Spaceflight in the shuttle era and beyond

Spaceflight in the Shuttle Era and Beyond Y7157-Neal.indb i 3/13/17 9:31:01 AM This page intentionally left blank Spaceflight in the Shuttle Era and Beyond Redefining Humanity’s Purpose in Space Valerie Neal | new haven and london Y7157-Neal.indb iii 3/13/17 9:31:01 AM Yale University Press, in association with the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Copyright © 2017 by the Smithsonian Institution All rights reserved This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers Yale University Press books may be purchased in quantity for educational, business, or promotional use For information, please e-mail sales.press@yale.edu (U.S office) or sales@yaleup.co.uk (U.K office) Set in Adobe Garamond and The Sans types by Newgen North America Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Control Number: 2016957558 isbn 978-0-300-20651-7 (hardcover : alk paper) A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This paper meets the requirements of ansi/niso z39.48–1992 (Permanence of Paper) 10 Y7157-Neal.indb iv 3/13/17 9:31:01 AM To my son Bryan Guido Hassin Y7157-Neal.indb v 3/13/17 9:31:01 AM This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface, ix Acknowledgments, xi Introduction, 1 Spaceflight: Discerning Its Meaning, Space Shuttle: Going to Work in Space, 36 Astronauts: Reinventing the Right Stuff, 63 Science: Doing Research in Space, 99 Space Station: Campaigning for a Permanent Human Presence in Space, 134 Plans: Envisioning the Future in Space, 163 Memory: Preserving Meaning, 191 Y7157-Neal.indb vii 3/13/17 9:31:02 AM viii Contents Notes, 217 Index, 259 Color plates follow page 80 Y7157-Neal.indb viii 3/13/17 9:31:02 AM Preface A book on spaceflight began to form in my mind when the space shuttle and my career launched simultaneously; my professional life spans the shuttle era For thirty-plus years, I have worked in various roles on the periphery of the ambitious endeavor of human spaceflight What has that meant? The question is both biographical and cultural This book is my effort to discern the cultural meaning of human spaceflight—its formation and transformations—in this era I completed graduate school in interdisciplinary American studies in the 1970s under the influence of the “myth and symbol” tradition of intellectual and cultural history This approach to American culture through the humanities analyzed the history of ideas and their synthesis in literature and the arts to illuminate broad themes in American experience and thought From the social sciences and history of science came other intellectually fertile concepts for understanding how meaning is created, understood, codified, and modified; “paradigm shifts,” “social construction,” “framing,” and “imaginaries” entered the scholarly lexicon Innovative scholarship and analytical trends in humanities and social sciences research continue to invigorate the study of American ix Y7157-Neal.indb ix 3/13/17 9:31:02 AM 256 Notes to Pages 198–206 11 The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida, National Museum of the United Space Air Force in Ohio, and Museum of Flight in Seattle planned and built large adjacent space halls 12 “Newspaper Front Pages (Discovery’s Flyover),” April 17, 2012, National Air and Space Museum compilation 13 As co-chair of the museum’s Welcome Discovery planning team, the author participated in these and other decisions Related planning documents are filed in the Smithsonian Institution Archives 14 Wayne Clough, “Discovery Arrival Remarks,” April 17, 2012, at Dulles International Airport, and “Discovery Welcome Remarks,” April 19, 2012, at the National Air and Space Museum Steven F Udvar-Hazy Center; “Remarks by Senator John Glenn, Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Welcome Discovery Ceremony, Steven F Udvar-Hazy Center, April 19, 2012, 11:00 a.m.,” April 19, 2012, Chantilly, Virginia 15 Media and social media analytics collected by the National Air and Space Museum 16 Roger D Launius, “American Memory, Culture Wars, and the Challenge of Presenting Science and Technology in a National Museum,” Public Historian 29 (2007): 13–30; Lonnie G Bunch III, “In Museums at the National Level: Fighting the Good Fight,” in James B Gardner and Peter S LaPaglia, Public History: Essays from the Field (Malabar, FL: Krieger, 1999), 345–56; Bryan Hubbard and Marouf A Hasian, Jr., “Atomic Memories of the Enola Gay: Strategies of Remembrance at the National Air and Space Museum,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs (1998): 363–85; Edward T Linenthal and Tom Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Book Henry Holt, 1996) 17 The author was co–lead curator for this Moving Beyond Earth exhibition gallery; she wrote much of the script, selected many of the artifacts, and worked with fellow curators, designers, and educators on the look and function of the exhibition She also wrote Discovery: Champion of the Space Shuttle Fleet (Minneapolis: Zenith Press, 2014) 18 Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Moving Beyond Earth exhibition, first stage opened in 2010, second stage completed in 2013; see airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/ gal113/mbe/index.cfm 19 California Science Center Foundation Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center Project Overview, undated fact sheet 20 Damien Cane, “Celebrating U.S Future in Space, Hopefully: Calculated to Wow,” New York Times, April 28, 2010, p A14; NASA Kennedy Space Center, Space Shuttle Atlantis promotional materials, 2011–13 21 “ ‘Forever Remembered’ Exhibit Honoring Challenger and Columbia Opens at Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex,” Kennedy Space Center, July 1, 2015, available at media kennedyspacecenter.com/kennedy/forever-remembered-exhibit-honoring-challenger -and-columbia-opens-at-kennedy-space-center-visitor-complex.htm; “ ‘Forever Remembered’ Shares Enduring Lessons of Challenger, Columbia,” NASA, June 27, 2015, available at www.nasa.gov/feature/forever-remembered-shares-enduring-lessons-of-challenger -columbia; Marcia Dunn, “Challenger, Columbia Wreckage on Public Display for 1st Time,” Associated Press, August 2, 2015, available at news.yahoo.com/challenger-columbia -wreckage-public-display-1st-time-133542243.html; Carole Blair and Neil Michel, “Com- Y7157-Neal.indb 256 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Notes to Pages 207–212 257 memorating in the Theme Park Zone: Reading the Astronauts Memorial,” in Thomas Rosteck, ed., At the Intersection: Cultural Studies and Rhetorical Studies (New York: Guilford Press, 1999), 29–83 22 Upon landing Columbia, STS-1 mission commander John Young used this phrase, often echoed thereafter in praise of the shuttle 23 “Wings in Orbit—Wayne Hale Interview,” March 13, 2011, available at www.nasaspace flight.com 24 Traci Watson, “NASA Administrator Says Space Shuttle Was a Mistake,” USA Today, September 27, 2005, p A1; John Schwartz, “NASA Official Questions Agency’s Focus on the Shuttle,” New York Times, December 9, 2006, p A16; Wayne Hale and Helen Lane, eds., Wings in Orbit: Scientific and Engineering Legacies of the Space Shuttle, 1971–2010, SP-2010-3409 (Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office, 2010), 25 Hale, Wings in Orbit; “Wings in Orbit—Wayne Hale Interview.” 26 Longtime critics included scientists James A Van Allen and Robert L Park, historian Alex Roland, and science journalist Timothy Ferris Van Allen and Roland are cited below Park’s articles include “Pork Barrel in Low-Earth Orbit,” New York Times, April 18, 1993, p E19, and “Shelving the Star Trek Myth,” New York Times, July 12, 1997, p 21 Ferris’s most pointed piece was “Ground NASA and Start Again,” New York Times, March 16, 1992, p A17 See also Malcolm W Browne, “Worthy Projects Suffer Because of the Shuttle, Critics of NASA Charge,” New York Times, April 7, 1981, p C4; Warren E Leary, “Debate over the Shuttle Fleet’s Value to Science Has Been Raging from the Beginning,” New York Times, February 10, 2003, p A21 27 J A Van Allen, untitled op-ed, New York Times, April 1, 1986, p A31; James A Van Allen, “Space Science, Space Technology and the Space Station,” Scientific American 254 (1986): 32–39; James A Van Allen, “Is Human Spaceflight Now Obsolete?,” Science 304 (2004): 822; Alex Roland, “The Shuttle: Triumph or Turkey?,” Discover, November 1985, pp 29–49; Alex Roland, “NASA’s Manned-Space Nonsense,” New York Times, October 4, 1987, p E23; Alex Roland, “Barnstorming in Space: The Rise and Fall of the Romantic Era in Spaceflight, 1957–1986,” in Radford Byerly, Jr., Space Policy Reconsidered (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 33–52 28 The Space Shuttle: A Horizon Guide, a Horizon/BBC Production, 2012; Space Shuttle: Final Countdown, a Smithsonian Networks Production, 2011; Space Shuttle, 1981–2011: Stories from 30 Years of Exploration, Air & Space Smithsonian Collector’s Edition, Spring 2010 and 2011 editions; Piers Bizony, The Space Shuttle: Celebrating Thirty Years of NASA’s First Space Plane (Minneapolis: Zenith Press, 2011); Dan Winters, Last Launch: Discovery, Endeavour, Atlantis (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012); The History of the Space Shuttle, Collector’s Edition (2012) 29 Roger D Launius, John Krige, and James Craig, Space Shuttle Legacy: How We Did It and What We Learned (Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2013) The most comprehensive technical reference is expected to be Dennis R Jenkins, The Space Shuttle: The History of the National Space Transportation System, 4th ed., to be published in 2017 30 Roger D Launius, “Assessing the Legacy of the Space Shuttle,” Space Policy 22 (2006): 226–34; J M Logsdon, “The Space Shuttle Program—a Space Policy Failure?,” Science Y7157-Neal.indb 257 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 258 Notes to Pages 213–214 232 (1986): 1099–1105; John M Logsdon, “The Decision to Develop the Space Shuttle,” Space Policy (1986): 103–19; Joseph N Pelton, “The Space Shuttle—Evaluating an American Icon,” Space Policy 26 (2010): 246–48 31 John M Krige, Angelina Long Callahan, and Ashok Maharaj, NASA in the World: Fifty Years of International Collaboration in Space (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) 32 Alex Roland, “How We Won the Moon,” New York Times Review of Books, July 17, 1994, p 33 Linda Billings, “Wowing the Public: The Shuttle as Cultural Icon,” in Launius et al., Space Shuttle Legacy, 299–321 Y7157-Neal.indb 258 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Index Page numbers in italics indicate to illustrations Abbey, George, 69–70 Across the Space Frontier (ed Ryan), 12 Advisory Committee on the Future of the U.S Space Program, 178–79 affirmative action, 67, 70 Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory Program, 65–66 Air & Space, commemorative volume by, 210 Aldridge, Edward “Pete,” 184 Aldridge Commission, 184–85 Aldrin, Buzz, 25 America See United States America at the Threshold: America’s Space Exploration Initiative (Stafford report), 180 American exceptionalism, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 211 “America’s Next Giant Leap,” 189–90 America’s Space Truck: The Space Shuttle (National Air and Space Museum), 52–53 Ames Research Center, 121, 122 “A New Era” (slogan), 40 animals, on the space shuttle, 99, 110–13, 113, 122 Apollo era, 8, 25–27, 32, 66, 167, 195; Apollo 8, 26, 66; Apollo 11, 24–26, 30; Apollo 17, 24, 26, 28 Arlington National Cemetery, 95 Armstrong, Neil, 25, 26, 66, 79, 179 artifacts: disposition of, 195–98; explanations of, 198 Astro missions, 125–27 astronaut corps, 62–64, 66–81, 96, 202 See also astronauts Astronauts Memorial Foundation, 95 astronauts: accomplishments of, 97; assembling the International Space Station, 259 Y7157-Neal.indb 259 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 260 Index astronauts (continued) 85; controlling their own image, 82–84; corps of, broadening, 66–81 (see also astronaut corps); criteria for, 64–65, 68–70; deaths of, 87–94 (see also Challenger, loss of; Columbia, loss of ); early years of, 64–65; as explorers, 93; as face of NASA’s brand, 64–65, 68; first shuttle group, 62–64; as generalists, 74, 107; as heroes, 64–65, 79, 87, 89–91, 96; as icons, 72, 76; image of, 22, 23–24, 32, 63–65, 68, 80, 97–98; imaginary of, 80, 86–87; linked to popular culture, 84; mission-related images of, 81–84; post-NASA careers of, 97; public mourning for, 89–90; as role models, 76, 77; roles of, 37, 62, 64, 68; scientists as, 65–66; shuttle-era portrayal of, 76, 78–79; as skilled workers, 48, 68, 84–85; training of, 72; women as, 65 (see also women astronauts) Astronaut Scholarship Foundation, 96 Atlantis, 195–97, 199, 205–6, 191 Atmospheric Laboratory in Space (ATLAS) missions, 125–27 Augustine, Norman, 179, 185 Augustine Commission report, 179–80 Basset, Brian, 207–8, 208 Bean, Alan, 72 Beggs, James M., 101, 106, 134, 136–38, 140–42, 144–47, 158 Bennis, Warren G., 168 biological science, space science and, 120 biomedical sciences, 103 Black Enterprise, 77 black media, 77–78 Blue Planet (dir Burtt), 86 blue-ribbon panels, 6, 163, 168, 179–80, 188–89, 210 Bluford, Guion “Guy,” 53, 77–78 Boeing, 153 Bolden, Charles, 80–81, 191–92, 196, 197 Bonestell, Chesley, 12, 33 Borman, Frank, 201 branding, 10, 33, 50, 55–57, 64–65, 68 Y7157-Neal.indb 260 Bredt, Irene, 33 Bush, George H W., 169, 176–78, 180 Bush, George W., 90, 91, 94, 95, 182–83; announcing retirement of space shuttle, 193; space exploration vision of, 193 Bush (George H W.) administration, 179–80 Cagle, Daryl, 91, 194 California Science Center, 196–98, 204–5, 207 Canada, 123, 213 Canadarm remote manipulator system, 201 career astronauts, 70, 74 Carter, Jimmy, 166 Case for Space Station Freedom: A Statement of Purpose (NASA), 155 Cather, Willa, 16 Challenger, 142, 197: loss of, 47, 53, 55, 73, 75, 87–89, 90–95, 148, 169, 174, 182, 202, 204, 206, 213–14; Spacelab and, 110, 117 Challenger Centers for Space Science Education, 95 Chang-Diaz, Franklin, 78 Chappell, C R., 119 Chawla, Kalpana, 88 Civil Rights Act (1964), 67 Clinton, Bill, 157–59, 180 Clinton administration, 157–59 Clough, Wayne, 199–200 Cohen, Aaron, 177 Cold War, 15, 19–21, 29–31 Collier’s, 12, 13, 14, 33, 135 Collins, Eileen, 78, 81 Collins, Michael, 53 Columbia, 142, 197; first mission on, 34, 35, 36, 45–46; loss of, 75, 77, 82, 87–89, 91–95, 109, 127, 169, 182, 192–93, 202, 204, 206; Spacelab and, 107, 117 Committee on the Future of the U.S Space Program, 185 conceptual frameworks See framing Congressional Space Medal of Honor, 79, 95–96 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Index Di Fate, Vincent, 154 Discovery, 194–203 discovery, spirit of, 183–84 Discovery Channel, 210 Disney (The Walt Disney Company), 14, 33 Disney, Walt, 12 D-1 Spacelab mission, 121 Dream Is Alive (dir Ferguson), 86 Equal Employment Opportunity Act (1972), 67 ESA See European Space Agency Essence, 78 Europe: America’s partnership with, 102, 110, 123, 213; full arrival in spaceflight, 121 European Space Agency (ESA), 102, 117, 119–20, 121 EVA See extravehicular activity evolutionary research, 125, 136 exploration, desire for, (see also exploration imperative); vs exploitation, 38; ideology of, 50; linked to leadership, 180; rationale of, for human spaceflight, 189; rhetoric of, 183–84; science as driver for, 181; shuttle associated with, 58–59; space stations and, 156; U.S history and, 16 exploration imperative, 177–78, 181 Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, 185 extravehicular activity (EVA), 48, 84–86; suits for, 83, 85–86 Extravehicular Mobility Unit (pressure suit), 85–86 “Earthrise” (Apollo 8), 8, 26 Ebony, 78 editorial cartoons, 17; on animals in space, 112, 113; on end of manned spaceflight, 192; in first years of space shuttle operations, 50–52; on George W Bush’s space policy, 193; portrayals of astronauts, 78, 79; race metaphor and, 19; on the shuttle disasters, 91, 92; on shuttle’s return to flight after Columbia loss, 194–95; on space exploration, 184; on spaceflight’s future, 186, 187; on the space race, 20, 28; on the space truck, 47; on the space station, 144, 154, 156, 157, 159, 160; on women astronauts, 71 Eisenhower, Dwight, 21, 27, 164 Endeavour, 195–97, 204–5 Enterprise, 42, 43, 45, 57–59, 195, 196–97, 200, 204 Farber, David, 15 Finn, Terence T., 141–42, 145, 152–53 Fischetti, John, 17 Fletcher, James, 42, 57, 67, 68, 151 Florida Today, 186, 193 Foale, Michael, 77 Ford, Gerald, 42, 166 foreign policy, 213 See also Cold War Forever Remembered (Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex), 206 framing, 3, 11, 168; of astronauts’ role, 64, 89; of Challenger loss, 90; of the future, 173; of permanent presence, 135; of spaceflight, 17–22, 30, 39, 40, 42, 57, 59, 115, 117, 137, 140, 177–78, 192; for space shuttle era, 34; space station and, 139, 141, 144–45, 154–56; success of, 29, 161 freedom, defense of, 18, 24 Freitag, Robert F., 141–42 conquest: frontier and, 15–16; imaginary of, 11–12; meanings of, 12 Conquest of Space (Ley and Bonestell), 12 Constellation program, 185–86 Constitution, 42 construction, metaphors of, for future in space, 171 Cosmos (Sagan), 177 Cremin, Joseph, 116 Crew Exploration Vehicle, 183 crew patches, 60 crew portraits, 23, 73, 82, 88 Crippen, Robert, 46, 77, 95 Cronkite, Walter, 128 culture studies, Y7157-Neal.indb 261 261 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 262 Index frontier: conquest of, 15–16; imaginary of, 11; myth of (frontier thesis), 14, 15–18, 21, 30–33, 90–91, 170, 173, 213, 214; rhetoric of, 143, 145, 170–71, 174; space and, 3, 6, 17–18 Frontier America (Clark), 32 Frosch, Robert, 70, 106 Fullerton, Gordon, 115 future, framing of, 173 Gagarin, Yuri, 18, 191 Garn, Jake, 53 “Gateway to the Future” (NASA publication), 154 Germany, 121, 123 Gibson, Robert “Hoot,” 70 Glenn, John, 75, 77, 128–29, 131, 199, 200 Goddard, Robert H., 33, 138 Goetzmann, William, 16 “Going to Work in Space” (motto), 40, 57, 87 Goldin, Daniel, 128, 157, 159, 161 Goldwater, Barry, 42 Graves, Denyce, 199 Gregory, Frederick, 78, 80–81 Griffin, Michael, 209 Group 8, 70, 72 guest astronauts, 74–75 Guide to NASA Graphic Standards (NASA), 57 Hale, Wayne, 208–9 Harris, Bernard, 78 HEDS See Human Exploration and Development of Space Herblock, 17, 20, 51 heroes: journey of, 64; status of, 96 Hodge, John D., 140–42 Hohmann, Walter, 33 Hubble Space Telescope, 83, 84–85, 94, 127, 212 Human Exploration and Development of Space (HEDS), 182 Human Exploration Initiative, 176–77, 179–80 See also Space Exploration Initiative Y7157-Neal.indb 262 Human Exploration of Space (report), 178 Human Space Exploration Framework Summary (NASA), 189 human spaceflight: foreign policy and, 213 (see also Cold War); framework for, in the shuttle era, 54–55; framing of, 17–22, 30, 39, 40, 42, 57, 59, 115, 117, 137, 140, 177–78, 192; future of, planning for, 163–67, 169; George H W Bush’s vision for, 176–77, 180; in limbo, 186; meaning of, 134–35, 182, 213–15; noble purpose for, 160; opposition to, 120, 210; ownership of, 204; pause points in, 169; presumption of, 165; purpose of, expanding, 134–35; rationale for, 126, 128, 130, 140, 143, 165–66, 188–89; reports on, 166–67; rethinking of, 93; reviews of, 164–65; risks of, 87–94, 148; space shuttle as icon for, 143; strategic planning for, 187–89; unworthiness of, 186 imaginaries, 4, 6, 8, 11 IMAX films, 86, 161 instrument pointing system, 114–15 interactive science, 100, 104, 115–16, 117, 126 International Microgravity Labs (IML), 123, 124 International Space Station (ISS), 86, 94, 130, 159, 181, 202; assembly of, 85, 127, 212; completion of, 193; delivery of, 37; downlinks from, 161–62; life sciences research on, 123; occupation of, 160; operating timeframe for, 162; public awareness of, 161; social media and, 161; technological achievement of, 162 Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, 196–98, 204, 207 investigator teams, 129 Investigator Working Group, 129 ISS See International Space Station iterative science, 104, 108, 123 Japan, 123, 213 Japanese Space Development Agency, 121 Jemison, Mae, 78 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Index Jet, 77–78 Johnson, Lyndon B., 165 Johnson Space Center, 71, 72, 90, 91, 95, 121–22 Kennedy, John F., 27, 30, 164, 178; frontier concept and, 11, 14, 17–18, 21, 90, 170, 173; space race rhetoric and, 18–21; speechwriting and, 18; “Urgent National Needs” address of, 17–21 Kennedy Space Center, mission of, 206 Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, 95, 196–98, 205–7 Keyworth, George, 144 Khrushchev, Nikita, 19, 20, 32 knowledge: discovery and, 185; imaginary and, 4; philosophy of, 1; quest for, 17, 154, 166; social construction of, knowledge capture projects, 207, 208–9 Kraft, Christopher, 60, 70, 105–6 leadership: earning of, 172; exploration linked to, 180; space presence linked to, 19, 20, 139–41, 172; strategic planning and, 172; theme of, 8, 145, 147, 152, 169; visioning and, 168 Leadership and America’s Future in Space (Ride report), 171–76, 181 Ley, Willy, 12–13, 33, 135 LIFE, 24, 26, 65 life sciences, research in, 103, 108, 120–23, 127, 129–30, 131 Lightyear, Buzz, 185, 186 Lind, Don, 113 Lockheed, 153 logos: for NASA, 56, 56–57; for space exploration, vision of, 184–85; for Spacelab, 100, 101; for space station, 152 Logsdon, John, 212 Long Range Plan of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (report), 164, 165 Lovell, James, 201 Low, George, 68 Lucid, Shannon, 70, 71, 77, 78, 95 Y7157-Neal.indb 263 263 manned space science, 108–19, 120 Mark, Hans, 101, 110, 136–37, 140, 142–43, 144 Mars, mission to, 38, 39, 93, 130, 165, 170, 171, 174–75, 178, 181, 182, 187, 193 Marshall Space Flight Center, 119 Martin Marietta, 153 materials (microgravity) sciences, 108, 120–21, 123–25, 127, 129–31 McAuliffe, Christa, 75, 77, 87, 88 McCall, Robert, 43, 154 McCandless, Bruce, II, 78, 80 McCurdy, Howard, 137 McDonnell Douglas, 104, 153 meaning: creation of, 1–3, 10, 168; dynamic nature of, 211; intended, effectiveness of, 143; sources of, meatball logo, 56, 56–57 media: accenting the space race, 19–20; and the campaign for a space station, 135; covering mission specialists, 75; covering research missions, 132; covering shuttle disasters, 88–89; covering shuttle firsts, 46, 76–77; critiquing space shuttle, 48–49; on debut of shuttle, 43; frontier myth and, 31; on George W Bush’s space policy, 193–94; highlighting Mars exploration, 174; NASA’s relationship with, 21–22; on new era of spaceflight, 47; portraying astronauts as real people, 76, 78–79; responding to shuttle astronaut corps, 72–74; on the shuttle disasters, 91–93; Spacelab coverage of, as mission in progress, 115–17; space policy and, 16, 17; space station and, 160 memes, memorials, for shuttle disasters, 94–96 memory: dynamic nature of, 211; keepers of, 215; meaning and, 197; public, 94–96 Merbold, Ulf, 109 Mercury Seven, astronauts of, 23–24 Microgravity Research Mission, 124, 127 Microgravity Science Lab, 123 microgravity sciences See materials sciences Mir space station, 77, 86, 95, 122, 131, 139, 151 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 264 Index mission crews, group portraits of, 23, 72, 73, 82, 82–84 mission patches, for microgravity missions, 124 mission specialists, 67–70, 104–7; as career astronauts, 74; duties of, 73, 74; focus on, 75; payload specialists and, 75 mission success criteria, 129 Mission to Planet Earth initiative, 172, 179 models, 60–62 moon: footprints on, 8; return to, 178, 186, 193; settlement on, 171 Moon-Doggle (Etzioni), 29 moon landing: criticism of, 38; media coverage of, 25–26; significance of, 30 “Moon, Mars, and Beyond” (slogan), 185, 186 mourning: official, 90; public rituals for, 89 movie posters, for missions, 83–84 Moving Beyond Earth (National Air and Space Museum exhibition), 202 Ms., 76 μg, 124 museums: as memory institutions, 197–98; presenting vision for future in space, 190; responsibility of, 215 Musgrave, Story, 78 NASA Facts and Information Summaries, 147 Nation, 20 National Academy of Sciences, 66, 120 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 95; Astronaut Selection Board, 69–70; astronauts and branding of, 64–65; bringing shuttle era to a close, 195–97; broadening the astronaut corps, 66–81; business model for, 53–55, 182; campaigning for space station, 134–48, 152–55, 160; change within, resistance to, 179; compiling results of Spacelab missions, 129; credibility of, 161; Day of Remembrance at, 95; developing rationale for human spaceflight, 166; documenting shuttle flights, 81; educational materials of, 2; emphasis of, shifting, 37; ensuring buy-in for space shuttle, 40; Explora- Y7157-Neal.indb 264 tion Systems Mission Directorate, 185; external reviews of, 164; flexible path for, 189; focused on engineering approaches, 188–89; framers of, 11; framing a case for a space station, 101–2; frontier myth and, 31 (see also frontier); future planning by, 171–72; on Glenn’s shuttle flight, 128–29; graphics of, 56–57; Human Exploration and Development of Space, 182; ideology of, misaligned with reality, 52; insiders’ history of, 209; knowledge capture interviews by, 208–9; logo of, 56, 56–57; long-range planning activities of, 182; lunar agenda of, 33; mission of, 38, 181; mission “movie posters” of, 84; morale at, 50, 157, 181–82, 209; naming the shuttles, 57–59; naming the space station, 149–52; and the National Air and Space Museum, 53; new-era ideology of, 43–44, 55; Office of Exploration, 171, 176, 182; ongoing public relations of, in the shuttle era, 167; Outlook for Space study group, 166; pause points for, 182; piecemeal approach of, 174; posters by, 84, 155; press kits of, 42–43, 105; priorities for, 100–101; promoting women as astronauts, 71–72; publications of, 43–44, 62, 104, 106, 122, 124, 126–27, 132, 136, 146–47, 153–54, 168–70, 184, 187–88; public relations operations of, 22–24, 42, 65; rebranding of, 55–57; recruiting by, 68–70, 96, 190; relationship with the media, 21–22; reorganizing into enterprises, 182; research agenda of, 124; responding to Challenger disaster, 55; rethinking space program’s purpose and goals, 174; review of, 170; revitalizing, 179–80; Space Flight Awareness office, 83–84; Space Flight Medal, 95–96; space policy and, 16–17, 21–22; space science standards of, 118–19; space station planning by, 135–36; Space Station Task Force, 140–42, 146, 149; steady customers for, 125; strategic planning at, 168–70, 181–82; STS symbol and, 59–60; survival of, at stake, 178–79; sustaining public interest 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Index in spaceflight, 37; on toy shuttles, 61–62; visitor and community science centers of, 195; website of, 161; workforce of, 213 National Air and Space Museum (Smithsonian Institution), 52, 53, 89, 132–33, 195–204, 207 National Commission on Space (Paine Commission), 170–71, 179, 181 National Endowment for the Arts, 56 National Institutes of Health, 123, 128 National Research Council, 125, 178 national security, 21 National Space Council, 176–80 Nature, 131 Neurolab, 120, 121, 123, 127 new era (new age), theme of, 42–45, 55, 49–50, 88, 193 New Frontier, 17–18, 21 news media, See also editorial cartoons; media; New York Times; Washington Post Newsweek, 76, 77, 88–89 New York Times, 3, 49; advocating for Mars mission, 93; coverage of research missions, 132; editorial cartoons in, 17; on George W Bush’s space policy, 193; on Glenn’s shuttle flight, 129; on humans in space, 78; on the New Frontier, 21; opposed to the space station, 144, 146, 148, 149, 154–56, 160–61; responding to NASA’s future planning reports, 174; during shuttle’s first five years, 47–48; on Spacelab, 108–10; on the space race, 20, 28; space station coverage of, 134, 143; supporting Augustine Commission report, 179; supporting human spaceflight, 183 See also Wilford, John Noble “next logical step,” space station as, 6, 131, 133, 137, 141–48, 163, 214 Nichols, Nichelle, 69 Nixon, Richard, 2, 21, 38, 40–41, 67, 165 Noordung, Hermann, 135 Nowak, Lisa, 77, 79–80 Oberth, Hermann, 33, 135 observational sciences, 130 observatory missions, 125–27 Ochoa, Ellen, 78 Office of Exploration, 182 Office of Technology Assessment, 178 Oliphant, Pat, 52, 71 Opportunity (rover), 193 orbiters, space shuttle, as national icons, 198, 200 Orion spacecraft, 6, 185, 190 Orlando Sentinel, 195 Outlook for Space (NASA report), 166 Outlook for Space study group, 166 Overbye, Dennis, 118–19 Overmyer, Robert, 111 Obama, Barack, 79, 162, 185, 186, 189 Obama administration, 162 Ramon, Ilan, 75, 88 RAND Corporation, 180 Y7157-Neal.indb 265 265 Paine, Thomas O., 170, 171–73, 179 Paine Commission (National Commission on Space), 170–76 Paramount Pictures, 14 Parker, Jeff, 187, 193 past, interpretation of, 198 payload specialists, 74–75, 105–7, 126 People, 76, 77, 78, 88 permanence, theme of, 152–53, 158, 163, 167, 176 pilots, space shuttle, 80–81 pioneering See frontier Pioneering the Space Frontier: An Exciting Vision of Our Next Fifty Years in Space (National Commission on Space report), 170–76, 180 Post-Apollo Space Program: Directions for the Future (Space Task Group report), 38–39 posters, crew portraits and, 83–84 Presidential Medal of Freedom, 79 public engagement, importance of, 175 public opinion polling, 1, 20, 29–30 Quayle, Dan, 176 Quindlen, Anna, 81 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 266 Index Reagan, Ronald, 46, 170; after the Challenger loss, 90–91, 94; space station and, 101, 137, 142–48, 151, 157, 158 Reagan administration, 144–45 reality, social construction of, reduced-gravity experiments, 103 research, 55; aboard the space shuttle, 98–104, 214; investigator teams and, 129; results of, 212–13; spaceflight reframed as, 99, 100; success of, 212 See also Spacelab; space station reusability, 38, 39–40, 43, 211–12 Reuters, 195 review committees, Ride, Sally, 53, 76, 77, 79, 97, 128, 171–73, 176 Ride report, 171–76, 181 Right Stuff (Wolfe), 65 robotic exploration, 7, 35, 50, 78, 128, 154, 174, 181 rocket planes, 33 rocketships, portrayals of, 14 Rockwell, Willard, 42 Rockwell International, 41, 44, 53, 153 Roland, Alex, 55 role model, 76, 77 Russia, 213 See also Mir space station; Soviet Union Russian Space Agency, 157 Sagan, Carl, 93, 177 Salyut 7, 139 Sänger, Eugen, 33 satellites: delivery of, 46; deployment of, 49; repair of, 84–85 Saturn V, 12, 24 Scheer, Julian, 22 Science, 29, 117–18 science, politics of, 119 Science, The Endless Frontier (V Bush), 17 Science in Orbit: The Shuttle-Spacelab Experience (NASA report), 119, 132 scientist-astronauts, 66–69, 115 scientists, critical of the space race, 28–29 Y7157-Neal.indb 266 Seeking a Human Spaceflight Program Worthy of a Great Nation (report), 186 Senior Interagency Group for Space, 144 Shepard, Alan, 18, 201 Shuttle Era (NASA pamphlet), 43–44 Shuttle Launch Experience (Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex exhibition), 205–6 Silverbird, 33 Skylab, 66, 100, 107, 136 Slotkin, Richard, 31 Smithsonian Channel, 210 Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum See National Air and Space Museum solar system: exploration of, 165; human presence extended in, 183; settlement of, 169, 170, 187 Sorensen, Ted, 18 Soviet Union: space race and, 18–19, 24, 32; space stations of, 139 Soyuz, 202 space: conquest of, 11–12; frontier metaphor for, 15–16, 174–75 (see also frontier); human presence in, 138, 165 (see also permanence); military uses of, 12–13; superiority in, 13; utilization of, 38–39; winged aircraft for, 33–34 Space Age, Space Center Houston, 197 spacecraft: design of, 14; winged, 33–34, 39–40 space exploration, meaning of, Space Exploration Initiative, 176–81, 183, 186 spaceflight: benefits from, 29; branding of, 33, 50; business model for, 53–55; commodification of, 60–62; as conquest, 11– 12; cost of, 211; cultural narratives for, 15; democratization of, 45; early images of, 11–15; framing of, 175; historical framework for, 43; iconic images of, 22–27; as imaginary, 4, 8–10, 35; as invention, 8; meaning of, 1–2, 8–11, 16–17, 33, 154, 211; 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Index national security and, 19; passengers for, 75; practical approach to, 44; rationale for, after Apollo, 38; reframing of, 50, 99, 100, 137; research and, 104, 119; reusability and, 38, 39–40; rhetoric promoting, 3; routine, 44–47, 49, 54, 55, 61, 74, 75, 76, 94, 116–17, 211–14; as stepping stone, 176; utilitarian appeal of, 37 spaceflight participant program, 211 space frontier, science as, 17 SPACEHAB, 127 Spacelab, 42, 74–75, 99–102, 127; brochures for, 104; communal experience of, 118–19; components of, 102; costs associated with, 117; crew for, 104–7; data images from, 132; dedicated missions (discipline labs), 120–22; first group of missions, 107–20; flight-testing of, 107; as icon, 132–33; in-flight images of, 131–32; interactive research on, 102, 104, 107, 110, 115–16, 131; iterative science on, 108, 123; laboratory module for, 131; logo for, 100, 101; materials science on, 123; as mini– space station, 137; mission-in-progress coverage of, 115–17; museum’s presentation of, 201; observational instruments on, 108; observatory missions of, 125–27; problems with, 110–13; publications based on research from, 129; research subjects on, 122; scientific basis for, 103–4; scientific community’s response to, 117–20; scientific results from, 117–20; scientific utility of, 117–20; significance of, 116; as space station precursor, 110, 116, 120, 127; studies on, 108–15, 117–20; successes of, 112–15, 117 Spacelab J (Japan), 121, 123 Spacelab: Research in Orbit (ESA), 119–20 Space Mirror Memorial (Kennedy Space Center), 95, 206 space museums, 89 spaceplane, reusable, 33–34, 37, 44 See also space shuttle space plasma physics, 126, 130 Y7157-Neal.indb 267 267 space policy, 144–45, 212 space program: political value of, 101; public service and, 166 space race, 18–19, 136; cost of, 28; critiques of, 27–30, 32–33; frontier myth and, 31–32; historical context for, 30, 31; meanings of, 19; media coverage of, 19–21, 24; national security and, 21; public opinion about, 29–30; rocketry and, 24; space stations and, 139–41 space science, 104, 108–19, 120 space shuttle: animals on, 99, 100; associated with ordinary work, 37, 44–45; astronaut corps for, 62–64, 66–81, 96; cameras on, 81, 86; complacency regarding, 94; cost of, 49, 53; crew portraits and, 88; crews accessible via live downlink, 131; criticism of, 48–49, 55, 209–10; customers for, 103–4; debut of, 41–43; decision to develop, 40–41; design of, 37, 39–40, 55; duties of, 42, 46; evolution of, 203; experimental nature of, 94, 203, 209, 211; first mission of, 45–46, 53, 77–78, 81; heat shield tiles on, 46; human interest and, 48; as icon, 143, 201–2, 207, 214; ideology challenged, 49; inconsistencies with, 211–12; indicating NASA’s shifting emphasis, 37; innovation of, 45; as laboratory, 100; launch schedule for, 49, 53; legacy of, 192; malfunctions on, 109 (see also Challenger; Columbia); mission of, 58, 162; mission success criteria for, 129; naming of, 41–42, 57–59; NASA ensuring buy-in for, 40; operational requirements for, 67; as orbital observatory, 114; patches for, 60; pilots of, 80–81; as policy failure, 212; precursors to, 34; problems with, 114, 117; promotion of, 44–45; remaining orbiters of, as artifacts, 195–207; research on board, 55, 98–100 (see also Spacelab); retirement of, 191–93; science crews of, 107 (see also mission specialists; payload specialists); scientific criticism of, 120; Smithsonian exhibit on, 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 268 Index space shuttle (continued) 52; as space station, 102; as space truck, 3, 37 (see also space truck); successes of, 193; support for a space station and, 137; technical glitches and delays with, 47–49; test flight missions of, 46; toys and, 60–61; uses for, 40, 44, 46, 53; value of, to scientific research, 128 Space Shuttle (National Air and Space Museum exhibition), 53 space shuttle era, 8; ambivalence about, 48; astronauts in, number of, 78; cartoon commemorating, 207–8, 208; characterization of, 58; distinct from the Apollo era, 167; end of, 191–97; final commemorative icon of, 207; firsts in, 76–77; goal of, 61; human spaceflight in, framework for, 54–55; human spaceflight rationale for, 47; ideology of, 36–37; imagery from, 210; imaginary of, 45, 64; insiders’ history of, 209; knowledge capture projects for, 207, 208–9; legacy of, 209, 210, 212–13; museums’ presentation of, 197–207; NASA morale at end of, 209; NASA rebranding in, 55–57; oral history and, 207; public’s surprise at ending of, 201; scholarly assessment of, 9–10, 210–12, 215; social impact of, 213; tools in, 85; tributes following, 210 Space Shuttle Operator’s Manual (Joels and Kennedy), 61–62 space station, 110, 214; Alpha, 158–59; building of, 93; campaign for, 101–3; Clinton and, 157–59; Clinton administration and, 157–58; concepts for, 101–2, 140–41; congressional response to, 146, 151, 153, 156, 159; criticism of, 209–10; cultural context for, 138; design of, 139, 147, 149, 153, 155; development of, 146–49; dual-keel design for, 147, 149, 150; early descriptions of, 12, 13; as early space settlement, 139; economic benefits and, 145; exploration and, 156; foreign policy role of, 158–59; framing of, 144–45, 152, 154–56; Freedom, Y7157-Neal.indb 268 151–52, 154–56, 158; functions of, 146–47; graphic identity for, 152; growth of, 154; habitation module of, 159–60; as home, 147, 149, 159–60; ideology and iconography of, 141; imaginary of, 137; international partners for, 149, 151; linked to the future, 152, 154; microgravity research and, 125; Mir, 77, 86, 95, 122, 131, 139, 151; museum’s presentation of, 203; naming of, 149–52; NASA’s campaign for, 134–48, 152–55, 160; as next logical step, 6, 131, 133, 137, 141–48, 163, 214; opposition to, 135, 142, 144–46, 148, 149, 154–56, 158–59, 160; origins of, 135–36; portrayals of, 14; preparation for, 121; purpose of, 138–39, 147, 156; rationale for, 148; Reagan and, 101, 137, 142–48, 151, 157, 158; redesign of, 157–61; Soviet, 139; Spacelab as predecessor to, 110, 116, 120, 127; survival of, 162; transport vehicle for, 38, 39; uncertain status of, 135 See also International Space Station “Space Station for America” (Beggs), 141, 153 Space Station Freedom: A Foothold on the Future (NASA Office of Space Station), 153 Space Station Freedom Media Handbook (NASA), 156 Space Station: Key to the Future (NASA), 136 Space Station: The Next Logical Step (Beggs), 146, 147–49, 153 Space Station Program Description Document (NASA), 140–41 Space Station Task Force, 140–42, 146, 149 Space Station 3D (dir Myers), 161 Space Task Group, 38–39 space transportation business, 54 space transportation system, 39–40 Space Transportation System (STS) program, 52, 59–60 See also space shuttle space truck, 37, 44–48, 48, 102, 213 spacewalking, 84, 85 Spirit (rover), 193 Sputnik, 21 Stafford, Thomas, 180 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM Index Stafford report, 180 Star Trek, 42, 69 State of the Union Addresses, 145–46, 152 STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) programs, 204 strategic planning, 181–82; as creative exercise, 187; framing and, 168; growth of, 167–68; leadership and, 172; NASA and, 168–69 strategic vision, 168 Sullivan, Kathryn, 78 Synthesis Group report, 180 Teague, Olin “Tiger,” 42 teamwork, importance of, 83 Thagard, Norman, 112 Thirty-Five New Guys (TFNGs), 72 Thornton, Bill, 100, 111, 112, 113 three R’s (release, retrieve, repair), 45, 48, 212 TIME, 19, 25, 77, 78, 128; cover stories on astronauts, 66, 77; moon landing coverage of, 26; shuttle disaster coverage of, 88–89; space race coverage of, 24–25; space shuttle coverage of, 45; welcoming space shuttle home, 34, 35 Toles, Tom, 193 Tomorrowland Park (Disney), 14 To the Moon and Back (LIFE), 26 toys, 60–62 Truly, Richard, 177, 181 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 33, 135 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 15 Udvar-Hazy Center, 200, 203 United States: cultural imaginaries in, 8; destiny of, 2, 8; exploration and discovery in, 16; exploration imperative and, 177–78; genesis myth of, 15; golden age for, in space, 8; identity of, 18; leadership and, 147, 176; as a new world, 43; reasserting leadership in space, 139–41; redefinition of, 16; space station as emblem of, 145; strategic planning in, by government, 167–68 Y7157-Neal.indb 269 269 United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, 96 unmanned missions, preference for, 146, 164 See also robotic exploration U.S Microgravity Labs, 123 U.S Microgravity Payloads, 123, 124 Valier, Max, 33 Van Allen, James A., 120, 128, 209–10 van den Berg, Lodewijk, 111, 113 Vision for Space Exploration (NASA booklet), 184–86 visioning, leadership and, 168 Vision 21 (NASA strategic plan), 181 visual culture studies, von Braun, Wernher, 12–14, 33, 103, 135, 138, 170, 178 von Braun paradigm, 14, 165, 187 von Opel, Fritz, 33 Walker, Charles D., 74 Wang, Taylor, 99, 111, 112 Washington Post, 3; coverage of research missions, 132; editorial cartoons in, 17, 20; on George W Bush’s space policy, 193; skepticism of, on George W Bush’s vision for space, 183–84; on the space race, 19–20, 28; space station coverage of, 144; using “space truck” label, 47 Wayne, John, 16 Webb, James, 22 West (American), 16, 31 Westerns, 16, 32 White House, space policy and, 16 “Whole Earth” (Apollo 17 image), 26–27 Wiesner, Jerome, 164 Wilford, John Noble, 49–50, 108–10; cautioning readers about shuttle’s future, 47–48; on Glenn’s shuttle flight, 129; introducing shuttle-era imaginary, 45; on Mars mission, 174; NASA campaigning with, for space station, 134; on space shuttle’s performance, 54; on the shuttle tragedies, 93–94; space station coverage of, 143–44, 160 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM 270 Index Wilkening, Laurel, 179 Wings in Orbit (ed Hale and Lane), 209 Wolfe, Tom, 65 women: and publicity around Sally Ride, 76–77; strength and physiological testing for, 69 women astronauts: concern about, 71, 96–97; media coverage of, 73–74; public- Y7157-Neal.indb 270 ity about, 71–72; as spacewalkers, 85; stereotyping of, 71, 73–74, 81 women’s magazines, 73–74 worm logo, 56, 56–57 Yardley, John, 42 Young, John, 46, 72, 77, 95, 110 Young Astronauts Club, 61 3/13/17 9:31:18 AM .. .Spaceflight in the Shuttle Era and Beyond Y7157-Neal.indb i 3/13/17 9:31:01 AM This page intentionally left blank Spaceflight in the Shuttle Era and Beyond Redefining Humanity’s Purpose in. .. Establishing the origins, in uences, and communication of that matrix of meaning sets up the shift into the shuttle era Chapter 2, “Space Shuttle: Going to Work in Space,” explores the deliberate redefinition... planners, and blue-ribbon commissions to present energizing ideas and images—to generate a new imaginary—for expanding (or curbing) the human presence in space These exercises in charting a way into the