsevier.com) by selecting 'Customer Support' and then 'Obtaining Permissions' British Library Cataloguing in Publication Mahon, L L J Diesel generator handbook I Title 621.3121 Data ISBN 0750611472 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Mahon, L L J Diesel generator handbook/L L J Mahon p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0750611472 Diesel electric power-plants Diesel-motor I Title TK1075.M34 1992 91-45348 621.31'2133-dc20 CIP Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire Contents vii Preface Reciprocating internal combustion engines 3 Load considerations 135 Introduction Load assessments Planning capacity of generating plants Load elements affecting plant size and performance Related standards References and bibliography Appendix - Selection of power plant for load conditions Appendix - Wave-form analysis of a typical generator 137 138 143 Engine governing 183 Introduction Basic Terminology Governor selection Fundamental operating principles Typical governors Recent trends in advanced control systems References 185 185 188 189 198 212 213 215 Introduction Classification of engines Working cycles Piston action and piston connection Cylinder arrangements Fuels and operating modes Engine features Waste heat recovery Referenced standards References and bibliography 10 23 27 27 Power rating and performance 29 Introduction Generator applications Related terminology Service power ratings Performance factors affecting plant sizing Referenced standards References 31 31 33 36 39 40 41 A.C generators - general 43 Automatic Introduction Generator excitation characteristics Some typical arrangements Insulation Machine ventilation and cooling system Machine enclosures Power rating Typical brushless generators Related standards References and bibliography 45 45 47 73 80 83 84 86 87 89 Introduction Voltage regulation Basic excitation systems The basic A VR circuit The A VR in excitation systems Protection against system component failures Dual-channel regulators Typical proprietary systems Recent trends and future developments Referenced Standards References 217 217 218 219 221 224 226 226 238 242 242 91 Parallel operation of generating 245 voltage regulation 147 172 174 176 182 A.C generators - performance characteristics Introduction Steady-state operation Transient operation Related standards References and bibliography Appendix Phasor diagrams and conventions Appendix The per-unit system 93 93 122 130 130 131 132 sets Introduction The synchronizing of generators Phase sequence testing Operation charts Synchronizing current, power and torque Load sharing Circulating currents 247 247 252 252 255 257 263 vi Contents Reactive power equalization in paralleled generators Automatic multi-generator plant System busbar arrangements Interconnection of generator neutrals Electromechanical transients References and bibliography 263 268 275 276 277 282 Switchgear 283 and controlgear Introduction Planning Busbar systems Busbars Power supply fault current determination Short-circuit current calculations Power switching apparatus The current-breaking process Air-break circuit breakers Vacuum circuit breakers Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers Discrimination and co-ordination Enclosures Power supplies Instrumentation and metering Control systems Related standards Certification of switchgear and equipment References 285 285 286 289 293 294 301 305 308 314 318 323 326 328 328 330 338 343 343 10 Prime mover and generator protection 345 Introduction Prime mover protection Protective relaying Generator protection Typical protective relaying schemes Related standards References and bibliography 347 347 359 368 388 392 392 11 Emergency and standby A.C power supplies 395 Introduction Plant categories Short-break systems No-break systems References and bibliography 397 397 397 409 430 12 Fuels and lubricating oils 433 Introduction Petroleum Oil refining Liquid fuel specifications Properties of fuel oils The effect of fuel properties on performance Harmful constituents in fuel oils Gaseous fuels Lubricating oil Corrosion inhibition in transit and storage 435 435 435 436 437 441 442 443 447 452 References standards References and bibliography 453 454 13 Installation 457 and commissioning Introduction Plant categories Ventilation and aspiration air requirements Noise and vibration attenuation Foundations Auxiliary systems Switchgear and controlgear Cabling Health and safety aspects Commissioning Referenced standards References and bibliography 459 459 467 470 470 472 493 494 506 526 530 531 14 Plant noise reduction 535 Introduction The physics of sound Noise evaluation Instrumentation and noise measurement techniques Principles of noise control Vibration control - principles and practice Sources of noise in engine-generator plant Plant noise control in practice Noise masking Referenced standards References and bibliography Appendix - Typical calculations for multimount configurations Appendix - Method of calculating loads on mounts at stated locations Appendix - Properties of a vertical mounting arrangement 537 537 544 555 562 585 595 596 599 599 599 601 602 602 15 Operation and maintenance 603 Introduction Technical manuals Plant operation Maintenance Staff instruction and training Referenced standards References and bibliography 605 605 606 609 619 620 620 Appendix A Conversion factors and formulae 623 Appendix B Batteries 627 Appendix C Soil resistivity measurements and surveys 631 Appendix D Device function numbers 633 Index 635 Preface I fir~t got involved with diesel generators in the Middle East, in the mid 1950s As a young engineer, without any previous experience or knowledge of diesel engines, I was responsible for the operation and maintenance of a number of small power stations employing medium- and slow-speed engines Fortunately, as an ex-BTH trainee, I had a reasonable grounding in electrical machines, switchgear, and controlgear Two years later, I was engaged in preparing estimates and submitting proposals for turnkey diesel generator power projects, to meet consultants' specifications Over the next 30 years, I was to be involved with the design, development, manufacture, installation and commissioning of both stationary and highly-specialised mobile plants for a variety of applications When I was starting out in this career, I needed a book which would have given me a single-source reference on the practical design and application of diesel generating plant There wasn't one I resolved to fill the gap one day This then is that book, conceived 35 years ago, the writing of which was deferred some 28 years During the 'gestation' period, I accumulated an extensive collection of learned papers and articles on the topics covered Many of these are included in the references and bibliographies given at the end of the chapters These lists are not only an acknowledgement of my sources of information but also serve to augment the text which can, at best, provide only a general outline, for so large a subject, in the space of a single volume The book is intended to serve as an engineering guide to all those who may be concerned with the selection, specification, testing, commissioning, operation and maintenance of diesel generator plant It should therefore be valuable to: the plant or services engineer; to non-specialist engineers and users; and to young techniCians and engineers (especially in industrially developing countries) who are embarking on a career in the supply industry The starting point is the prime mover - in its compression ignition and spark ignition forms An explanation follows of the significant terms relating to engine power; and the accepted methods of specifying ratings The general features and the performance characteristics of synchronous generators are then discussed in some detail The techniques used in load assessment, and the most suitable ways of combining and operating multiple generators are examined Those loads which have a direct bearing on the sizing of plant, and on the quality of supply, are reviewed in Chapter The next three chapters consider the principles used in the control of engines and generators - in both single-running and parallel-running modes; and describe proprietary governors and excitation control systems Chapter outlines the principles affecting the choice and application of switchgear and controlgear; and Chapter 10 examines the protection that needs to be applied to engines and generators The many forms of emergency and standby power available to the user, who has need for an alternative or additional electrical power source to that which is normally obtained from a public utility, are delineated in Chapter 11 The relevance, to engine performance, of certain key properties in fuels and lubricating oils are examined in Chapter 12 The last three chapters then deal with the important aspects of power plant installation and commissioning; noise reduction; and plant operation and maintenance It is quite possible that some of the products described may have been modified, or even superseded, in the time that it has taken from composition to publication of a book of this size Every effort has been made to ensure that information on national and international standards is as up-to-date as possible, at the time of going to press The practice of designating standards by reference to their numbers only (and not always by date) has been largely adopted Extracts from British Standards are reproduced with the permission of BSI Complete copies of the standards can be obtained, by post, from BSI Sales, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes MK14 6LE (Fax 0908 320856) I am greatly indebted to those manufacturers, publishers and learned bodies who have provided viii Preface me with information and assistance; and whose material help is acknowledged beneath the illustrations concerned I also have to thank the following individuals for their advice, constructive criticism, and invaluable help on points of detail Derek Jones (Dorman Diesels), John Yarrow (Hawker Siddeley Group); Colin Hudson, Tony Montriou and Brian Beech (GEC Alsthom Group); Arthur Allen (P & B Engineering); Michael Webb (Woodward Governor (UK»; Derrick Barber (Petbow); Ben Hicks (T Mat Engineering); and Leslie Minikin (Briiel & Kjrer (UK» L L J Mahon Yelvertoft Reciprocating internal combustion • engines Contents 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Introduction Classification of engines Working cycles Piston action and piston connection Cylinder arrangements Fuels and operating modes Engine features Waste heat recovery Referenced standards References and bibliography Classification of engines 1.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to give the reader an introduction to the subject of reciprocating internal combustion engines It discusses the various ways used to classify engines In describing the working principles, and the salient features, of both the engine itself and its principal auxiliary equipments, the meanings of terms and phrases in common usage are explained The factors affecting choice of primary and ancillary systems are discussed and the major decision areas are examined Finally, basic information is given on the increasingly important subject of co-generation, in the context of total energy conversion systems 1.2 Classification of engines There are several ways of classifying reciprocating internal combustion (RIC) engines The more usual are: by by by by use; speed; design; and size By use Here, engines are categorized by their application For example: (a) marine for ship propulsion and auxiliaries; compressors, (b) industrial for generators, pumps, etc.; (c) automotive for land transport, both on and off highways; and (d) traction for locomotives and rail cars Rigid groupings of this kind can be too restrictive In America, with its strong tradition of automotive and locomotive diesel engines, users have found it advantageous to adapt engines of these types to industrial use, rather than seek purpose-built units On an international scale, RIC engines for power generation will continue to be adaptations from the high production manufacturers of automotive, traction, and marine engines [1] By speed: Because speed of crankshaft rotation basically determines the weight and size of an engine in relation to its output power, this type of classification is the one most widely adopted The weight of an engine is a good guide to its first cost and its life First cost is roughly proportional to weight; and life is proportional to the ratio of weight to power output [2] Industrial engines are generally accepted as being divided into three speed classes: (a) High speed (b) Medium speed (c) Low speed over 1000 rev/min 400 -1000 rev/min up to 400 rev/min In the context of alternating current, generating sets are constructed to operate at one of the appropriate synchronous speeds governed by the expression: n = f.60/p Where n is the speed of the generator shaft, in rpm f is the frequency of the generated supply, in Hz (or cycles/second), and P is the number of (field) pole pairs on the generator Typical synchronous speeds (rpm) for 50 Hz and 60 Hz applications are: 50 Hz 60 Hz 3600 3000 1500 1800 1200 1000 900 750 720 600 600 500 514 428 360 300 See Sub-section 4.2.2 of Chapter for a fuller treatment of the speed-frequency relationship The choice between low, medium or high speed engines must be related to evaluation of power supply security against operational economy Security is essentially a function of the availability of engines; and the number of units and spare capacity installed, in relation to the average load demand [3] By design: Engines may be sub-classified with respect to their design features These would include: (a) (b) (c) (d) working cycle (four-stroke or two-stroke); piston action and/or piston connection; cylinder arrangement; type of fuel used (e.g liquid, gaseous, dual fuel, etc.); and (e) the manner in which air is fed into the cylinders (either at ambient pressure or with overpressure) By size: This is perhaps the most contentious of the classification methods since 'size' interrelates with many different factors such as: cylinder dimensions; the Reciprocatinginternal combustion engines number of cylinders; speed; and mean effective pressure (see Chapter 2) In acknowledging this, Kates and Luck [4] have attempted to give some idea of size by using horsepower per cylinder, at rated speed, to arrive at the following rough definitions The figures in parentheses are the corresponding values in kilowatts mechanical (kWm) Small size Medium size Large size below 25 hp/cyl (19) 25 to 200 hp/cyl (19-149) above 200 hp/cyl (149) Most manufacturers have 'type series' of engines This means that they limit their production to a series of types, each using various numbers of cylinders of similar dimensions The output of a multi-cylinder engine, of a given type, is then the output of the single-cylinder model multiplied by the number of cylinders of that engine Engines may be applied to a wide range of power requirements by simply changing the number of cylinders, and engine operating speed The manufacturer's aim throughout, is to maximize the number of common parts used within a type series This, in turn, calls for rationalization of as many items of the engine as possible; and also for maximum utilization of tooling for the economic manufacture of the engines This philosophy certainly applies to all manufacturers of small- and medium-size units The user who intends purchasing generating sets of various capacities would be well advised to choose engines from a type series wherever possible This is beneficial both in servicing and in spare parts stocking See Chapter 15 1.3 Working cycles RIC engines may be of the self ignition (compression ignition, c.i.) or of the indirect ignition (spark ignition, s.i.) type The salient differences between their combustion processes are explained later Compression ignition and spark ignition engines can be arranged to run in one of two operating cycles These are diagrammatically represented in Figures 1.1 and 1.2; together with the appropriate indicator diagrams, which portray the events within the engine cylinder during each cycle In the four-stroke (or two-revolution) cycle, fuel ignition takes place in every other revolution of the crankshaft An engine using this cycle gets work from its fuel during one stroke in four (Figure 1.1), i.e its working stroke occurs once in every two revolutions In contrast, two-stroke (or onerevolution cycle) engines have a working stroke in each revolution of the crankshaft (Figure 1.2) While two-stroke engines are generally lighter and smaller in size than four-stroke engines of the same output, it does not follow that, because the two-stroke engine has twice as many power strokes as the four-cycle engine, it will produce twice the power The down stroke of the two-cycle engine combines both power and exhaust strokes As the intake and exhaust ports are cleared by the piston, some mixing of fresh air charge and burned gases takes place (scavenging) Not all the burned gases are exhausted; which prevents a larger fresh charge of air being induced into the cylinder The resulting power stroke therefore has less thrust In the four-stroke engine, nearly all the burned gases are forced out of the combustion chamber by the up-stroking piston This allows almost a full air/fuel mixture to enter the cylinder; since a com- Working cycles heat is then added, partly at constant volume (B-C) and partly at constant pressure (C-D); adiabatic expansion then occurs from D to E; the cycle is closed at constant volume (E-A), and heat is rejected to exhaust plete piston stroke is devoted to induction of the mixture The power stroke, therefore, produces relatively more power than its two-cycle counterpart [3] One important advantage of the four-stroke engine is that its lubricating system is simple and reliable, making it the better choice for unattended or partially-manned generator installations The theoretical air standard cycle on which modern c.i engines work is represented by the diagram of Figure 1.3 It is known as the dual-combustion, mixed, or composite cycle and is a combination of the constant volume (Otto) and the constant pressure (diesel) combustion cycles It is useful for comparison with actual diesel cycles operating in their mid-to-full load range [5] The area of the diagram, to a suitable scale, represents the work done on the piston during one cycle Fuel may be injected at two points only: either at B or at C (Figure 1.3) Starting at point A, the events in the cycle are as follows: adiabatic compression of air takes place between A and B; This theoretical cycle does not represent what actually happe.ns in the cylinder For example, the compression and expansion strokes are not truly adiabatic since there is heat loss to the cylinder walls In practice, the diagrams for actual diesel cycles approach those illustrated in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 For high speed engines it is more usual to use an indicator diagram based on crank angle A typical graphical representation of the combustion process would then be as shown in Figure 1.4 It is possible to derive a stroke-based indicator diagram from this, by transposition [6] 632 Appendix C Soil resistivity measurements and surveys C.2 • Line traverse This method uses a constant test electrode separation distance, s The electrodes are usually driven-in at separation distances equal to the depth at which it is intended to bury or drive the permanent earth electrodes Readings are made with the electrodes positioned along a straight line In practice, between and 10 test electrodes are used The earth test meter is initially connected to the first four electrodes and the first resistance reading taken Meter connections are then transferred to electrodes 2, 3, and and a second reading taken Progressive readings are made by moving along, an electrode at a time, until the planned traverse is completed As readings proceed, the disconnected electrode is 'retrieved' and driven-in ahead of those already in position The average resistivity of the traverse is equal to the mean of the readings taken It is usual to make a number of parallel line traverses - if possible - in a grid format, the distance between each traverse being equal to either s or L Data may then be expressed in the form of resistivity contour maps, using lines of equal resistivity (either in terms of p or the direct meter reading, Rm) The permanent earth electrodes would then be installed in the areas of low resistivity identified on the site plan test electrodes; cables; stakes, pegs, tapes and measuring equipment, with adequate spares for each of the above items Test electrodes, made from 20 mm galvanized conduit and flattened at one end to facilitate driving, should be about 300 mm long for line traverses and about 1.25 m long for expanded traverses Cables should be single core, flexible, and no longer than necessary Identification by sheath colours is desirable Battery clips, fixed to one end of the cable, give the most convenient form of connection to the test electrodes Other esssentials are: • • • • • hammers; wire cutters; adhesive tape and labels; a compass; a small tin of white paint, and a paint brush - for identification of particular pegs or stakes; • a camera to record the location of the surveyed site, relative to any topographical or building landmarks C.2.2 Expanded traverses In this method, the four equally-spaced test electrodes are separated in increasing, equal increments about the mid-point of the traverse line The maximum electrode separation for all practical purposes is between 12 and 15 metres Since the depth of test electrode penetration (s/20) must be proportional to the electrode separation distance, it is important to remember that the penetration must vary with each reading, i.e as the separation distance 'expands' The method gives resistivity readings for increasing depths and therefore allows vertical (or depth) changes in resistivity to be investigated It is recommended that at least one expanded traverse is made on site C.2.3 Equipment and procedures Equipment In addition to the portable earth test meter, the following equipment will be required: Procedures Surveys are time-consuming It would take a party of three more than two days to complete the readings on a hectare site on which test electrode separations are about m It is important to stress at briefings the need to maintain correct electrode separation and penetration depth A simple explanation of the purpose of the survey, supported by a few exploratory demonstration runs, will pay dividends in the long run The lines of traverses and the salient identification points on the site should be marked-out with pegs, stakes and/or tapes These should be left in-situ until the survey's findings are completed It is a good idea to photograph the pegged and taped-out site for record purposes Cable leads may have the electrode spacings premarked on them, in paint This removes the need for extraneous measuring tapes and each lead is, effectively, its own tape measure D 0.1 Purposes A device function number, with appropriate suffix letter or letters where necessary, is placed adjacent to the device symbol It is intended to identify the function of each device on arrangement drawings, connection diagrams, in instruction books and in specifications, for all types of switchgear The device function number is also attached to, or located adjacent to, each device in the assembled equipment so that it may be readily identified Device function numbers relevant drawings, or group of drawings For example, one may find that the letters L, U, G and P may be intended by a manufacturer to differentiate between 'line', 'utility', 'generator' and 'plant' circuits; whereas in ANSI C37.2 codes 'U' is 'upper operating coil', 'P' is 'power', and 'line' is not included among the recognised designations for 'L' Where several devices with the same function number and suffix letter are present in the same equipment, it is customary to use numbered suffixes to distinguish between them (e.g 27-1 and 27-2; 59X-l and 59X-2) 0.2 Related standards The American Standlard ANSI C37.2 is recognised as the definitive publication on the subject British Standard BS 3939 (Appendix II of Guiding principles) follows it almost entirely, with only minor differences in wording on some function titles and definitions 0.3 Suffix letters Suffix letters are used with function numbers for various purposes There are so many specific component references related to functional use in different applications that it is 'impracticable to quote or attempt to standardize any complete list' (BS 3939) ANSI C37.2lists auxiliary device letter designations from 'A - Air, automatic, or accelerating' to 'X, Y and Z' for separate 'auxiliary devices' In the protective relaying context, the letter 'N' is generally used if the device is connected in the secondary neutral of current transformers Manufacturers will often compile their own lists of functional component (letter) references It is then important that they are clearly identified in the 0.4 Standard device function numbers Tabulated below are some of the numbers, and the corresponding functions, that are most lik-ely to be found on engine-generator protection schemes Time-delay starting or closing relay Checking, or interlocking, relay Stopping device 12 Over-speed device 13 Synchronous-speed device 14 Under-speed device 15 Speed, or frequency, matching device 20 Electrically operated valve 25 Synchronizing or synchronism-check device 26 Apparatus thermal device 27 Undervoltage relay 30 Annunciator relay 32 Directional power relay 37 Undercurrent or underpower relay 38 Bearing protective device 39 Mechanical condition monitor (e.g excessive vibration) 40 Field relay 41 Field circuit breaker 634 Appendix D Device function numbers 44 Unit sequence starting relay 45 Atmospheric condition monitor (e.g smoke or fire) 46 Reverse phase or phase-balance current relay (e.g unbalanced currents or those containing n.p.s components above a given amount) 49 Machine or transformer thermal relay 50 Instantaneous overcurrent or rate-of-rise relay 51 A.C time overcurrent relay 52 A.C circuit breaker 53 Exciter or d.c generator relay 55 Power factor relay 56 Field application relay (e.g pole-slip protective relay) 57 Short-circuiting or earthing device 59 Overvoltage relay 60 Voltage balance relay 61 Current balance relay 62 Time-delay stopping or opening relay 63 Liquid or gas pressure or vacuum relay (would be used for pressure switches) 64 Earth-fault protective relay [Note: this is not applicable to 'a device connected in the secondary circuit of a c t., or in the secondary neutral of a c.t., connected in the power circuit of a normally earthed system' (BS 3939)] 65 Governor 67 A.C directional overcurrent relay 68 Blocking relay (defined in BS 3939 as a 'relay that initiates a pilot signal for blocking or tripping on external faults under predetermined conditions') 69 Permissive control device (generally a manually operated two-position switch that gives ON/OFF type control) 70 Electrically operated rheostat 71 Liquid or gas-level relay (in our context, a level switch, for example) 74 Alarm relay 76 D.C overcurrent relay 77 Pulse transmitter (in our context, could be applied to a magnetic pick-up) 78 Phase-angle measuring or out-of-step relay (one that functions at a predetermined phase angle between two voltages or between two currents or between voltage and current) 80 Liquid or gas flow relay (would be used for a flow switch) 81 Frequency relay 83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay [ a relay that operates to select automatically between certain sources or conditions in an equipment, or perform a transfer function automatically' (BS 3939)] 84 Operating mechanism ['the complete electrical mechanism or servo-mechanism for any piece of apparatus which otherwise has no device function number' (BS 3939)] 86 Locking out relay 87 Differential protective relay 89 Line switch ['a switch used as a disconnecting, load-interrupter, or isolating switch in a power circuit, when this device is electrically operated or has electrical accessories, such as auxiliary switch, magnetic lock etc.' (BS 3939)] 90 Regulating device (in our context would be applied to an a.v.r.) 92 Voltage and power directional relay 94 Tripping or trip-free relay ['a relay that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by other devices ' (BS 3939)] (95-99 are used only for specific applications in individual installations, where none of the assigned number functions from 1-94 are suitable.) Index Absorption coefficient, sound, 573 Absorptive silencer (see Silencers) A.C exciters, 48, 49, 58, 65 Accelerating torque, motor, 149 Acidity, (see Neutralization Number) Acoustic louvres, 576, 581, 582 Actuators, fuel control, 185, 194-196 Additives, lubricating oil, 451,452 Aerobic digestion, 445 Aftercoolers, compressor, 492 After-fired exhaust combustion chambers, 25 Air: cleaners see Induction system, engine compressors, 22, 491, 492 receivers, 22, 429 starting systems, 21, 22 temperature effects on plant, 37-39 termination networks, 509 Air-break circuit breakers see Circuit Breakers Air-cooled engines, 15,481,482 Air-fuel ratio, engine, 10 Alkalinity see Neutralization Number All-speed governor (definition), 185 Alternative fuel engines, 10 Altitude effects on plant, 37-39, 85-87 Anaerobic digestion, 445 Anechoic chamber, 539 Angular deviation, 278 see also Cyclic irregularity Anti-foaming agents, 449, 450, 452 Arc-extinguishing chambers, 305, 306 Arcing: chambers, 305 period, circuit breaker, 307 Armature: reactance, 105, 106 reaction, 45, 105, 106 Ash content, fuel and lubricating oils, 439, 442, 443, 448 Atmospheric propagation of sound, 564, 565 Attenuation (definition), 576 Attenuators, sound, 579, 580 Automatic transfer switches, 303, 304 Automatic voltage regulators: basic circuit, 219-221 control features, 221-224 definition of, 217 dual-channel regulators, 226 proprietary systems, 226-239 recent trends and future developments, 239-242 system component failure protection, 224-226 Auto-transformer starting, induction motor, 156, 157 Availability (definition), 428 Average load (definition), 140 Balanced protection, 378-381 Balance weights, 410 Base-load duty, 31, 137, 335 Batteries: charging of, 629 for emergency lighting, 526 lead acid, 491, 627, 628 nickel-cadmium, 491, 628 sizing of, 628, 629 Bearings, generator, 613 Bending moments in mounting location calculations, 591 Bias slope (definition), 378, 379 Bonding conductor, 507, 508, 511 Boucherot circuit, 50, 66, 68 Brake: mean effective pressure (bmep), 36 power, engine, 33 thermal efficiency of RIC engine, 34 Breakaway current, engine, 629 Brushless: excitation systems, 48-50 generators, 49, 86, 88, 89 Bulk storage (fuel) tanks, 473-477 Burst-firing control in household appliances, 162, 163 Busbar systems, 275, 276, 286-289 Busbars, 289-292, 617 By-pass filtration, 478, 479 Cable: armouring of, 495 conductor sizing, factors influencing, 494 636 Index Cable (Cont' d) constructions, 495-498 control and miscellaneous, 497, 498 fire-performance (FP) types, 504, 505, 506 HV power, 496, 497 installation methods, 494, 498-502 insulation, 494, 496, 497 LV power, 497 ratings, 498 termination, 502-504 Calculated cetane index (CCI), 438 Calorific value of fuel and gas, 34, 440, 446 Calorimetric test, 96 Canvas ducting, 468 Capability charts see Operation charts, generator Capacitive loads, effect on generators, 161, 162 Capacity factor (definition), 140 Carbon: deposits, 448 residue, 438, 442, 448 Centre of gravity, 591, 592 Centrifugal: ballhead, 190, 191 filters, air, 12, 13 Cetane Number, 438, 441 Characteristic impedance of a medium, 538, 540 Charge air cooling, 19 Charging efficiency in turbocharged engines, 35 Chimney heights, 489, 490 Chlorosulphonated polyethylene (CSP), 494, 496 Circuit breakers: air-break, metal frame, 308-312 bulk-oil, 305 close/trip operation, 310, 311 current-limiting, 313, 314 forms of, 304, 305 low-oil-content, 305 moulded case, 312 sulphur hexaflouride (SF6), 318-321 the current breaking process, 305-308 tripping and closing supplies, 328 vacuum, 314-318 Circuit instrumentation, 330, 331 Circulating: current protection, 378-381 currents in parallel-running generators, 263 Clearance volume of a cylinder, 35 Closed-loop control systems, 219, 220 Cloud point: fuel oil, 439, 440 lubricating oil, 449 Clutch: eddy current, 419 magnetic, 398, 400, 409 fluid, coupling, 411 selection considerations, 400 Cogeneration see Combined heat and power systems Coils: magnetic blow-out, 305 circuit-breaker close, 310 circuit-breaker trip, 310, 311 shunt trip, 310, 311 under-voltage trip, 311 Coincidence effect in partitions, 571 Cold filter plugging point, 440, 442, 449 Colour coding, pipework, 492, 493 Combined heat and power (CHP) systems, 25-27, 137 Combustion: chambers, 11 noise, 595 process in engines, stroke, 4, 5, Commissioning generating plant, 52fr.530 Community reaction to noise, 548, 549, 553, 554 Commutation, thyristor, 420, 424 Compounded machines, 65-73 Compressed-air supplies, 22, 23 Compression: ignition (CI) engines, ratio, 35, 36 stroke, 4, 5, Compressors, air see Air compressors Concrete foundations: design aspects, 470-472 use of metallic reinforcement for earthing, 518 Condition monitoring, 359, 610, 611 Conditioning heaters, generator, 616 Conductivity, earth rod, 514 Constant; load tolerance, 104, 105 pressure: (Diesel) cycle, turbocharging, 18 volume (Otto) cycle, Contact materials in vacuum circuit breakers, 315, 316 Contactors, 302, 303 Containers, ISO, 464 Control: action, governor (definition), 185 rooms, 268, 337, 460, 597, 598 systems, diesel generator, 330-339 Conversion factors, 623, 624 Convertors, a.c to d.c., 164-167 Cooling systems: engine, 15, 16, 17,479,480,527 see a/so Air-cooled engines generator, 80-83 Cooling towers, 16, 480 Co-ordination in protection schemes, 324-326, 364, 427, 428 Copper: corrosion test for fuel oil, 439 losses, 94, 95, 111 Corrosion: of earth electrodes, 512 inhibition of engines 452, 453 inhibitors, 451 Couplings: flexible, 54 fluid clutch, 411, 412 induction, 412, 413 Cranes, as regenerative loads, 159 Crankcase: breathers, 470, 613 oil mist in, 470 Crankshaft deflections, 527 Crest factor, 100, 164 see a/so Wave-form characteristics, alternating current Index Criteria for noise affecting communities, 553-555 Critical: damping, 280, 587 speed, shaft, 53 temperature of gas (definition), 443 Crosshead piston, 7, Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation, 494, 496, 497 Current: chopping, 315, 316 density in soil/electrodes, 519, 520 in neutral conductor, 169 ratings of cables, 496, 498 Cyclic: disturbing torque, 279-281 irregularity, 189, 278, 281 see also Angular deviation loads, 172, 173 Cylinder arrangements, engine, 7-9 Cycloconvertor, 168 Daily service (fuel) tanks, 474, 475 Damage risk criteria (DRC), hearing, 548 Damper windings, 56, 281 Dampers, torsional vibration, 54 Damping: critical, 280, 587 ratio, 280, 587 treatment of partitions, 572, 573 Dead: band, governor (definition), 185 time, governor (definition), 185 Decibel (unit), 540 Deflection of vibration isolators: dynamic, 590 592 static, 589-592 Degrees-of-freedom in vibration see Vibration, modes of Demand meters, 330 Demulsification number, 449 Density fuel oil, 440, 441 lubricating oil, 448 relative, of gaseous fuel, 446 Deposits, scale, 16 De-rating of plant, 37-39 Derivative control (definition), 185 Device numbers, 633-634 Dew point (definition), 443 Diagnosis, fault, 607 Dielectric: constant, 74 loss, 74 strength, 74 Diesel: engine see Engines, reciprocating internal combustion knock, 6, 441 Differential: compensation, 267, 268 protection, 378-381 Dilution of lubricating oil by diesel fuel, 450 Diodes, rotating rectifier, monitoring, 52, 53, 224-226 Direct injection see Combustion chambers Direct-on-line starting, induction motor, 154-156 Directivity effects, noise, 563, 564 637 Discharge lamps, characteristics of, 162, 163 Disconnectors, 343 see also Isolators, electrical Discontinuity in partitions, 569 Discrimination in protection schemes, 323, 324, 364 see also Protective relaying systems, co-ordination of protection Distortion factor, 168 Distributor pumps, fuel, 10, 11, 198 District heating, 25 Diversity factor: definition, 142 industrial installations, 142, 143 Domestic loads, 162-164 Doubling effect, 123, 124 Drives, motor variable speed, 164 Dual-fuel engines, 9, 10 Ducts, lined, 576 579 Durometer number, 590 Dynamic: braking of motors, 159 viscosity (definition), 467, 468 Earth resistance values: buried plates/mats, 518 buried strip conductors, 517, 518 reinforced concrete foundations, 519 rod electrodes, 516, 517 Earth terminal networks: driven earth rods, 515-517 buried/horizontal strip conductors, 517, 518 buried plates/mats, 518 cast iron earthpipe electrodes, 518 metallic reinforcement of concrete foundations, 518, 519 thermal capacity of earth electrodes, 519, 520 Earth test meter, 631, 632 Earth-fault protection, forms of, 371, 373-383 Earthing: co-ordination, 428 of equipment, 507-509 of neutrals, 371-373 of system, 507 Eddy-current losses, 94 Efficiency of isolation of vibro-mountings, 587 Efficiencies of RIC engines: charging, 35 mechanical, 34 scavenge, 35 thermal, 34 volumetric, 34 Elastomeric materials in cable insulation, 494 Electric: governors, 210 213 starting systems, 21, 22 Electromagnetic; clutches, 398, 400, 409 compatibility, 165 relays, 332 stresses in busbars, 291, 292 Electromechanical (protection) relays, 361, 362 Emergency and standby power supplies: for safety at sea, 402 638 Index Emergency and standby power supplies (Cont' d) load protection co-ordination, 427, 428 no-break systems, 409 431 hybrid systems, 42~26 kinetic energy systems, 409-419 static systems, 419-423 recent trends in UPS systems, 429 short-break systems, 397-409 battery/inverter schemes, 401, 402 multiple generator schemes, 402-404 single generator schemes, 397-400 standby generators in peak load reduction, 404-409 specifying and selecting UPS systems, 429 system reliability, 428 UPS: bypass switching, 426, 427 system choice considerations, 430 Emergency lighting, 523-526 Enclosures: complete, acoustic, 576, 598 generator, 83, 84 partial, 574 576 power plant, 459, 463, 464 switchgear and controlgear, 326-328 ventilation of, 467-470 Energy: conversion factors, 623 distribution of sound energy impinging upon a partition, 568 energy flow (Sankey) diagram, 26 management, 142 meters, 330 of sound waves, 538 Engine shutdown methods, 354 359 Engines, reciprocating internal combustion (RIC): classification, combustion chambers, 11 condition monitoring, 610 cooling systems, 14 17, 479 482 cylinder arrangements, 7-9 fuel injection, 10 fuels and op~rating modes, 8-10 governors see Governors, engine induction systems, 11-13 lubrication, 14, 15 performance monitoring, 23 piston action and connections, 6, power categories, 32, 33 pressure charging, 17-19 protection see Prime mover protection protection during storage, 452, 453 starting aids, 23, 400 starting equipment, 20 22 waste heat recovery, 24 27 working cycles, 4-6 Environmental: conditioning in non-residential buildings, 142 noise correction factors, 553, 554 Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), 494, 496 Excitation systems, 47, 65-73, 218, 219 Exhaust: emissions, 489, 490 mufflers/silencers, 582-585 noise, 583-584 pipework, 487-488, 584 systems: design aspects, 482-487 installation practice, 487-490 valves and seats, 442-443, 613 Expansion joints in exhaust systems, 488 Explosion risks from exhaust gases in chimneys, 489 Factors affecting generator output rating, 85-87 Fail-safe operation of generators, 355 Fan noise, 596 Far field (definition), 539 Fault: conditions, electrical systems, 293 current sources, 293, 294 diagnosis in plant, 607, 608 impedance see Short-circuit current calculations Ferroresonant inverter, 420 Filters: air intake: engines, 11-13, 470, 614 generators, 81, 616 fuel, 476, 614 lubricating oil, 14, 478, 479, 614 Fire: blanket, 523 performance (FP) cables, 504 506 protection: building design requirements, 521, 522 fire-extinguishing media, 521-523 legislation (UK) for premises, 520 systems, 521 Flame retardent cables, 505 also see Fire performance cables Flanking energy transmission, acoustic, 567, 568 Flash point: fuel, 438, 439 lubricating oil, 449 Flexible: connections in ducts, pipework and cabling, 468, 576, 594 drive couplings, 54 mounting, designing for, 591, 592 Floating floors, 592-594 Flow rate conversion factors, 623 Flow resistance: in ducts, 577, 578 in pipes, 482 Flywheel effect (GD2), 189, 624 see also Moment of inertia Foaming of lubricating oils, 450 Force conversion factors, 623 Forcing frequency, 280, 587 Form factor, 141 see also Wave-form characteristics, alternating current Foundations, power stations, 470-472 Four-stroke cycle, 4, Fractionation column, 435 Frequency: analysis (noise), 546, 550, 555 fundamental, in partitions, 569, 571 natural: of mountings, 587, 588 of engine-generators, 279, 280 preferred bands and centre frequencies - octave and Index third-octave, 546, 548 relationship to speed (generators), 96, 97 Friction losses: engines, 34, 159 generators, 94 Fuel: consumption, 34, 440, 441 see also Specific fuel consumption filters (see Filters, fuel) injection, 10 oils: harmful constituents in, 442, 443 properties, 437-441 properties, effect on performance, 441, 442 refining, 435, 436 specifications, 436, 437 pumps, 10 supplies/systems, 473-478 Fuels, gaseous see Gaseous fuels Full-flow filtration, 478 Functional: (open-loop) control systems, 68, 219 systems documentation (FSD), 606 Fundamental frequency of partitions, 569, 571 Fuse characteristics, 323-326, 364 Fuse-switches and switchfuses, 301, 302 Gas: failure, dual-fuel engines, 9, 10 modulus, 446 pressure regulating valve, 477, 478 Gaseous fuel: analysis, 446 by-product gases, 444-446 natural gas, 443, 444 properties, 446, 447 supply systems, 477 Generators a.c.: a.c exciters, 48, 49, 58, 65 armature and leakage reactance, 45, 105-107 armature reaction, 106 automatic voltage regulation see Automatic voltage regulators brushless excitation, 48, 50 construction features, 53-65, 8~89 cooling systems, 8~3 damper windings, 56, 281 efficiency, 93-96 excitation systems, 47, 48, 218, 219 field windings, 57, 58 imposed vibration conditions, 118 insulation, 73, 75-77 load-angle characteristics, 112-114 neutral earthing, 370, 372, 373 neutrals, interconnection of, 27~277 open-circuit characteristics, 108-111 operation charts, 223, 252-255 overall voltage response, 128, 129, 217 parallel operation, 222,260, 263-268 Potier reactance, 109 power rating, 84, 85 protection see Generator protection re-rating for service conditions, 85, 86 saliency effects, 113, 121, 122 short-circuit: characteristics, 109-111 performance, 124-126 sizing for non-linear loads, 169, 170 speed/frequency relationship, 96, 97 short-circuit ratio, 111 stability, 113, 115, 117 stator: core, 61, 62 windings, 62-65 steady-state operation see Steady-state conditions, generators synchronizing, 247-252 synchronous: reactance, 105-111, 121, 122 speeds, 97 temperature rise, 73, 78, 79 time constants, 126, 130 transient and subtransient reactances, 123-127 typical machine constants, 129, 130 unbalanced magnetic pull, 118, 119 ventilation systems, 80, 81 voltage: characteristics, 104, 105 regulation, 105 zero-power-factor test, 108, 109 Generator protection: choice of system, 392, 393 failure of prime mover, 38~388 loss of excitation, 385, 386 loss of synchronism, 388 over- and under-frequency, 382 over- and under-voltage, 381, 382 overload, 382, 383 rotor faults, 381 stator winding earth-faults, 370-381 typical relaying schemes, 388-393 unbalanced loading, 383-385 Global impregnation process, 77 Governor (definition), 185 Governors, engine: basic terminology, 185-188 factors affecting choice, 23 fuel control actuators, 194-196 import/export controllers, 185-188 load sharing units, 211 operating principles: electric type, 194 mechanical type, 189, 190 mechanical-hydraulic type, 190-194 overspeed protection, 197, 198 proprietary types: direct mechanical, 198, 199 electric, 210-212 mechanical-hydraulic, 199-210 recent trends in control systems, 212, 213 selection of, 188, 189 servomechanisms, 191 Harmonic: analysis, 166, 182 complex wave-forms, 166 content, 103 see also Total harmonic content distortion see Total harmonic distortion 639 640 Index Harmonic (Cont' d) filters, 166 interference with communications circuits see Telephone harmonic factor Health and safety aspects of power system installations: codes of practice (UK), 507 overseas regulations, 507 statutory regulations (UK), 506 Hearing damage see Damage risk criteria hearing Heat: balance engine, 25 in loads, 141 exchanger (definition), 81 air-cooled engines, 15 air-to-air type, 19, 81 air-to-water type, 16, 19, 81 charge air cooling, 19, 613 cooling towers, 16, 480, 614 material selection, 16 shell and tube type, 16 spray pond, 16, 614 water treatment, 17,614 generated by power losses in equipments, 493 losses: engines, 26 generators, 94-96 switchgear, cables and transformers, 493 pumps, 26 reclamation systems see Waste heat recovery, engines Heater plugs in combustion chambers, 23, 400 Heaters: conditioning, in generators and switchgear, 493, 614 for heavy fuels, 475-477 High-pressure fuel piping, 351, 353, 354 High-voltage: generator (definition), 104, 105 power cables, 496, 497 Hoses, flexible, in fuel systems, 477 Hospitals: isolation of structure-borne noise, 586 emergency power supplies, 397 recommended NR levels, 553 Hotel, CHP installation for, 464, 465 Hotwell tank, 479, 480 Hunting, 185, 280 Hybrid no-break power systems, 423-426 Hydraulic starting systems, 20, 21 Hydrogen-to-carbon ratio in fuel, the significance of, 440 Hysteresis: effect, 94 in speed governors, 185 loss, 94 Ignition: in c.i engine working cycles, 4-6 quality of fuel, 6, 438, 447 Illumination: interior lighting, 523 emergency lighting, 523-526 Impedance, acoustic see Specific acoustic impedance Incident energy, sound see Energy, distribution of sound energy etc Indicated: mean effective pressure (i.m.e.p.), 33 power, engine, 37 Indicating instruments see Instrumentation and metering Indirect injection see Combustion chambers Induction: generators in standby plant, 391, 408, 409 motors see Motors, induction system, engine, 11-13, 482, 614 Industrial installations, the nature of loads in, 138, 142, 164-169 Inertia: blocks see Vibration control constant, 115 Infinite busbar (definition), 252 Inherent voltage regulation see Voltage regulation, inherent Initial run-up of plant on commissioning, 528, Injector, 11 Insertion loss (definition), 576 see a/so Ducts, lined Insolubles content of lubricating oil, 449, 450 Instrumentation and metering, 328 331 Insulating materials, electrical: causes of failure, 74, 75 electrical properties, 73, 74 thermal classification, 76, 77 Insulation: cable see Cable insulation systems, generator manufacturing processes resin-rich, 77 vacuum pressure impregnation (v.p.i.), 77, 78 the ideal system, 75 Integral control (definition), 185 Integrated circuits, 332 Intercoolers see Charge air cooling Interference level, speech see Speech interference level Interrupter: gas blast (puffer), 319, 320 rotating arc, 320, 321 vacuum, 314-316 Inverter loads on generators, 167-169 Inverters: in standby supplies, 401, 402 in UPS systems, 420-423 types, 420 Isochronous speed governing (definition), 185 Isolation, vibration see Vibration control Isolators: electrical, 287, 288 vibration see Vibration control: isolators 12R loss see Copper losses Iron losses, generator, 94 Jacket water cooling, engine see Engines, RIC, cooling systems Joule (unit) conversion factor, 623, 624 Kelvin (temperature), 78, 79, 84 Kinetic energy systems, no-break, 409-419 Index Knock-out pots, 446 Korndorfer starting, induction motor, 157 Lagging, thermal of exhaust pipework, 488 Lamps, discharge see Discharge lamps, characteristics of Leakage reactance see Generators a.c.: armature and leakage reactance Legionellae (legionnaires' disease), 614 Lighting: emergency, 523, 526 interior, 523 Lightning protection systems, 509-511 Liquified natural gas (LNG), 444 Load acceptance capability of engines, 39, 40 Load-angle characteristics, generator, 112, 113 Load: assessment: definitions for load-demand patterns, 138-142 load demand curves, 138, 139 balance, llCr118 elements affecting plant size/performance: capacitive loads, 161, 162 cyclic loads, 172, 173 induction motors, 147-154, 157-160 non-linear loads, 162-170 factor (definition), 140 form factor (definition), 141 sharing: accuracy of, 261-263 active power (kW), 257-260 control schemes, 268-272 isochronous, 260 reactive power (kV Ar), 260, 261, 263-269 range tolerance (definition), 104 shedding, 270, 335, 336 Loading of vibro-isolators, 591 Loss angle (definition), 74 Loss factor, load, 141 Losses, generator, 94 96 Loudness: curves, 545 level, 546 units, 545, 546 Louvres: acoustic, 576, 581, 582 atmospheric, 468 Low smoke zero halogen (LSOH) cables, 496, 505 see also Fire performance cables Lubrication: schedules, 618 engine, 14, 15 Lubricating oil: additives, 451, 452 coolers, 14 diagnosis of used oils, 610, 611 dilution by fuel oil, 450 inhibitors: corrosion, rust and oxidation, 451 pressure in engines, 14 priming, 15 properties and their significance, 447-451 pumps, 14 refinery processes, 447 specifications, 452 641 sumps, 14 systems, 14, 477-479, 527 Machine enclosures, 83, 84 see also Enclosures Magnetism, residual, 50 Magnetization curves, 108-111, 161 Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.), 106 Maintenance: condition monitoring in, 610, 611 engines, 614, 615 generators, 615-617 preventive 611-613 records, 613, 614 schedules, 614-618 strategies, 609-611 supporting schedules, 618, 619 switchgear, 617, 618 Mass law in partitions, 569 Mass-spring system, 586, 587 Maximum demand: definition, 140 reduction by peak-lopping generation, 404, 405, 407 Mechanical: efficiency of RIC engine, 33, 34 noise, engine, 595 see also Diesel knock Medium voltage switchgear, 104 Meter, earth test, 631, 632 Meters and instrumentation, 330, 331 Mica-based insulating materials, 76, 77 Microphones, 557, 559-561 Microprocessor-based controllers, 104 Mineral-insulated metal sheathed cable, 505 see also Fire performance cables Mobile and transportable power plants, 464-467 Modulus of elasticity: of materials, 537 in rubber mountings, 590 Moment of inertia (mk2), 189, 624 see also Flywheel effect Monitoring, condition see Condition monitoring Motors, induction: characteristics, 148 braking, 159 harmonic voltage effects on performance, 159-161 reswitching transients, 158, 159 sizing prime mover and generator for, 157-159 starting, 149, 150 starting methods, 154 157 types, 154 voltage reduction effects on performance, 150-154 voltage unbalance effects on performance, 159 Mountings, anti-vibration see Vibration control isolators Mufflers, engine exhaust, 582-585 Multi-generator plant, automation of, 268-275 Natural frequency, 280, 281, 586, 587 Negative phase sequence, 159, 383-385 Network analysis, 364 see also Protective relaying systems, co-ordination of protection Neutral: earthing, 371-373 interconnection of, 27Cr277 642 Index Neutralization number, 449 Newton (unit) conversion factors, 623 Nitrogen oxides (NO.), 489 No-break ~ystems see Uninterruptible power supplies Nodal dampers see Torsional vibration dampers Noise: control: attenuation by distance, 563-565 attenuation due to screensJ barriers, 565-567 measures for power plants, 470, 596-598 evaluation: criteria curves, 551-555 equivalent continuous level, 549 exposure level, 549 frequency, 546, 547 intensity, 545, 546 time-patterns, 548 weighting networks, 549-551 masking, 599 measurement: reasons for, 555 sound level meters and recorders, 555-557 microphones, 557-561 methods, 561, 562 sources in generating plant, 595, 596 Nozzles, injector, 11 Octave analysis, sound, 546, 550, 555 Offices, recommended NR levels, 553 Oil refining, 435, 436, 447 Open-loop control systems, 68, 219 Operation charts, generator, 223, 252-255 Opposed piston engines, Otto cycle, Out-of-balance forces in engine vibration, 585, 586 Overcurrent protection, 365-368, 392, 393 Overhaul, engine: major, 615 top, 615 service between, 614, 615 Overspeed protection, engine, 349, 350 Overvoltage protection, 381, 382, 392, 393 Oxidation, lubricating oil inhibitors, 451 stability, 450, 451 Oxygen index of material, 506 Parallel operation of generators with utility supplies, 3