construcyion of marine and offshore structures

To Martelle and Ellen, whose love and understanding sustained the efforts of preparing this book 111 Contents Introduction 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Physical Environmental 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 General '" Geography ·3 Ecological Environment , Legal Jurisdiction Offshore Construction Relationships and Sequences Typical Marine Structures and Contracts Interaction of Design and Construction Construction General 15 Distances and Depths 15 Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy 16 Temperature , 18 Seawater and Sea-Air Interface Chemistry, Marine Organisms 19 Currents , 20 Waves and Swells 24 Winds and Storms 30 Tides and Storm Surges 34 Rain, Snow, Fog, Whiteout, 'and Spray; Atmospheric Icing, Lightning 35 Sea Ice and Icebergs 36 Seismicity, Seaquakes, and Tsunamis 41 Floods 42 Geotechnical 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 Aspects of Marine and Offshore Aspects: Seafloor and Marine Soils General 43 Dense Sands , 45 Calcareous Sands 45 Boulders on and near the Seafloor Surface; Glacial TilL 46 Overconsolidated Silts 47 Sub-Sea Permafrost and Clathrates 47 Weak Arctic Silts and Clays 47 Ice Scour and Pingos : 48 Methane Gas 48 Muds and Clays 48 v 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 m mm •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• for Offshore Structures Steel Structures for the Offshore Environment Structural Concrete Hybrid Steel-Concrete Structures Plastics and Synthetic Materials, Composites Titanium Rock, Sand, and Asphaltic-Bituminous Materials Marine and Offshore Construction 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 vi General 57 Oil and Petroleum Products 57 Toxic Chemicals 58 Contaminated Soils 58 Construction Wastes 58 Turbidity 59 Sediment Transport, Scour, and Erosion 59 Air Pollution 60 Marine Life: Mammals and Birds, Fish, and Other Biota 60 Aquifers 60 Noise 61 Highway, Rail, Barge, and Air Traffic 61 Protection of Existing Structures 62 Vibration 63 Safety of the Public and Other Vessels 63 Materials and Fabrication 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 50 51 53 53 54 54 54 55 56 Ecological and Societal Impacts of Marine Construction 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Coral and Similar Biogenic Soils; Cemented Soils Unconsolidated Sands Underwater Sand Dunes ("Megadunes") Rock Outcrops Cobbles Deep Gravel Deposits Seafloor Oozes Seafloor Instability and Slumping; Turbidity Currents Concluding Remarks Concerning Seafloor 65 74 87 88 91 91 Equipment General 93 Basic Motions in a Seaway 94 Buoyancy, Draft, and Freeboard 96 Stability 98 Damage Control 99 Barges 102 Crane Barges 105 Offshore Derrick Barges (Fully Revolving) 108 Catamaran Barges 112 Semisubmersible Barges 112 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 Marine 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Towing Moorings and Anchors Handling Heavy Loads at Sea Personnel Transfer at Sea Underwater Intervention, Diving, Underwater Work Systems, ROVs, and Manipulators Underwater Concreting and Grouting Offshore Surveying, Navigation, and Sea-Floor Surveys Temporary Buoyancy Augmentation Modifications 133 140 150 156 160 168 179 184 and Improvements General 187 Controls for Grade and Position: Determination of Existing Conditions 188 Seafloor Dredging and Obstruction Removal 189 Dredging and Removal of Hard Material and Rock 196 Placement of Underwater Fills 200 Consolidation and Strengthening of Weak Soils 204 Prevention of Liquefaction 206 Scour Protection '" 206 Concluding Remarks 210 Installation 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 115 119 120 124 127 128 128 130 130 130 Operations Seafloor 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Jack-Up Construction Barges Launch Barges Offshore Dredges Pipe- Laying Barges Supply Boats Anchor-Handling Boats Towboats Drilling Vessel Crew Boats Floating Concrete Plant of Piles in Marine and Offshore Structures General '" 213 Fabrication of Tubular Steel Piles 216 Transportation of Piling 217 Installing Piles 219 Methods of Increasing Penetration 239 Insert Piles 242 Anchoring into Rock or Hardpan 242 Damaged Piles 243 Pre-Stressed Concrete Piles for Marine Structures 243 Handling and Positioning of Piles 245 Drilled and Grouted Piles 247 Belled Footings 251 vii 8.13 8.14 Other Installation Methods and Practices 254 Improving the Capacity of Piles 254 Harbor, River, and Estuary Structures 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 General Harbor Structures River Structures Piers for Overwater Bridges Submerged Prefabricated Tunnels (Tubes) Storm Surge Barriers Flow Control Structures 257 257 266 274 296 302 307 10 Coastal Structures 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 General Ocean Outfalls and Intakes Breakwaters Offshore Terminals 315 315 321 328 11 Offshore Platforms: Steel Jackets and Pin Piles ILl 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 General 343 Fabrication of Steel Jackets 343 Load-Out, Tie-Down, and Transport 345 Removal ofJacket from Transport Barge; Lifting; Launching 353 Up-ending of Jacket 360 Installation on the Seafloor 363 Pile and Conductor Installation 366 Deck Installation 369 Examples 371 12 Concrete Offshore Platforms: Gravity-Base Structures 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 General Construction Stages Enhancing Caisson-Foundation Interaction Sub- Base Construction Platform Removal 13 Other Applications of Offshore Construction 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 viii 387 389 427 431 432 Technology General 433 Hybrid Concrete-Steel Platforms 433 Single-Point Moorings 434 Articulated Columns 437 Seafloor Templates 444 Underwater Oil Storage Vessels 450 Cable Arrays, Moored Buoys, and Seafloor Deployment 453 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 454 14 Moored Floating Structures 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15 Installation 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 16 General 467 Conventional S-Lay Barge 470 Bottom- Pull Method, Coastal Pipelines 486 Reel Barge 493 Surface Float 494 Controlled Underwater Flotation {Controlled Subsurface Float) 495 Controlled Above-Bottom Pull 495 J-Tube Method from Platform: Single- and Double-Pull 496 J-Lay from Barge 497 S-Curve with Collapsible Floats 497 Bundled Pipes 498 Directional Drilling 498 Laying Under Ice 490 Protection of Pipelines: Burial and Covering with Rock 490 Support of Pipelines 506 Submarine Pipelines of Composite Materials and Plastics 507 Cable Laying 508 Topside Installation 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 18 of Submarine Pipelines Plastic and Composite Pipelines, Cables 16.1 16.2 17 General 457 Fabrication of Concrete Floating Structures 459 Launching 462 Use of Concrete Barges for Cryogenic Service: FPSOs for LPG and LNG 463 Steel Structures for Permanently Floating Service 463 Mating Afloat 465 General 511 Module Erection 511 Hook- Up 513 Giant Modules and Transfer of Complete Deck by Heavy Lift 515 Float -Over Deck Structures 515 Integrated Deck 517 Underwater 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 Repairs General Repairs to Steel Jacket-Type Structures Repairs to Steel Piling Repairs to Concrete Offshore Structures , Repairs to Foundations Fire Damage Pipeline Repairs 519 520 523 523 525 526 527 ix 19 Strengthening 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 20 General 547 Construction Stages 548 Principles of Construction 552 Facilities and Methods for Fabrication and Launching 552 Assembly and Jointing Afloat 556 Material Selection and Procedures 557 Construction Procedures 558 Access '" 563 Tolerances 564 Survey Control 565 Quality Control and Assurance 566 Safety 567 Control of Construction: Feedback and Modification 568 Contingency Planning 568 Manuals 569 On -Site Instruction Sheets 571 Risk and Reliability Evaluation 571 Construction 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9 22.10 22.11 x General 541 Piled Structures (Terminals, Trestles, Shallow-Water Platforms) 542 Offshore Drilling and Production Platforms (Jackets with Piles) 543 Gravity- Base Platforms 544 New Developments in Salvage Techniques 546 Constructibility 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 21.14 21.15 21.16 21.17 22 General 531 Strengthening of Offshore Platforms and Terminals, Members, or Assemblies 531 Increasing Capacity of Existing Piles for Axial Loads 532 Increasing Lateral Capacity of Piles and Structures in Interaction with Seafloor Soils 537 Seismic Retrofit 539 Removal and Salvage 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 21 Existing Structures in the Deep Sea General 575 Considerations and Phenomena for Deep-Sea Operations 576 Techniques for Deep-Sea Construction 576 Properties of Materials for the Deep Sea 577 Platforms in the Deep Sea, Compliant Structures 581 Tension -Leg Platforms 587 SPARS 59I Deep-Water Moorings 591 Construction Operations on the Deep Seafloor 594 Deep-Water Pipe Laying 598 Deep-Water Bridge Piers 600 23 Arctic Marine Structures 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 23.9 23.10 23.11 23.12 23.13 23.14 23.15 23.16 23.17 General Sea Ice and Icebergs Atmospheric Conditions Arctic Seafloor and Geotechnics Oceanographic Ecological Considerations Logistics and Operations Earthwork in the Arctic Offshore Ice Structures Steel and Concrete Structures for the Arctic Deployment of Structures in the Arctic Installation at Site Ice Condition Surveys and Ice Management Durability Constructibility Pipeline Installation Current Arctic Developments 607 608 612 613 615 615 616 618 621 623 629 631 640 641 643 644 644 Epilogue 647 References 649 Index 651 xi 642 Construction FIGURE 23.14.1 of Marine and Offshore Structures Baltic Sea lighthouses have suffered severe ice abrasion near waterline from moving ice For concrete structures, the concrete will, of course, have been designed to be of very high quality, with low permeability and optimal entrained air Both normal hard rock and high-grade lightweight aggregates will be used Silica fume should be used to improve bond strength and abrasion-resistance of the matrix Abrasion-resistant aggregates should be selected The major sources of problems for concrete structures are thermal cracking, freeze-thaw disintegration of the concrete, and abrasion by ice Thermal cracking during fabrication is due to restrained cooling after the temperature rise due to heat of hydration Proper mix design, selection of cement, use of pozzolans, and insulation of the forms can eliminate or minimize such cracking Proper detailing of reinforcement on the exposed face can serve to control cracks due to thermal strains both in fabrication and in service Freeze-thaw disintegration of external concrete surfaces can be prevented by use of air entrainment of the proper amount and pore sizes (this latter is the more important), by using a dense impermeable mix, and by using aggregate of low water absorption (less than 6%) Blast furnace slag cements appear more susceptible to freeze-thaw attack than portland cement with fly ash A special problem may arise when external compartments are filled with seawater above the external sea level Water penetration into the concrete, combined with very low air temperatures, can create a freeze-front inside the concrete wall, leading eventually to delamination The internal walls in this zone should therefore be coated with an impermeable membrane Abrasion by ice appears to be a complex interaction of frictional wear and adfreeze plucking Use of a very dense concrete, such as that obtained by adding condensed silica fume to the mix, appears to give moderately satisfactory results, based on both laboratory and field exposure tests Steel armor plate has been used on the Baltic Sea lighthouses Polyurethane coating and ceramics are potential solutions See Figure 23.14.1 Corrosion of reinforcement should not occur with a dense concrete such as that obtained by the combined addition of silica fume and superplasticizer (high-range water reducer) If the deck of the structure is concrete and if salts such as calcium chloride will be used by the operating personnel to prevent atmospheric and spray icing, then the decks should be well sloped for drainage and the top layers of reinforcing steel should be epoxy coated Arctic Marine Structures 23.15 643 Constructibility Constructibility planning as set forth in Chapter 21 is even more important in the Arctic than elsewhere due to the very limited open-water season, the extreme logistical difficulties, and the large capital investment Contingency plans must be prepared for the cases of late opening of the ice for passage around Point Barrow and for sudden summer storms and even summer pack ice invasions during the construction period Summer ice incursions are of special concern in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas Boats may have their propellers damaged by ice Critical equipment may not start in extremely cold weather Windblown spray may add many hundreds of tons of water onto an island under construction API Bulletin 2N, sec 7.5, states: In areas subject to heavy sea ice, bad weather and ice conditions may mean delays in completing the tow to the final location Possible temporary mooring sites should be selected along the towing route for refuge in case of such delays Exceptionally poor ice conditions or weather conditions may cause sufficient delay to prevent installing the structure during the scheduled summer construction season For this reason, it may be necessary to over-winter at a temporary location Safety of personnel must be given major consideration A human can survive only a few minutes in water at -2°C Provisions must be made for firefighting in below-freezing weather Intakes for water must not clog with frazil ice or broken ice Provisions must be made for snow clearance, for although the amount of snow is small, the high winds can cause substantial drifts around structures In the sub-Arctic regions, atmospheric icing may make crane booms unusable and endanger the stability of boats Decks and walkways can become iced Measures of preventing or removing ice need to be planned API Bulletin 2N, sec 8.1.2, "Construction Conditions during the Arctic Summer;' states: Construction planning in offshore areas subject to ice incursion should allow for this contingency (ice invasion) by providing proper equipment and personnel training Contingency plans should include provision for ice surveillance and forecasting, by satellite and radar, active and/or passive defense systems, separation of vessels, and ice strengthening of vessels Section 8.1.4b, "Fog;' continues: Construction plans should account for the effect of fog on logistics and other visibility-dependent operations Section 8.1.4c, "Break-up and Freeze-up;' states: Construction plans should account for the effects of ice movement and logistics interruptions associated with break-up and freeze-up With regard to winter construction of ice roads, API-2N in Section 8.2 and 8.3 calls attention to the need for pre-construction reconnaissance, with especial reference to leads and cracks in the ice, and to the need for lighted signs and roadway delineation markers They should also indicate the distance and direction to a safe refuge or aid, in event of an accident or unforeseen event Survival shacks, marked by a light, and survival drums should be placed at adequate intervals along the road 644 23.16 Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures Pipeline Installation In areas of the Arctic where 40 to 60 days of open water can be assumed, a conventional lay barge could be employed The shallow water and mild wave climate eliminate many of the problems normally associated with deep-water pipe laying However, special welding procedures may be needed because of the low ambient temperatures in early fall Pipelines in the Arctic will generally have to be trenched to m deep in order to protect them against ice scour, at least out to a water depth of 50 m The fastest means for trenching appears to be by the use of a heavy-duty plow It may be desirable to equip the plow with high-pressure water jets to break down the overconsolidated silt and to break down any permafrost or ice lenses encountered in the near-shore areas Pipelines in other areas can be pulled, working even under the ice The pulling line must be laid out on the seafloor, possibly using a submersible or ROV to lay a messenger line In fast ice in winter, holes may be cut at intervals and the ice used as a platform for feeding in and pulling of pipe For the Panarctic Drake tie-in line, a 140-ton manifold was modified to use as a sled The 300-m shoreline approach was encased in a 24 in (600 mm) casing with a in (75 mm) methanol line, for circulating methanol at -10°C to grow a I-m diameter ice bulb to protect the line Winches were installed on the ice at l-km intervals and side-boom cats used to control overbend radii See Figure 23.16.1 The pipeline was pulled into a 2-m-deep plowed ditch, which was backfilled with gravel to form the frozen bulb The pipeline tie-in to a structure requires careful detailing Some structures can best be fitted with J-tubes In other cases, a curved casing can be directionally drilled into the seafloor and used as a pull-in tube for the pipeline In sands, a slant casing may be driven and a pre-bent elbow installed This necessitates an underwater joint at the toe of the caisson Such an underwater joint can be made by use of a habitat Alternatively, the initial connection may be made by a gasketed flange, with a worker descending into the unwatered line from the platform to make the final weld See Figure 23.16.2 In sands, local stabilization may be required around the connection zone, using chemical grouts suitable for the low temperature Another solution is to build in a pipe tunnel at the base of the structure After the pipeline has been pulled in, the tunnel is dewatered to permit welding of the line At the shore end, the pipeline will enter a zone of permafrost The protection of the shore from thermokarst erosion due to thawing of the frozen soil and subsequent wave erosion is an extremely important design matter The constructor can expect that measures such as double casing with refrigerant or special insulation or a rock-filled causeway will be required 23.17 Current Arctic Developments Eastern Canada The Terra Nova field, north of Sable Island, on the Grand Banks off the coast of Nova Scotia, is an area subject to high waves and high currents, as well as sea ice and rare icebergs This field will be developed by floating FPSOs, moored to anchors placed in 12-m-deep glory holes Because of the rough seas, the glory holes are being excavated by drilling overlapping holes with a 5.6-m-diameter cutting head The glory holes range from 16 x 16 m to 56 x 16 m A 20 in (0.5 m) drill string operates the cutting head and raises the cuttings for discharge through a 300-m floating pipeline Water depth is up to 100 m The seabed is glacial debris with clay, cobbles, cemented sands, and gravel Sakhalin One of the newest frontier oil provinces is Sakhalin Although the former Soviet Union and more recently Russia have been producing a modest amount of oil from a coastal field on northeast Sakhalin, the interest today is on a number of apparently large structures in water depths from 30 to over 200 m along the eastern and northern coasts For months of the year the seas are ice covered One particular potential difficulty is that the prevailing winds and currents make this a compression field, with ridges jammed against one another In the open-water season, storms create high waves Currents are strong Sakhalin is in a seismic zone 646 FIGURE 23.16.2 R J Brown.) Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures Concepts for pipeline tie-ins to Arctic offshore structures (Courtesy of R J Brown of Kvaerner Despite these adverse environmental factors, the potential yield of these fields and their proximity to the Japanese and Korean markets makes this an area of strong interest Initial development of two offshore fields is planned to be carried out in 1998 using the Molikpaq, the steel gravity-base mobile platform that previously worked in the Canadian Beaufort Sea It will be placed on top of a IDem-high steel sub-base that was initially fabricated in Russia's Eastern Province, then joined in Korea The sub-base will be submerged, and the Molikpaq caisson floated over the top Then the sub-base will be deballasted, raising the joint above water The joint will be welded, with exterior closure plates When fully outfitted, the 30-m-high caisson will be towed to the site and submerged onto a gravel pad by filling external buoyancy tanks Then the interior will be filled with 300,000 m3 of dredged sand and gravel Riprap will be placed around the periphery to prevent scour And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cold: And ice mast-high, came floating by, As green as emerald The ice was here, the ice was there, The ice was all around, It cracked and growled and roared and howled Like noises in a swound Coleridge "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" When the first edition was prepared in 1986, it seemed appropriate to append an Epilogue which not only gave tribute to the tremendous developments in our society's capabilities for constructing structures in the oceans, but also emphasized the enormity of the challenges that still remained Now, 13 years later, many of those challenges have been successfully met and in some cases exceeded What verged on the impossible only a little over a decade ago is now a reality, thanks to the vision and the courage of those who dared to assail the frontiers The oceans, with their vastness, their dynamics, and their profundity, still hold us in awe Although our measurement and analytical abilities have advanced by an order of magnitude, predictability of the many phenomena remains tantalizingly beyond our grasp, subject to the whims of chaotic behavior Two of the key challenges identified in 1986 were the construction of structures subject to iceberg impact and construction of facilities beyond 500 m depth Both have been met, the first with Hibernia, the second with the current deep-water pipelines and structures in 1500 m, with that depth soon to be exceeded But several of the challenges still remain Bridges across the Strait of Gibraltar and Messina have yet to be built The Mobile Offshore Base, a floating airport and naval base, is still in the planning stage, although elements are now moving into preliminary engineering Floating offshore industrial plants are within our capabilities but not yet exploited to any significant degree One major advance has been the transfer of offshore technology from the offshore to the inshore Piers for many of the recently completed mega-bridges have utilized the practices, equipment, and procedures originally developed in the ocean The U.S Corps of Engineers has recently adopted offshore technology and concepts for their major river structures such as locks and dams The past decade has thankfully been characterized by greater safety and a reduction in tragic catastrophes, yet we must never forget the power and terror of the seas As a final paragraph, that of the first edition still seems appropriate "Asthis new frontier unfolds and as society assimilates the opportunities presented by the development of the seas, it may be possible for humankind to transcend archaic concepts that have thus far limited true gIobalization For although the initial uses of the ocean have been for food, naval activity, material resources, and scientific exploration, the full exploration of this vast and wonderful region of the Earth will inevitably benefit our collective culture in all its aspects: sociologically, intellectually, politically, and even spiritually, as we learn to work with and become an integral part of the oceanic environment:' 647 648 Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures "And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea." Katherine Lee Bates, "America the Beautiful" API Recommendations and Specifications, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C • API-RPZA Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Structures • API-RP2N Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Structures in Ice Environments • API-RP2SK Recommended Practice for Design and Analysis of Stationkeeping Systems for Floating Structures • API-RP-FPI Designing, Analyzing and Maintaining Moorings for Floating Production Systems • API-RP-2P Recommended Practice for Spread Mooring Systems for Floating Drilling Units • API-RP-2T Planning, Designing and Constructing Tension Leg Platforms • API-Spec 2B Specification for Fabricated Steel Pipe • API-Spec 2F Specification for Mooring Chain ABS Rules for Building and Classifying, American Bureau of Shipping, New York • ABS Rules for Single Point Mooring • ABS Rules for Fixed Offshore Structures (draft) • ABS Rules for Steel Barges ACI Recommendations, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI • ACI-359 Concrete Offshore Structures • ACI-357R Concrete Barge-like Structures ASCE Journal of Waterways, Ports and Harbors Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Washington, D.C CS-471-474 Standards for Offshore Structures in Frontier and Arctic Areas, Canadian Standards Institute, Rexdale, Ontario DNV - Rules for Classification, Ret Norske Veritas, Oslo, Norway: • DNV Rules for Offshore Structures • DNV Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems Rules and Regulations for the Construction and Classification of Offshore Platforms, Bureau Veritas, Paris Drag Embedment Anchors for Navy Moorings, NCEL Tech Data Sheet, 83-08K, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA PIP Guides to Good Practice, Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, Thomas Telford, London: • Sea Operations • Grouting of Vertical Tendons • Recommendations for Design and Construction of Concrete Sea Structures 649 650 Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures OTC Proceedings, Offshore Technology Conferences, Houston Bruun, P., Port Engineering, Vol I, Gulf Publications, Houston, 1989 Chen, Handbook of Bridge Engineering, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL, 1999 Gerwick, B., Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1993 Herbich, J., Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol 7, Offshore Structures and Marine Foundations, Gulf Publishing, Houston, 1991 Navfac P-990, Conventional Underwater Construction and Repair Technologies, May 1995 U.S Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA O'Brien, Standard Handbook of Heavy Construction, 3rd ed., Chapter D-4, Cofferdams and caissons, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996 Quinn, A.D., Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures, 2nd ed., McGraw- Hill, New York, 1972 Ratay, R., Handbook of Temporary Structures in Construction, 2nd ed., Chapter 7, Cofferdams, McGrawHill, New York, 1996 Shore Protection Manual, U.S Corps of Engineers, U.S Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C Journals Addressing Marine and Offshore Construction Dredging and Port Construction Marine Technology Noroil Ocean Engineering Ocean Industry Ocean News and Technology Offshore Oil and Gas Journal World Dredging and Marine Construction Above-bottom pull (pipelines), 495-496 Access, for constructibility, 563 Air cushion, 137 Airlift excavation, 193 Anchor(s) clump, 140 conventional, 143 deadweight, 142-143 drag embedment, 141-143 gravity, 143 -handling boat, 128 holding capacity, 144 pile, 142 propellant, 144 suction, 144 Anchor-handling boats, 128 Anchored buoys, 453 Arctic constructibility, 643 current developments, 644-646 deployment, 629-630 dredging, 616-621 ecological considerations, 615-616 earthwork,618-621 ice islands, 38, 622 ice pack, 608, 612 icebreaking, 617-618, 640 installation, 631-640 logistics, 616-618 marine structures, 607-640 pipelines, 644 seafloor, 613-615, 620-621 slope protection, 618-619 storms, 615 towing, 133-136, 139-140,629-630 Arctic marine structures, 607-646 caisson- retained islands, 623-640 concrete, 623-462 deployment, 629-630 durability,641-642 gravity base, 624-626 installation, 631-633 removal, 634-635 steel, 623 towing, 137-138,629-630,632, 635 Articulated columns, 437-444 Articulated concrete mats, 505, ~20 Articulated ladders, 157 Articulated mattresses, 505 Asphaltic materials, 91-92 Assembly afloat, 556-557 Atmospheric conditions, 35-36, 612-613 Atmospheric icing, 35, 612 Aurora borealis, 612 Ballasting, of GBS, 406 Barges, 102-105 catamarran, 112, 153 crane, 10S-108 derrick, 108-111 jack-up, 115-118 launch, 102-104, 119-120,271-272,554-556 offshore dredges, 120-124 pipelaying, 124-127,470-486 reel, 493-494 screed, 191 semisubmersible, 112-115, 130 shear legs, 105-108 submergence, 104-105 submersible, 105 Basin, construction, 553-554 Belled footings, 251-254, 536 "Billy Pugh" net, 158, 160, 563 Bituminous materials, 91-92 Blasting (underwater), 196-200 Boats anchor handling, 128 crew, 130 drilling vessel, 130 supply, 127 tow, 128-130 Bolts, high-strength, 66, 69 Bottom-pull, of pipelines, 486-493 Boulders, ice-rafted, 46 Breakwaters, 321-328, 628 Breasting dolphins, 328, 329, 332, 335 Bridge piers, 274-286 deep-water, 600-605 651 652 overwater, 274-285 Bulkheads, 263 Bumper piles, 449 Bundled pipes, 498 Buoyancy, 96-97 au~entation, 184-185 of structures, 16-18,96-97 temporary, 184-185,339,445, 543 Buoys,anchored,453 Burial, of pipelines, 194,499-505 Cables arrays, 453-454 laying, 508-510 Caissons for overwater bridge piers, 274-285 for quay walls, 265 gravity base, 276-280 Caisson-retained islands, 623 624 Calcareous soils, 45-46, 180 Cap rock, 51 Cellular cofferdams, 266-268 Cemented soils, 50-51 Cementation of soils, 205-206 Cerveza (installation), 377, 379, 381-386 Clamshell dredge, 120, 123-124, 197 Clathrates, 614 Clays consolidation of, 50 and muds, 48 scour of, 50 weak,47-48 Coatings blowouts, 85, for concrete, 85, 642 for steel, 73-74, 80-81, 642 Cobbles, on seafloor, 54 Coflexip pipelines, 508 Cofferdams, 266-268,275,294 Cognac, installation, 371, 374-376, 383 Compliant towers, 586-587 Collapsible floats, 497 Composite construction, 88 Concrete abrasion resistance, 74-86 admixtures, 172-175 bond,74 cast in place, 559 coatings, 85, 642 construction joints, 85 creep, 76 curing, 78-79 forming, 86-86 freeze-thaw durability, 75, 642 grout-intruded, 175-176 heat of hydration, 75 hybrid concrete-steel, 87-88, 433 mbres, 75-78, 168-169 Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures permeability, 75-76 placement, 78 plant, floating, 130-131 platforms, 387-432, 459-462, 523-524 precast, 86, 268, 270 prestressed, 264 properties, 75-76 pumped,176 reinforcement of, 79 repairs, 523-524 slip forms, 85-86, 559 structural,74-75 sulfate resistance, 76 tolerances, 86 trernie, 169-172 Conductor installation, 366-369, 427 Consolidation of underwater fills, 202-203 of weak soils, 204-206 Constructibility,547-574 in Arctic, 643 Construction basin, 389-397, 553-554 facilities, 552-553 in the deep sea, 575-605 joints, 85 management, 568 manuals, 569-571 platforms,343 principles, 552 procedures, 558-563 quality control, 556-557 stages, 548-551 tolerances, 86, 564-565 wastes, disposal of, 58 Construction afloat, 556-557 Contingency planning, 568-569, 643 for towing, 133 Contractual relationships, Coral, 43, 50-51 Corrosion, protection for concrete, 85, 642 for embedments, 85 for steel, 73-74, 80-81, 642 Crane barges, 105-108 Crew boat, 130 Currents, effects of, 20-24 Cylinder piles, 228, 244-245 Damage control, 99-100 Deck construction, 410-412 installation, 369-371,423,511-515 integrated, 517 mating, 416-418 transport, 369-371,412-414 Decompression, of divers, 163 ~a ~ Deep sea construction methods, 575-605 material properties, 577-581 mining operations, 195 phenomena, 576 platforms, 581 seawater properties, 19-21,578 techniques, 576-577 Densification of underwater fills,203-206 Deployment, seafloor,453-454 Derrick barge, 108-111 Dikes, underwater, 203 Diving, 160-165 communications, 164-165 systems, 160-163, 165 tasks, 161-162 tethered, 163 tools and procedures, 163 Dredge(s) clamshell, 120, 123-124, 197 hydraulic, 121 offshore 120-124 trailer s~ction 121 192 Dredging, 189-1~9 ' disposal of material, 192 in deep water, 121,575, 596, 602 of hard material, 196-200 of seafloor, 189-155 rock, 196-200 soft soils, 191-192 trenches 299-300 "t b'l il 143 unSUla e so s, Drilling, directional, 498-499 " e I 130 Dr illingv sse, Durability, in Arctic, 641-642 Flexiblepipelines, 508 Floating concrete plants, 130-131 Floating-over deck structures, 515-517 Float-out, 397-398 Floods, effects of, 397 Flotation of concret structures, 270 of pipelines, 494-497 Flow control structures, 307-311 Fog Arctic, 612 effectsof, 35-36 Foundations, repairs to, 525-526 Freeboard, 96-97, 403 Freeze-thawdamage, 245, 642 Freezing,of soils, 620 FRG pipe, 508 Frost heave, 620 Future of offshore construction, 647 Earthquakes, effects of, 41-42 "cal conSl"deratlons,57-64 " EcolOgl Eductor Grout annulus ' 177 underbase, 176-177,436 dredging,621-622 system, 122, 193-194 Embankments, underwater, 200-201 Embedments, 84-85 Erection of jacket 509 510 Erosion protectio~, 16~, 165, 166 Grouting of seafloor soils, 163, 164 und~rbase, 176-177 Grout-mtruded aggregate, 175-176 Guyed towers, 583-587 Guyline installation, 585, 586-587 Existing structures, protection of, 53, 54 Explosives,underwater, 196-200 Fairlead, 149 Feedback,constructibility, 568 Fender piles, 263 Fender units, 449 Fiber, reinforced glass pipelines, 508 Fills densification, 203-204 underwater, 200-204 Filter fabrics, 207-208 426 Fire damage, 526 Giant modules, 515 Glacialtill, 46 "Glory holes': 195 Gravel ~eposlts, 54 GravellSlands, 618-621 Gravity base structures (GBS) construction stages of, 389-427 foundation strengthening, 431 installation, 404-408, 423-427 platforms, 371-385, 387, 544-546 penetration, 388, 423, 425, 429 removal, 427, 432 stability under tow, 138-139 " strengthenmg, 431, 531-532 towing, 418-422 Harbor structures, 527-566 Hammers, pile-driving, 221-224 Handling heavy loads, 150-156 Heather platform, piling, 185 Heat of hydration, 76 Heavy lifts, 150-156, 159,511-515 of decks, 225, 226 "Hi-Deck;' 516 Hondo platform installation, 371-373 piling, 235 Honshu-Shikohu Bridge, 193,277,320-322 Index Ocean intakes, 315-321 outfalls,315-321 temperatures, 18-19 Offshore dredges, 120-124 Offshore terminals, 328-342 Offshore platforms, 328-342 Oil spill, effectsand constraints, 57-58 Oosterscheldestorm surge barrier, 303-307 Oozes,seafloor,54-55 OTEC,454-456 Outfalls, 315-321 Padeyes,155 Painting of steel, 73-74 Permafrost, subsea,47, 613 Penetration of GBS,388 into seafloor,50 of skirts, 388, 423, 425, 429 Personnel transfer at sea, 156-160,403 Piles add-ons, 220, 225-226 anchoring, 242-243 batter (raker), 216, 260, 262 belled, 251-254, 394, 536 capacity of, 254-255, 391-395 concrete, 258-263, 285-286, 289-292 connection to jackets, 292 drilled and grouted, 241-243, 247-251, 292-294 drilling, 241-243, 247 driving, 259 driving refusal,227-228, 243 driving underwater, 182 end closure, 292 end plugs, 482 fabrication, 216-217, 285-289 field splicing,228 grouting, 231-235 hammers, 322-224 improving capacity of, 254-255 improving lateral capacity of, 255 increasingpenetration, 186-188,231,239-242 insert, 242, 254-255 installation, 172-176,222,227,229,258-259,279, 280,310, by drilling, 241-243, 250-251 examples,235-239 by weighting,254 jetting, 239-240 "lifting eyes",226-227 penetration, increasing,239-242, 259 prestressed concrete, 243-245, 289-292 removal, 363-366, 542-543 shear transfer, 536 "stabbing",220, 225-226 steel pipe, 213-4??? tip reinforcement,238-239 655 tubular steel, 216-239, 286-289 transportation, 217-219 weighting down, 536 Pingos,48, 614 Pin piles, installation, 251-254 Pipelaying barge, 124-127,470-486,497 equipment, 124-127 in deep water, 598-600 operations, 124-127,336-350 Pipeline(s) Arctic,664 buckling, 574, 599 bundled, 498 burial, 499-505 concrete, 372 fiber-reinforcedglass,508 flexible,508 under ice,499 "pig': 469 plowing, 503-504 polyethylene,507 protection of, 499-500 repairs, 527-529 route, 523-527 steel,467-506 submarine, 467-506 support, 506 surface float, 494-495 tests, 490-491 tie-ins, 644 trenching, 500-509 under ice, 499 welding,479 Piping, of seafloor soils,49 Plasticmaterials, 507 Platforms, removal of, 432, 541-546 Polar ice pack, 608, 612 Polyethylene materials, 75, 76 pipelines, 507 Precast concrete shells,268-270 Prestressing tendons and accessories,82-84 Principles of construction, 552 Properties of materials, deep sea, 557-581 Pumping concrete and grout, 176 Rain, effectsof, 35-36 Reelbarge, 493-494 Reinforcingsteel, corrosion prevention, 73-74, 80-81, 642 Remote-operated vehicles (ROVs), 166-167 Removal of GBS,362, 427, 544-545 of jackets, 363-366, 343-344 of piled structures, 363-366 of piles, 363-366, 542-543 656 of platform, 362, 541-544 Repairs concrete structures, 523-526 fire damage, 526 foundations, 525 526 pipeline, 527-529 steel bracing, 520 522 Riser installation, 483-485 Risk and reliability,in construction, 571-574 River strutures, 266-274 Rock material properties, 91 outcrops, 53-54 placement underwater, 200 204 Rolling in, for launching, 554 ROVs, 166-167 Safety,527, 643 Salvage of platforms, 432, 541-546 recent developments, 546 Sampling, of soils, 180 Sand calcareous,44-45, 180 compaction, 203-204 dense, 45-46 -jack, launching, 554, 555 islands, 618 621 piles, 204, 621 unconsolidated, 51-53, 203 waves,38, 46 Scour, 614 of clays,50 by ice, 48 protection, 426 Screeding, of seafloor, 189-191 S-curve, pipelines, 185,497 Seafloor densification, 204-206 deployment, 453-454 dredging, 189 erosion protection, 189 ice scour, 614 improvements, 187 instability and slumping, 55, 613 leveling, 189 liquefaction prevention, 206 modifications, 187,210 obstruction removal, 189 soil samples, 188-189 soils, 188-189,204,620 survey, 179-184 templates, 444-450 Sea ice, 36-41, 608 612 Seawater chemistry, 19-20 marine organisms, 19-20 Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures properties of, 18-19,578 temperatures, 18-19 Seismicretrofit, 539 Seismicity,614-615 Self-floating,jacket, 360 Semisubmersiblebarge, 112-115, 130 Shear-legsbarge, 105-108 Sheet piles, 263-265 Side launching, 359 Silts consolidating, 205 206 overconsolidated,47, 613 weak, 47 Single-point moorings, 292-299 "Six-degreesof motion': 94-95 Slings,353-354 Slope protection, 209-210, 619 620 Slumping, of seafloor,55, 613 Snow,effects of, 35-36 SPAR,591 Spray,effects of, 35 36 Spud piles, 273, 274 Stability,97-99, 481, 482, 487, 490, 492 during tow, 138-140 Stages,of construction, 548-551 Standards and rules, Steel coatings, 73-74, 467 concrete hybrid, 57-88,433 corrosion protection, 73-74 corrosion repairs, 524-525 erection 70 73 fabrication, 66 jackets, 343-324 painting, 73-74, 467 reinforcing, 79-81 structures, 65-74 welding, 66-70 Storms, 30 33 moorings, 147,437 surges, 34-35 Storm surge barriers, 302 Strengthening existing platforms, 531-534 seafloor,203-206 steel bracing, 531-532 underwater fills, 200 203 Sub-aqueous tunnels, 324-326 Submarine pipelines, 467-506 Submergence of structures, 414-416 of prefabricated tubes, 296-299-416 Submersiblebarge, 88 Submersibles, 137 Subsea permafrost, 47, 613 657 Index 53 storage, 450-4 temp1ates, 444-445, 449-450 Subsurfacepull, of pipelines,495-497 C floa,t 494 Surlace Supplyboat, 127 ') Survey(109 channel, 135-136 control, 330 offshore, 179 seafloor,179-184 under-ice, 640-641 Strudl-scour, 38 Swells,24-30 Syntaticfoam, 546 Temperatureeffects,18-19 Templates444-445, 449-450, 628 Temporarybuoyancy,184-185445,543 Tension-legplatform, 587-591 Thermokarst,644 Thistle platform, 236 Tide surges,34-35 Tie-downs, 345, 348-350, 353 Titanium, 91 TLP,587-591 Tolerances for concrete fabrication, 86 for constructibility,86, 564-565 Topsideinstallation, 511-517 Towboats, 128-130 Towedstructure, stabilityrequirements, 139-140 Towing,133-140,351-353,421-422,433-438,629-630 of GBS,129,409-410,418-422 of icebergs,641 in ice, 137-138 Towlineattachments, 133 Toxicchemical disposal,58 Trailer-suctiondredge, 121 Transport, of jackets,343-345 Tremieconcrete, 169-172 509 Trenchingof pipelines,500Tsunamis,effect.of,41-42 Tunnels,prefabncated, 296-301 Turbidity currents, 55 particles,59 plume, 192-193 Under-icesurveys,640-641 Underbase,grout, 176-178 Underwater admixtures, 172-175 concrete mixes, 168-169 fills,200-203 grouting, 168-177 mating, 184 repairs, 519-526 ROVs,166-184 storagetanks, 450-453 tools, 161-162, 165 work systems,160-168 Up-ending of jacket, 360-363 Up-ending of piles,258 VortexsheddlOg,22 "WASP",163,164 Waveaction, 94-96 Waves,24-30 Welding,66-69 grounding of, 479 wet, 483,527-529 Well-loggingdevices,253 Wellprotectors, Arctic,628 "White-out",35-36, 612 Winds, 30-33 ... construction of marine and offshore projects First published in 1986, this second edition of Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures has been updated and augmented The developments of the past... construction technology and procedures Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures represents the culmination of the author's involvement of over 50 years in the field of marine and offshore construction... countries, and the Arctic However, because of the tremendous economic importance of offshore oil and gas and the concentrated development of technology for their exploitation, much of the recent marine