BATS AND HUMAN HEALTH BATS AND HUMAN HEALTH Ebola, SARS, Rabies and Beyond Lisa A Beltz Malone University, Canton, Ohio, USA This edition first published 2018 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions The right of Lisa A Beltz to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Editorial Office 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty The publisher and the authors make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties; including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation In view of on‐going research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions The fact that an organization or website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or website may provide or recommendations it may make Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this works was written and when it is read No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising here from Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for Hardback: 9781119150039 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © anp/123RF Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS Forewordxv A Brief Introduction to Unique Features of Bats in Relation to Infectious Diseases xv About the companion website xix I Introduction1 BAT IMMUNOLOGY 1.1 Introduction to the Immune System of Bats 1.1.1 White blood cell count and other serological parameters 1.1.2 Innate versus adaptive immunity 1.1.3 MicroRNA 1.2 Viral Pattern‐Recognition Receptors and the Bat Immune Response to Microbes 1.3 Introduction to the Interferons 1.3.1 Regulation of interferon production 1.3.2 The JAK‐STAT pathway and interferon‐stimulated genes 1.3.3 Type I interferons 1.3.4 Type II interferon 1.3.5 Type III interferons 1.3.6 Viral avoidance of the host IFN response 1.4 Antibodies and B Lymphocytes 1.5 Macrophages, Dendritic Cells, and Proinflammatory Cytokines 1.6 T Lymphocytes 1.7 Other Parameters of the Immune Response 1.8 Conclusions References II Viral Infections of Bats RABIES VIRUS AND OTHER BAT RHABDOVIRUSES 2.1 Introduction to the Family Rhabdoviridae 2.2 Lyssaviruses 3 5 7 10 12 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 25 27 27 27 v viCONTENTS 2.2.1 Rabies virus 2.2.2 Other lyssaviruses of bats 2.2.3 Lyssavirus transmission 2.2.4 Lyssavirus sites of infection 2.2.5 Lyssavirus entry into cells 2.2.6 Prevention of lyssavirus infection 2.2.7 Immune response to lyssaviruses 2.2.8 Lyssavirus surveillance 2.3 Other Rhabdoviruses 2.3.1 The Kern Canyon serogroup of genus Vesiculovirus 2.3.2 Kumasi rhabdovirus 2.3.3 Unclassified rhabdoviruses 2.4 Conclusions References HENIPAVIRUSES AND OTHER PARAMYXOVIRUSES OF BATS 3.1 Introduction to Paramyxoviridae 3.2 Diseases Associated with Paramyxoviridae 3.2.1 Henipaviruses and disease 3.2.2 Morbilliviruses and disease 3.2.3 Rubulaviruses and disease 3.3 Henipaviruses in Bats 3.3.1 Henipaviruses in bats from Oceania and Southeast Asia 3.3.2 Henipaviruses and bats from Africa 3.3.3 Henipaviruses in bats from Madagascar 3.3.4 Henipavirus proteins and infection of bats 3.4 Hendra Virus 3.4.1 Hendra virus in Australian bats, horses, and humans 3.4.2 Factors affecting levels of Hendra viruses in bats and the potential for zoonotic transmission 3.5 Nipah Virus 3.5.1 Nipah virus in humans and pigs 3.5.2 Nipah virus in bats from Malaysia and Indonesia 3.5.3 Nipah virus in bats from India and Bangladesh 3.5.4 Interspecies Nipah virus transmission via date palm sap and bat urine 3.6 Cedar Virus 3.7 Protective Bat Responses to Henipavirus Infection 3.7.1 The interferon/STAT pathway and henipaviruses 3.7.2 Antibodies and henipaviruses 3.7.3 Apoptosis 32 36 40 41 42 43 44 45 45 46 47 47 48 49 53 53 59 59 59 60 60 60 61 62 62 64 64 65 66 66 67 68 68 70 70 70 72 72 CONTENTS 3.8 Methods of Preventing Henipavirus Infection 3.9 Rubulaviruses 3.9.1 Bat parainfluenza virus 3.9.2 Menangle virus in bats and domestic animals 3.9.3 Tioman virus in bats and humans 3.9.4 Tuhoko viruses in bats 3.9.5 Achimota viruses in bats 3.9.6 Sosuga virus in bats and humans 3.9.7 Jeilongvirus in bats 3.9.8 Mumps‐like bat virus 3.9.9 Mapuera virus in bats 3.10 Morbilliviruses in Bats 3.11 Belinga bat Virus 3.12 Large, Multiviral Studies of Paramyxoviruses in Bats 3.12.1 Multiviral paramyxoviruses studies in Asia 3.12.2 Multiviral paramyxoviruses studies in Africa 3.12.3 Multiviral paramyxoviruses studies in Madagascar and islands of the Southwest Indian Ocean 3.12.4 Multiviral paramyxoviruses studies in Oceania 3.13 Conclusions References FILOVIRUSES AND BATS 4.1 Filoviruses 4.1.1 History of filovirus infection 4.1.2 Filovirus disease 4.1.3 The roles of viral proteins 4.2 Marburg Virus 4.2.1 Marburg virus in humans and bats 4.2.2 Experimental infection of bats with Marburg virus 4.3 Ebola Virus 4.3.1 Ebola virus in humans and bats 4.3.2 Ebola virus and bats prior to the 2014 outbreak 4.3.3 EBOV incidence in bats during and after the 2014 outbreak 4.4 Lloviu and Related Filoviruses in Bats 4.5 Seasonality of Filovirus Infection in Bats 4.6 Factors Affecting Zoonotic Infection by Filoviruses 4.7 Filoviruses in Animals Other Than Bats 4.8 Conclusions References vii 73 74 74 74 75 75 75 76 76 76 76 77 77 78 78 78 79 79 80 82 89 89 90 91 91 96 96 98 99 99 99 100 101 101 102 103 104 106 viiiCONTENTS BATS AND CORONAVIRUSES 5.1 Introduction 5.2 SARS Coronavirus 5.2.1 The history of SARS 5.2.2 SARS pathology 5.2.3 Viral and cellular proteins and their role in entry into the host cells 5.2.4 SARS in civits and raccoon dogs 5.2.5 Relatedness of bat SARS‐like CoV to SARS‐CoV 5.3 MERS Coronavirus 5.3.1 MERS pathology 5.3.2 Viral and cellular proteins and their role in entry into the host cells 5.3.3 MERS‐CoV and spillover from domestic livestock 5.3.4 Relatedness of bat‐CoV to MERS‐CoV 5.3.5 Transmission of MERS‐CoV 5.4 Other Coronaviruses of Bats 5.5 Conclusions References OTHER RNA VIRUSES AND BATS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Baltimore Class III Viruses and Bats 6.2.1 Orbiviruses 6.2.2 Rotaviruses 6.2.3 Pteropine orthomyxovirus group 6.2.4 Mammalian orthoreoviruses 6.3 Baltimore Class IV Viruses 6.3.1 Astroviruses 6.3.2 Flaviviruses 6.3.3 Hepeviruses 6.3.4 Picornaviruses 6.4 Baltimore Class V Viruses 6.4.1 Bunyaviridae 6.4.2 Orthomyxoviruses 6.4.3 Arenaviridae 6.5 Large, Multi‐Virus Studies 6.6 Conclusions References 111 111 114 114 115 116 118 119 122 122 123 124 126 130 131 133 134 139 139 139 140 140 140 154 156 156 158 164 164 165 165 168 170 171 171 174 CONTENTS BALTIMORE CLASS I AND CLASS II DNA VIRUSES OF BATS 7.1 Introduction to Double‐ and Single‐ Stranded DNA Viruses 7.2 Baltimore Class I Viruses 7.2.1 Poxviruses 7.2.2 Adenoviruses 7.2.3 Herpesviruses 7.2.4 Papillomaviruses 7.2.5 Polyomaviruses 7.3 Baltimore Class II Viruses 7.3.1 Parvoviruses 7.3.2 Dependoviruses 7.3.3 Circular replication‐associated protein encoding single‐stranded DNA viruses 7.4 Conclusions References REVERSE‐TRANSCRIBING BAT VIRUSES AND LARGE‐SCALE ix 181 181 181 190 191 192 194 194 196 196 197 197 199 201 BAT VIROME STUDIES 205 8.1 Baltimore Class VI Retroviruses 205 8.1.1 Exogenous and endogenous retroviruses and their life‐cycles 205 8.1.2 Viral polyproteins 208 8.1.3 Retroviral genera 209 8.1.4 Endogenous gammaretroviruses of bats and other mammals 209 8.1.5 Betaretroviruses of bats and other mammals 210 8.2 Evidence of Ancient Endogenous Virus Genomic Elements in Bat Chromosomes 211 8.2.1 Endogenous bornavirus genomic elements in bat chromosomes 212 8.2.2 Endogenous Ebola and Marburg virus genomic elements in bat chromosomes212 8.3 Hepadnaviruses – Baltimore Class VII Reverse‐Transcribing DNA Viruses 213 8.3.1 Human hepatitis B virus 213 8.3.2 Orthohepadnaviruses and bats 214 8.4 Large‐Scale Bat Virome Studies 215 8.4.1 Bat virome studies in North America 215 8.4.2 Bat virome studies in Europe 215 8.4.3 Bat virome studies in Asia and Southeast Asia 216 8.4.4 Bat virome studies in Oceania 217 8.5 Conclusions 217 References 218 xCONTENTS III Bacterial Infections of Bats 9 ARTHROPOD‐BORNE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OF BATS 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Bartonella 9.2.1 Bartonella in bats from Asia 9.2.2 Bartonella in bats from Africa 9.2.3 Bartonella in bats from Europe 9.2.4 Bartonella in bats from the Americas 9.3 Borrelia 9.4 Rickettsia 9.4.1 Rickettsia and human disease 9.4.2 Rickesttsia and bats 9.5 Bat Ectoparasites As Bacterial Vectors 9.5.1 Bacteria from bat flies 9.5.2 Bacteria from bat ticks 9.6 Conclusions References 10 OTHER BACTERIA AND BATS 221 223 223 226 226 226 228 228 229 230 230 231 231 231 232 234 235 239 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Leptospira 245 10.2.1 Leptospira in South America 245 10.2.2 Leptospira in Africa 246 10.2.3 Leptospira in islands of the Indian Ocean 246 10.2.4 Leptospira in Australia 247 10.3 Yersinia 248 10.4 Pasteurella 249 10.5 Mycoplasma250 10.6 Waddlia 250 10.7 Rickettsia and Similar Bacteria 251 10.8 Bat Gastrointestinal Tract Bacteria 251 10.8.1 Gastrointestinal bacteria in bats of Southeast Asia and Oceania251 10.8.2 Gastrointestinal bacteria in bats of Madagascar 252 10.8.3 Gastrointestinal bacteria in bats of the Americas 253 10.9 Large‐Scale Studies of Other Bat Bacteria 254 10.10 Bacterial Species Beneficial to Bats 255 10.11 Conclusions 256 References 257 CONTENTS IV Protist Infections of Bats 11 APICOMPLEXANS AND BATS 11.1 Introduction to Apicomplexa and Coccidea 11.2 Order Haemosporida 11.2.1 Invertebrate hosts of Haemosporida 11.2.2 Bat hosts of Haemosporida 11.3 Order Piroplasmida 11.3.1 Babesia species and bats 11.3.2 Other Piroplasmida in bats 11.4 Order Eimeriida 11.4.1 Toxoplasma gondii and bats 11.4.2 Eimeria species and bats 11.5 Order Adeleida, Crytoporidium Species, and Bats 11.6 Conclusions References xi 261 263 263 269 269 270 272 272 272 273 273 276 277 278 280 12 KINETOPLASTIDS AND BATS 285 12.1 Kinetoplastids 285 12.2 Trypanosomes 289 12.2.1 Life cycles of trypanosomes 289 12.2.2 Trypanosomes and disease 290 12.2.3 Trypanosomes infecting bats throughout the world 290 12.2.4 Trypanosoma cruzi293 12.3 Leishmania 295 12.3.1 Leishmania and disease 295 12.3.2 Leishmania and bats 296 12.4 Conclusions 297 References 298 V Fungal Infections of Bats 13 WHITE‐NOSE SYNDROME AND BATS 13.1 Introduction to Pseudogymnoascus destructans 13.2 White‐Nose Syndrome 13.2.1 Arousal, loss of fat reserves, and dehydration 13.2.2 The role of torpor in WNS disease dynamics 13.2.3 WNS and wing damage 13.3 The Geographical Distribution of White‐Nose Syndrome 13.3.1 WNS in North America 13.3.2 WNS in Europe 13.3.3 WNS in Eastern Asia 303 305 305 306 308 309 310 311 311 312 313 380INDEX Immunoglobulins (Ig) IgA, 15, 97, 341 IgD, 15 IgE, 15 IgG, 3–4, 15, 19–20, 67–68, 72, 97, 99–100, 102, 105, 159, 161, 172, 274, 279, 341 IgM, 15, 68, 72, 341 Infectious mononucleosis, 192 Inflammasome, 18–19 Inflammation, pro‐inflammatory, anti‐ inflammatory, 5, 16–17, 19, 21, 35, 45, 48, 59–60, 71, 73–74, 91–92, 104, 116, 118, 123, 125, 198, 214, 218, 254–255, 273, 290, 295–296, 306, 312, 315–317, 332, 335–337, 341, 343, 353 Influenza virus, 10, 57, 60, 152, 168–170, 174, 211, 360 Innate immunity, xvi, 4–5, 7, 12, 14, 19–20, 44, 70–72, 91–92, 94, 96, 116–118, 122, 167, 190, 295, 311, 316 Insecticide, xvi, 366 Integrase, 205, 208 Integration, 205, 208, 211–213 Interferon (IFN) interferon‐alpha (IFN‐α), 7–11, 13–14, 19–20, 44, 48, 70–71, 91–92 interferon‐beta (IFN‐β), 7–11, 13–14, 19, 44, 48, 70–71, 91, 122 interferon‐epsilon (IFN‐ε), 7, 10 interferon‐gamma (IFN‐γ), 7, 10, 12–13, 16–17, 20, 44, 48, 71, 91–92, 116 interferon‐kappa (IFN‐κ), 7, 9, 10–12, 20, 44 interferon‐lambda (IL‐28A, IL‐28B, IL‐29, IFN‐λ4), 7, 11–14, 20 interferon‐omega (IFN‐ω), 7, 10–12, 20, 44, 48 Interferon response factors (IRF) IRF1, 7, 19 IRF3, 6–8, 14, 122 IRF5, IRF7, 7–8, 11, 14, 24 Interferon‐stimulated gene (ISG), 8–11, 13–14, 19–20, 44–56, 70–71 Interleukin (IL) interleukin‐1 (IL‐1), 8, 16, 18, 45, 73, 92, 104, 116, 316 interleukin‐2 (IL‐2), 17–18, 21 interleukin‐4 (IL‐4), 18, 21, 315 interleukin‐6 (IL‐6), 13, 16, 18, 21, 45, 104, 116, 316 interleukin‐8 (IL‐8), 73, 92, 104, 116 interleukin‐10 (IL‐10), 12–13, 18, 21, 92, 315–316 interleukin‐12 (IL‐12), 18, 21, 116 interleukin‐15 (IL‐15), 104 interleukin‐16 (IL‐16), 104 interleukin‐17 (IL‐17), 316 interleukin‐18 (IL‐18), 18 interleukin‐20 (IL‐20), 316 interleukin‐23 (IL‐23), 315–316 interleukin‐24 (IL‐24), 316 interleukin‐28 (IL‐28), 7, 72 interleukin‐29 (IL‐29), 7, 72 Interleukin receptor associated kinase (IRAK), Intestine, intestinal, 9, 11, 13, 16, 34, 46, 48, 98, 105, 122–123, 126, 130–131, 155, 159, 167, 169, 191, 193, 196, 200, 216, 231, 239, 248, 251–253, 255, 272–273, 277–279, 334–336, 338, 342 Intracellular, 7–8, 92–93, 95, 118, 226, 230, 235, 250, 257, 269, 271, 289, 327, 332, 337, 349, 361 Intranasal, 46, 332, 341 Intraperitoneal, 158–159, 341 IP‐10 chemokine, 73 Irkut virus, 30, 32, 39, 48–49 Ischnopsyllus octactenus, 251 Isospora belli, 273 Issyk‐Kul virus, 146–148, 152, 166, 173 ITA31/384/2012, 132 Ixodes, 132, 233 I ariadnae, 232 I kopsteini, 232 I ricinus, 233 I simplex, 250 I trianguliceps, 232 I vespertilionis, 232 Janus kinase (JAK), 8, 71 Japanese B encephalitis virus (JBE), 160–161 Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), 143–150, 152, 158–161, 172 Japanese spotted fever, 230 Jaundice, 192, 293, 358 JC polyomaviruses, 194, 200 Jeilongvirus, 36, 53–56, 58, 76, 78, 81 381 INDEX Johnsprentia, 270, 278–279 Johnsprentia copemani, 267, 270 Junín virus, 170, 358 Juquitiba virus, 166 Juvenile, 4, 47, 64, 72, 75, 79, 81, 97–98, 101–102, 229, 253, 270, 273–274, 365 Kaeng Khoi virus, 143, 152, 166, 173, 353 Kallikrein‐6, 316 Kampar virus, 153 Kaposi sarcoma, 192 Kasokero virus, 150, 165–166, 173 Kerivoula argentata, 55, 78, 144 Kern Canyon virus, 30, 46–47, 49, 147 Keterah virus, 151, 166, 173 Khujand virus, 30, 32, 38–39, 48 Kidney, 9–12, 14, 16, 19, 34, 41–42, 46–48, 59, 62–63, 65–66, 71–73, 76, 78–81, 91–93, 95, 98, 105, 116, 123–124, 126, 128, 134, 140, 153, 155, 162–163, 167, 169–170, 174, 191, 193, 196, 216, 245–248, 255–256, 263, 272–273, 275, 279, 334–335, 337, 342–343, 362 Kinetoplast, 285–286, 289, 296, 298 Kitaka Mine, 97 Kitum Cave, 96 Klebsiella sp., 241 K oxytoca, 240, 243–244, 252, 255 K pneumonia, 240, 252 Klossiella, 272, 279 K killicki, 265, 272 Kluyvera, 240, 253 Kluyveromyces, 328, 330–331, 339 Kolente virus, 29, 46, 49, 145 Koplik’s spots, 59 Koserella trabulsii, 240, 253 Kumasi rhabdovirus, 28, 47, 143 Kyasanur Forest disease, 143, 150–151, 164, 172–173 Lactation, 16, 38, 65–66, 70, 366 Laelaps L aingworthae, 233 L nuttalli, 233 L sanguisugus, 233 L sculpturatus, 233 Lagos bat virus (LBV), 10, 28, 31–32, 38, 41, 48–49 Laguna Negra virus, 166 Laibin virus, 152, 167 La Réunion island, 246 Lasionycteris noctivagans, 265, 276, 307, 312 Lasiurus L blossevillii, 29 L borealis, 265, 276, 307, 312 L cinereus, 29 L ega, 29 L intermedius, 29 L seminolus, 29 Lassa fever, 358 Lassa virus, 170, 358 Latent, 8, 60, 192, 205, 355 Lechiguanas virus, 166 Ledantevirus, 46–47 Leishmania RNA virus‐1 and Leishmania RNA virus‐2, 295 Leishmaniasis cutaneous leishmaniasis, 295, 298 mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, 295–296, 298 visceral leishmaniasis, 295–298 Leishmania sp L amazonensis, 286, 296–298 L brasiliensis, 295 L chagasi, 296, 298 L donovani, 296–298 L guyanensis, 295, 297 L infantum chagasi, 286, 296–298 L lainsoni, 297 L major, 287, 295, 297 L mexicana, 286–288, 296–297 L naiffi, 297 L tropica, 286, 297 Lentivirus, 209 Leopards Hill virus, 145, 165–166, 173 Leptonycteris L curasoae, 186, 296, 328 L nivalis, 29, 33, 328, 333 L sanborni, 329, 340 L yerbabuenae, 29, 33 Leptospira sp., 240–244, 256, 359, 362 L borgpetersenii, 241, 244–246 L fainei, 245 L interrogans, 244–248, 256, 359, 362 L kirschneri, 241, 245–246, 248 Leptospirosis, 245–246, 256, 362 Lifespan, xv, 3, 353 Lionycteris spurrelli, 340 Lipid, 6, 20, 42, 92, 311, 315–316 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 4, 230 382INDEX Listeria monocytogenes, 254–255 Liver, 6, 9, 11, 34, 41, 46, 48, 65–66, 68, 77–78, 81, 91–94, 96–99, 101, 105, 116, 123–124, 126, 155, 159–164, 167, 169, 171–172, 191–193, 196, 200, 213–216, 218, 227, 229–231, 235, 248, 254, 256, 263, 271, 274–277, 333–337, 339, 341–343, 360–361 Liver and lymph node sinusoidal endothelial cell C‐type lectin (LSECtin), 94, 104 Lleida bat lyssavirus, 29, 32, 36, 38, 48 Lloviu cuevavirus (Lloviu virus), 36, 89–90, 101, 105 Lonchophylla L robusta, 184, 234, 239, 329, 334 L thomasi, 184, 241 Lonchorhina aurita, 329, 334–335 Long interspersed nuclear element‐1 (LINE‐1), 212 Longolaelaps L longulus, 233 L whartonii, 233 Longquan virus, 149–150, 167, 359 Long terminal repeat, 205, 210 Lophostoma silvicolum, 286, 291 LSECtin see Liver and lymph node sinusoidal endothelial cell C‐type lectin Lung, 9–12, 34, 41–42, 46–48, 53, 59, 63, 65–66, 68, 71, 73–74, 76–79, 81, 95, 101, 115–116, 118, 122–123, 125–126, 128, 136, 154–155, 162–163, 166–170, 173, 193, 196, 214–216, 229–230, 235, 247–249, 254, 256, 315, 332–337, 339, 341, 343–345 Lutzomyia, 296 Lyme disease, 229, 232, 234, 257–258 Lymphangitis‐associated rickettsiosis, 230 Lymph node, 3, 18–19, 91, 94, 98, 105, 116, 193, 336 Lymphocryptovirus, 193 Lymphocyte, 4, 17, 19, 45, 92, 94 B lymphocyte (B cell), 3, 16, 18–19, 21, 44, 192, 315 T lymphocyte (T cell), 3, 5, 12, 16–21, 44, 73, 92, 95, 104, 116, 123, 208, 315–316, 337–338 LYRa11, 112, 121–122 Lyssavirus, xv, 5, 11–12, 21–27, 29, 31–32, 35–46, 48–49, 131, 156, 161, 293, 353–354, 360 Lytic, 205, 252–253 Macaque, 103, 122, 192, 200, 360 Macavirus, 192–193 Machupo virus, 170, 358 Macrogamete, 263, 269 Macroglossus minimus, 145, 184, 193 Macrophage, 3, 12, 16–20, 91–92, 94, 96, 116, 289, 295, 315–316, 333, 337–338 Macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP), 17, 104 Macrotus waterhoussi minor, 29, 329, 335 Maculatum infection, 230 Madagascar, 56, 58, 62, 77, 79–80, 113, 133, 192–193, 228, 232, 243–244, 246–247, 252, 256, 270, 336 Magboi virus, 148, 167, 359 Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC class I), 12, 17–20, 73, 193 major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC class II), 19, 193 Malaria, xv, 63, 269–270, 272, 278–279 Malsoor virus, 151, 168, 174 Mamastrovirus, 156–157 Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV), 140, 147–150, 154–155 Mannose‐binding C‐type lectin, 92, 193 Manzanilla virus, 146, 171 Mapuera virus, 14, 58, 76 Marburgvirus (MARV), 89–101, 104–105 Mardivirus, 217 Mastadenovirus, 186, 188, 191, 216 Maternal immunity, 65, 72, 81, 355 Maternity roost, 5, 277, 355, 366 Mating, 4, 16, 38, 101–102, 309, 352, 355 Measles, 53, 59, 63, 66, 73 Mediterranean spotted fever, 230, 295 Megaderma M lyra, 90, 102, 145, 206, 209, 212, 214, 224, 226, 251, 265, 274–275 M spasma, 224, 226, 265 Megaerops niphanae, 224, 226 Megaloglossus woermanni, 55, 78 Megatrypanum, 285 Melaka virus, 140, 153, 171 Melanoma differentiation‐associated gene‐5 (MDA‐5), 6–7, 10, 13–14, 19–20, 44, 71 Melomys cervinipes, 248 Memory T cell, 17 Menangle virus, 56–57, 61, 74–75, 79–81 Meningitis, 60–61, 164, 232, 254–255, 257 INDEX Meristaspis M lateralis, 233 M macroglossi, 233 Merkel polyomavirus, 194–195, 200 Merkel skin cell cancer, 194, 200 Meron, 263 Merozoite, 263, 269 MERS‐CoV see Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) Mesophylla macconelli, 340 Metabolism, metabolic, 18, 239, 256, 308–309, 315–316, 319 Metacyclic trypomastigotes, 289 Metapneumovirus, 13 Methylobacterium, 252, 256 Microbiome, xvii, 19, 216, 239, 252, 256, 318, 357 Microconidia, 332, 343 Microgamete, 263, 269, 273 Microglia, 45 Micronycteris sp., 286, 340 M megalotis, 29, 329, 334 M microtis, 225, 229 MicroRNA, Microsporidiosis, 337 Microsporum M canis, 340 M gypseum, 330, 339 Microtriatoma trinidadensis, 292 Microtus fortis, 275 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), 17, 113, 122–126, 128–134, 352 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV), xvi, 14, 17, 111–114, 116–118, 122–134, 352, 354 Migrate, migration, migratory, xvi, 34, 37–38, 48, 65–66, 70, 77, 100, 102, 105, 120, 157, 191, 246, 314, 333–334, 336, 353–355, 362, 365–366 Mine, mineshaft, 90, 96–97, 104–105, 132, 250, 306, 314, 317, 319, 362 Miner, 96, 97, 105 Miniopterus schreibersii rhabdovirus 1, 47 Miniopterus sp., 55, 227 M aelleni, 232 M africanus, 29, 47, 184, 195 M ambohitrensis, 55, 77 M fuliginosus, 93, 112, 132, 145, 162, 184, 193, 206, 214, 217, 265, 275 M gleni, 55, 77, 79, 232, 241, 247, 265 383 M griffithsi, 241, 247 M griveaudi, 55, 77, 79, 232, 242, 247 M inflatus, 55, 77–78, 90, 96, 184, 265, 270 M magnate, 145, 156, 216 M mahafaliensi, 55, 77, 242, 247 M manavi, 232, 265 M minor, 55, 78, 265 M natalensis, 55, 78, 225, 231 M pusillus, 145, 156, 165, 216 M schreibersii, 38, 47, 90, 101, 104, 145, 156–157, 160, 165, 172, 184, 190–191, 193–194, 196–199, 216, 225–226, 231–233, 242, 250, 257, 270, 297–298 M sororculus, 55, 77 M villiersi, 266, 270 Mischivirus, 145, 165 Mite, 5, 226, 230–231, 233–234, 295, 306, 320 Miyazaki, 153 Modoc virus, 163 Mojiang virus, 60 Mokola virus, 10, 32, 38–39 Molluscum contagiosum virus, 190, 199, 217 Molossus molossus B1130, 195 Molossus sp., 34, 324 M ater, 145–146, 171, 242, 253 M bondae, 4, 242, 253 M major, 146, 162, 242, 251, 253, 329, 334–335 M molossus, 4, 29, 146, 169, 171, 185, 198, 229, 242, 253, 266, 274, 286–287, 291–292, 296, 329, 335, 338, 340, 342 M rufus, 29, 34, 329, 335 M sinaloae, 4, 29 Monkey, 14, 17, 47, 63, 92, 96, 100, 103–104, 111, 123, 163, 190, 211, 214, 360 Monkeypox, 190, 199, 360 Monocyte, 3, 7, 17, 19, 66, 91–92, 94, 96, 116 Monongahela virus, 166 Mononucleosis, 192 Monophyllus redmani, 225, 228 Montana Myotis leukoencephalitis virus, 147, 163, 172–173 Mops M condylurus, 90, 99–100, 146, 163, 213, 287, 291 M leucostigma, 55, 77 M midas, 55, 77 Morbillivirus, 53–59, 71, 77–79, 81 Morganella, 242–243, 252 384INDEX Moribund, 171, 174, 191–192, 200, 255, 293, 298, 311, 317 Mormoops M megalophylla, 30, 33, 266, 272, 329, 333, 336 Mormopterus M acetabulosus, 55, 79 M francoismoutoui, 242, 247 M jugularis, 55, 77, 242, 247 Mortierella, 319, 340 Mortierellales, 340 Mosquitoes, 27, 46–47, 77, 158–162, 165, 172–173, 198, 234, 269–270, 278, 361, 364 Mount Eglon bat virus, 46, 49 Mouyassué virus, 147, 167, 359 MrGHV‐1 and MrGHV‐2, 185, 206, 216 MrPV1, 186, 194 MschPV1 and MschPV2, 184, 194, 216 MsHV, 184, 193 Mucambo virus, 146, 148, 171 Mucin‐like region (MLR), 93–94, 96 Mucor M flavus, 339 M hiemalis, 339 M luteus, 339 M racemosus, 339 Mucorales, 340 Mumps, 53, 60, 70, 76 Murina M aurata, 146, 160 M leucogaster, 30, 39, 146, 266, 275, 307 M ussuriensis, 307, 313 Murine typhus, 230 Muzzle, 306, 321 Myalgia, 76, 81, 115, 122, 155, 227, 231, 335 Mycelia, 318, 327, 332, 336, 341, 343 Mycobiome, 319 Mycoplasma sp., 242–243, 250, 257 M haemomuris, 242, 250 Mycosis, 332, 343 Myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), 8, 11 Myocarditis, 164, 358 Myonycteris M angolensis, 266, 270 M leptodon, 266, 271 M torquata, 55, 78, 90, 97, 99, 101–102, 213, 266 Myotis polyomavirus (MyPyV), 185, 194 Myotis sp., 16, 37–38, 48, 132, 147, 186, 191, 198, 212, 229 M adversus, 266, 278 M albescens, 287, 291, 329, 338 M alcathoe, 55, 78, 233, 266, 272, 307, 313 M bechsteinii, 55, 78, 146, 157, 164, 206, 233, 275, 307, 313 M blythii, 30, 37, 39, 112, 132, 146, 185, 233, 307, 313 M brandtii, 12, 185, 209–210, 212, 228, 233, 254, 287, 307, 313 M californicus, 185, 194, 266, 276, 329, 333, 336 M capaccinii, 56, 242, 250, 257 M chinensis, 146, 156–157, 214, 266, 275, 307, 313 M ciliolabrum, 266, 276, 278 M dasycneme, 30, 37, 112, 132, 185, 266, 272, 307, 313 M daubentonii, 30, 37, 41, 47, 56, 78, 117, 128, 146, 157, 164, 206, 225, 228, 233, 242, 266, 270, 272, 275, 307, 312–313 M emarginatus, 146, 157, 164, 185, 233, 307, 313 M evotis, 266, 276 M goudoti, 56, 77, 242, 247, 266 M horsfieldii, 146, 157, 185, 191 M keaysi, 225, 229 M levis, 287, 291 M lucifugus, 5–7, 10, 12, 15–16, 147, 161, 185, 194, 206, 209–212, 215, 217, 225, 231, 235, 242, 250, 255, 257, 266, 276, 307–317, 320–321 M muricola muricola, 242, 252 M myotis, 10, 30, 37–38, 41, 44–45, 56, 78, 132, 147, 157, 185, 206, 216, 233, 242, 248, 256, 266, 270–271, 306–307, 313, 316 M mystacinus, 30, 39, 56, 76, 78, 147, 155, 157, 160, 185, 206, 215, 225, 228, 233, 242, 249, 254–255, 266, 272–273, 307, 313 M nattereri, 30, 38, 147, 157, 185, 212, 215, 233, 242, 273, 307–308, 313 M nigricans, 30, 34, 147, 158–159, 266, 276, 287, 291, 329, 340 M ricketti, 56, 147, 157, 185–186, 191, 193–194, 197, 206, 210, 216, 266, 275, 277 M riparius, 242, 246 385 INDEX M ruber, 289, 291 M septentrionalis, 147, 161, 225, 228, 267, 276, 307, 311–312, 316, 329 M sodalist, 267, 272, 311, 329 M thysanodes, 329, 340 M velifer incautus, 11, 30, 307, 313 M volans, 267, 276 M yumanensis, 30, 46, 147, 267, 276 Mystacina tuberculate, 147 Nairobi sheep disease, 165 Nairovirus, 147–148, 165, 173, 206, 215 Nanonycteris veldkampii, 267 Nanoviridae, 197 Naples virus, 167 Nasal, 44, 46, 59–60, 65–66, 114–115, 124–126, 133, 295, 297, 332, 341 Nasopharyngeal, 60, 64, 98, 196, 249, 257 Natal multimammate mouse, 103, 358 Natalus N stramineus, 147, 158, 329, 333, 335 N tumidirostris, 147, 171 Natural killer cells, xvi, 12, 20, 73 Negri bodies, 35, 39, 41, 45 Neisseria N gonorrhoeae, 232 N meningitides, 232 Nelson Bay virus, 9, 140, 149, 153, 155, 171 NeoCoV, 112, 124, 128–129, 134 Neoehrlichia mikurensis, 230 Neoehrlichiosis, 230 Neorickettsia N ristici, 224–225, 231, 235, 243 N sennetsu, 230 Neoromicia N capensis, 112, 124, 128, 271 N nana, 78 N zuluensis, 112, 129 Neospora caninum, 276 Nephroisospora eptesicinov, 264, 275 Neuron, 10, 35, 41–42, 44–46, 48, 60, 66 Neutralizing antibodies, 16, 27, 34, 37–38, 40–41, 44, 46–47, 61, 66–67, 69–70, 72, 74–75, 80, 93, 95–96, 124–126, 158–162, 166, 171–173 Neutrophil, 3–5, 19–20, 73, 254, 312, 315–317, 337 Newcastle disease virus, 19 New York virus, 166 New Zealand hepevirus, 147, 164, 172 Niemann‐Pick C1 (NPC1), 92, 95–96, 104 Nipah virus (NiV), 11, 13, 19, 54–61, 63, 66–71, 73, 79–82, 360, 363 N,N‐dimethyloctylamine, 318 Noctilio N albiventris, 18, 234, 287, 291 N labialis, 287, 329, 334 N leporinus, 30, 147, 200, 242, 253 NOD‐like receptors (NLR), 6–7, 18, 20 Nonanal, 318 Nonhuman primate, xvi, 36, 89, 104, 106, 123, 128, 133, 163–164, 195, 197–198, 200, 208, 213–214, 253, 293 Normothermic, 308–310 Norovirus, 217 Nosocomial, 69, 103 NRCE‐HKU205, 124 Nuclear factor κ‐B (NF‐κB), 7, 11, 14, 72, 92, 316 Nuclear translocation, 8–9, 13–14, 20, 122 Nyctalus noctule, 147, 255, 329 Nyctereutes procyonoides, 114 Nycteria sp., 265, 267–268, 271 N erardi, 267, 271 N houini, 267, 271 N medusiformis, 267–268, 271 Nycteribia N kolenatii, 47, 271 N parilis vicaria Maa, 231 N schmidli, 47 N stylidiopsis, 232 Nycteribiidae, 227, 231, 270, 278 Nycteribiidae bat flies, 270, 278 Nycteris N arge, 267, 271 N capensis, 112, 124, 128, 271 N grandis, 267, 271, 286–287, 292 N hispida, 148, 167, 287, 297, 328–329, 336 N macrotis, 30, 267, 271 N nana, 140, 148, 267, 271 N thebaica, 56, 78, 225, 227, 231, 267, 271 Nycticeius humeralis, 187, 292 Nyctinomops laticaudatus, 30, 267, 340 Oita virus, 31, 46–47, 49, 150 Oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS), 6, 8–9, 11–12, 19–20, 92 One Health, 352 O’nyong‐nyong virus, 10 Oocyte, 269, 273, 275–277 Ookinete, 269 386INDEX Oral, 43–44, 46, 65, 97–98, 124, 131, 156–157, 161, 163, 166, 169, 171, 194–195, 198, 215–216, 239, 248–249, 254, 293, 336, 341, 352, 359 Oran virus, 166 Orchard, 74, 129, 131, 154, 340 Oriboca virus, 142, 171 Orientia, 230, 235 O tsutsugamushi, 230 Ornithodoros O hasei, 234 O kelleyi, 234 O rossi, 234 Orthobunyavirus, 165–166, 193, 353 Orthohepadnavirus, 213–214, 217 Orthomyxovirus‐resistant gene (Mx1), 8–9, 11, 13–14, 19–20, 44–45 Orthopoxvirus, 217 Orthoreovirus, 9, 12, 139–140, 147–150, 153–155, 171, 353 Osteomyelitis variolosa, 190 Otomops O madagascariensis, 56, 77, 247 O martiensseni, 56, 78, 148, 163, 186, 191, 195 Oxidative, 4, 315–316 Paecilomyces P fumosoroseus, 339 P variotii, 339 Paguma larvata, 114 Panstrongylus P geniculatus, 292 P rufotuberculatus, 292 Pantoea P agglomerans, 240, 252 Papillomavirus, 181, 183–184, 186–188, 194, 200 Papua New Guinea, 40, 61, 64, 80, 140, 214 Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, 341–342 Parainfluenzavirus, 53 Paralysis, 35, 46, 59, 140, 165, 216, 276 Paramyxovirinae, 53 Paramyxovirus, 9, 13–14, 19, 54, 59–61, 63–64, 68, 70–82, 191, 247 Paraperiglischrus rhinolophinus, 233 Parastrellus hesperus, 287, 292 Paratriaenops furculus, 56, 77 Parturition, 157, 247 PARV4‐like viruses, 182–183, 196, 200 Parvovirus, 182, 196–197, 200, 215–216 Parvovirus B19, 196 Passive surveillance, 45, 74 Pasteurella, 241, 249, 254, 256 Pasteurella species B, 249, 254 P multocida, 242–244, 249, 254, 257 P septica, 243, 249 Pattern recognition receptors, 6, 13, 18, 20, 44 Pegivirus, 146, 150, 163, 172–173 Penicillidia P conspicua, 47, 339 P fulvida, 47, 339 P leptothrinax, 232 P oceanica, 231 P tectisentis Maa, 231 Penicillium sp., 339 section Chrysogena, 339 section Citrina, 339 section Exilicaulis, 339 Percavirus, 192–193 Peridomestic, 59, 264, 356 Perimyotis subflavus, 215, 267, 276, 307, 311–312, 316, 329, 340 Perivascular cuffing, 35, 45 Peropteryx macrotis, 340 Persistence, xvii, 91, 101, 121, 131, 167, 194, 306, 320, 351, 353–354, 356, 364 Pestivirus, 187, 207, 216 PgigPV1, 194 pH, 69–70, 81, 251, 338, 365 Phagocytosis (phagocytic), 5, 20, 94, 230, 232, 233, 295 Pharyngitis, 35, 39 Phenylobacterium, 252, 256 Phlebotomine, 165, 295–296 Phlebotomus fever virus, 167, 173–174, 296 Phlebovirus, 165 Phoma, 164 Phosphatidylserine, 165 Phyllostomus, 340 P discolor, 30, 148, 159, 163–164, 228–229, 289, 291, 296, 329–330, 334–335, 338 P hastatus, 30, 148, 169, 191, 225, 229, 243, 267, 274, 287, 290–293, 330, 334–335, 340 Picobirnavirus, 206, 215, 217 INDEX Picornavirus, 144–145, 148, 150, 164–165, 172, 183–184, 187, 207, 216 Pig, 10, 14, 17–18, 33, 45–47, 53, 60, 66–70, 81–82, 100, 102–104, 155, 160, 164, 168, 170, 172, 174–175, 194, 197–200, 252, 273, 359–360 Pipistrellus sp., 186, 225, 243, 249, 358 P auritus, 37 P austiacus, 37, 41 P abramus, 112, 114, 127, 148, 156, 160, 165, 167, 206 P grandidieri, 271 P hesperidus, 56, 77 P javanicus, 243, 267, 274 P kuhlii, 30, 41, 112, 132, 148, 155, 186, 249, 267, 277 P nanus/annulus, 56, 78 P nathusii, 30, 37, 41, 148, 155, 157, 186, 191, 243 P pipistrellus, 56, 76, 112, 127–128, 155, 157, 162, 186, 191, 206–207, 212, 215, 233, 243, 248–249, 254, 267, 272–273, 275, 278, 287, 291, 293 P pygmaeus, 157, 186, 243, 249, 267, 272, 275 Piroplasmida, 263, 272, 278–279 Plasmodium sp., 269–270 P cyclopsi, 265, 270, 278 P falciparum, 269 P knowlesi, 269 P malariae, 269 P ovale, 269 P vivax, 169 P voltaicum, 265–266, 270, 278 Platyrrhinus P brachycephalus, 186, 195 P lineatus, 30, 243, 246, 267, 287–288, 291, 296 P recifinus, 149, 169 P vittatus, 225, 229 Plecotus auritus, 31, 47, 149, 155, 157, 160, 186, 233, 243, 249, 307, 309, 312–313 Plecotus auritus rhabdovirus 1, 47 PML/2011, 112, 129 Pneumocystis, 328–330, 335–337, 343 Pneumocytes, 115, 122, 337 Pneumonia, 59–60, 114, 118, 156, 171, 192, 200, 248–249, 251–252, 254–257, 337, 343, 353 Pneumovirinae, 53, 78 387 Pollinator, xvi Polychromophilus sp., 265, 270, 278 P melanipherus, 265–266, 270 P murinus, 270–271 Polyctenidae, 295 Polyomavirus, 181–189, 191, 194–195, 199–200, 217 Polyporales, 340 Polyproteins, 118, 162, 208–209 Porcine circovirus 2, 298 Post‐exposure prophylaxis (PEP), 35–36, 43–44 Poxvirus, 185, 199 Pregnant, pregnancy, 16, 36, 38, 66, 70–72, 74, 79, 96–97, 99, 101–102, 105, 153, 164, 172, 247, 273–274, 279–280, 337, 343, 355, 360, 365 Primate protoparvovirus 1, 197 Prion, 82, 361 Probiotics, 239, 318 Procyclic trypomastigote, 289 Proinflammatory response, 16–17, 71, 73, 92, 104, 118, 123, 296, 315 Promastigote, 289, 295 Promops sp., 291 P nasutus, 243, 246, 267, 287 Protease, 16, 63, 93–94, 116, 118, 127, 163, 208, 211, 311 Proteus sp., 241, 244, 251, 253–254 P mirabilis, 243–244, 255 P vulgaris, 243–244, 255 Providencia, 242, 252–253 Provirus, 205, 208–209, 211, 217 P‐selectin, 316 Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Geomyces destructans), 255–257, 305–321, 339–341, 344 Pseudomonas sp., 241–242 P aeruginosa, 240, 252, 254 P fluorescens, 255, 318 Pseudovirus, 94–95, 117, 119, 127 Psychrophilic, 305, 340, 344 Psychrotolerant, 305, 340, 344 Ptenochirus jagori, 186, 193, 243, 267, 278 Pteronotus P parnellii rubiginosa, P rubiginosa, 291, 330, 334 P personatus, 31, 287, 291, 296 P psilotis, 330, 340 P suapurensis, 330, 334 Pteropine orthoreovirus, 9, 140, 154–155 388INDEX Pteropus sp., 4, 57, 158, 187, 247 P admiralitatum, 56, 64 P alecto, 5–9, 11–13, 15, 18, 21, 31, 39, 56, 63–66, 70–72, 74, 80–81, 161, 170, 172, 207, 210, 243, 247, 267–268, 270, 279, 287, 292 P capistratus, 56, 64 P conspicillatus, 56, 64–66, 75, 80–81, 243, 247–248, 268, 274 P dasymallus yayeyamae, 93, 187, 191 P giganteus, 4, 31, 39, 56, 68, 93, 150, 163, 187, 194, 243, 251, 253, 255, 337 P hypomelanus, 13, 56, 64, 67–69, 72, 75, 140, 149, 243–244, 249, 268 P lylei, 31, 39, 57, 67–68, 187, 193 P neohibernicus, 57, 64 P poliocephalis, 31, 39, 57, 64–65, 74, 81, 149, 268, 270 P pumilus, 244, 249 P rodricensis, 244, 249 P rufus, 57, 62, 77, 79, 112–113, 225, 228, 244, 252 P scapulatus, 31, 39–40, 57, 64–66, 75, 81, 99, 149 P spiciliatus, 31, 39–40 P tonganus, 187, 198 P vampyrus, 4, 7, 9–10, 12–13, 15, 19, 57, 61, 67–68, 70, 90, 104, 149, 153, 187, 195, 207, 209, 211, 244, 249 Pulau virus, 12–13, 140, 149, 153, 171 Pulmonary, 116, 166, 173, 192, 245, 254, 311, 332–333, 335–337, 341, 343, 359 Punta Toro virus, 167 Puumala virus, 166 Python Cave, 97, 101 Q fever, 227, 232, 234, 361 Rabies virus (RABV), 9, 11, 14, 27–32, 37, 45, 48–49, 251, 354–355 Raccoon dogs, 36, 113, 115, 118 RaFV‐1, 216 RaPV1, 188, 194 Rats, Rattus rattus, 36, 60, 159, 164, 226, 245–246, 252, 256, 277, 359, 361 Ravn virus, 89, 96–97 RBHBV, 214 Reactivation, 194, 205, 355, 364 Reactive oxygen species, 19, 315 Reassortment, 150, 155, 167–168, 170, 173, 351, 366 R06E cells, 93 Recolonization, 320, 365 Recombination, 15, 18, 114, 120–122, 128, 132, 163, 168, 174, 196–197, 200, 211, 332, 351, 360 Recrudescence, 60, 62, 66, 332 Rectal, rectum, 65, 98, 101, 104, 121, 124–126, 132, 163, 167, 169, 171, 175, 252–253, 336, 341 Relapsing fever group, 224–225, 229–230, 233–235, 358 Reovirus (respiratory enteric orphan viruses), 9, 13, 139–140, 153–154, 171 Reovirus HK23629/07, 153 Reservoir, xv, xvi, xvii, 5, 32–33, 36–37, 42–43, 45, 48–49, 60, 62, 64–65, 67, 76–77 79–82, 93, 98, 101–103, 117, 120, 131, 159–162, 166–167, 171–174, 190, 213, 223, 226, 230, 234–235, 245, 247–248, 256–257, 292, 294, 296–298, 341, 351–354, 356–360, 362, 364–366, 3289 Resistance, resistant, xvi, 6, 44, 95, 166, 208, 213, 239, 253, 256, 321 Respiratory syncytial virus, 13, 53 Respirovirus, 71, 78 Reston ebolavirus (REBOV), 89–91, 93, 98, 100, 102–104, 212–213, 218, 260 Retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG‐I), 6–7, 9, 13–14, 19–20, 44–45, 71 Retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG‐I)‐like receptor (RLR), 6, 71 Retrotransposition, 210 Retrovirus, 99, 205–211, 215–218 Reverse transcriptase, 205, 208 Rf1, 12, 112, 120 RfBHV‐1, 207, 216 RfCV‐1, 187, 207, 216 RferPV1, 194 Rhinolophus ferrumequinum circovirus 1, 198 Rhinolophus ferrumequinum rhabdovirus 1, 47 Rhinolophus sp., 119–120, 150, 227, 233, 251, 268 R affinis, 9, 57, 112, 121, 132, 149, 157, 167, 187, 207, 210, 216, 268, 275 R alcyone, 77, 187, 207, 214, 268, 271 R blasii, 121 R chaseli, 225–226 R comutus, 149–150, 160 R denti, 57, 79 R eloquens, 31, 46, 90, 96, 149–150 INDEX R euryale, 187, 233 R ferrumequinum, 47, 93, 112–113, 117, 120, 149, 160, 167, 187–188, 194, 198, 207, 210, 214, 216‐, 217, 233, 258, 275, 307, 313 R hipposideros, 140, 150, 155, 157, 188, 233, 268, 280, 283, 307, 313 R inops, 268, 277–278 R landeri, 57, 79, 128, 268, 294 R luctus, 188, 198 R macrotis, 112–113, 117, 120, 197 R megaphyllus, 207, 210 R monoceros, 150, 167 R pearsoni, 112–113, 117, 120, 150, 167, 188, 197, 207, 210 R pusillus, 112–113, 117, 120, 155, 167, 188, 207, 210, 268, 275 R rouxi, 150, 156, 160, 164 R rufus, 188, 193 R sinicus, 9, 57, 112–113, 117, 119, 132, 150, 165, 167, 188, 197, 216, 225–226, 268, 278 Rhinophylla pumilio, 150, 169, 244, 330, 340 Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei, 336, 338, 342 Rhizopus stolonifer, 339 Rhodnius R pallescens, 292 R prolixus, 292, 295 Rhodococcus rhodochrous, 318 Rhodotorula rubra, 339 Rhynchonycteris naso, 150, 163 Rickettsialpox, 230 Rickettsia sp., 225, 233–234, 251 R aeschlimannii, 230 R africae, 230 R akari, 230 R amblyommii, 230–231, 235, 251 R bellii, 234 R conorii, 230, 251 R felis, 230 R heilongjiangensis, 230 R helvetica, 230, 233 R honei, 230 R hoogstraalii, 234 R japonica, 230 R massiliae, 230 R monacensis, 230 R parkeri, 230–231, 235, 251 R peacockii, 234 R prowazekii, 230 R raoultii, 230 389 R rhipicephali, 231, 235, 251 R rickettsia, 230, 234–235 R sibirica, R sibirica mongolotimonae, 230 R slovaca, 230 R species AvBat, 233 R typhi, 230 R wissemanii, 234 Rickettsiosis, 230 Riedlinia lipoxena, 233 Rift Valley fever, 143–145, 167, 174, 361 RIG‐1, 6–7, 9, 13–14, 19–20, 44–45, 71, 91 RIG‐I‐like receptors (RLR), 6, 71 Rinderpest, 39, 53 Rio Bravo virus, 143, 146–147, 149, 151, 162–163, 173 Rm1, 112, 120, 122 RNA‐dependent RNA‐polymerase, 27, 91, 114, 139, 162, 168, 212 RNase L, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 230–231 Rodents, xv, xvi, 12, 15, 20, 39–40, 46, 61, 75–77, 81, 99, 105, 159, 165–167, 170, 173–174, 190, 195, 209–211, 213–214, 217–218, 226, 230, 235, 246, 248, 250, 256–257, 270–271, 277–279, 291–292, 296–298, 309, 316, 352, 355–360, 362, 364–365 Roosting, roost, xvi, 5, 20, 33, 62, 64–65, 69, 81, 96–97, 99–102, 129, 131–132, 154, 217, 228, 243, 250, 277, 306, 308–310, 314, 332, 334–335, 341, 343, 353, 355, 362, 364–366 Roseola infantum, 192 Roseolovirus, 217 Rotavirus, 13, 139–140, 143, 150, 171, 206–207, 215 Rousettus aegyptiacus papilloma virus 1, 194 Roussettus R aegyptiacus, 9–10, 14, 17, 20, 31, 38, 57, 63, 76–78, 90, 93, 96–101, 104–105, 128, 150, 165, 188, 192, 194–195, 225, 227, 244, 248, 256, 258, 330, 337, 343 R amplexicaudatus, 57, 90, 100, 188, 193, 244, 268, 277–278, 360 R leschenaultia, 6, 74–75, 98, 101, 150–151, 153, 157, 160, 164, 188, 198, 251, 268, 274–275, 278 R madagascariensis, 56, 58, 77, 79, 232, 243, 247 R obliviosus, 232, 244, 247 Roussettus smithi, 265, 270 390INDEX Rp1, 192, 195 Rp3, 112, 120 Rs672, 113, 120, 129 Rs806, 113, 120 Rs3367, 112, 121–122, 133 RsSHC014, 112, 121, 133 Rubulavirus, 14, 36, 53–55, 57–58, 60–61, 71, 74–76, 78–81 Ruminant, 53, 230, 235, 361 Ryukyu virus 1, 187, 191 Sabiá virus, 170, 358 Saccharomyces S cerevisiae, 343 S kluyveri, 343 Saccolaimus flaviventris, 31, 40 Saccopteryx bilineata, 3, 18, 340 Saliva, salivary glands, 18, 21, 34–35, 38, 40–41, 43, 46–48, 60, 67–68, 76, 81, 98, 105, 131, 143, 146, 151, 153, 162–163, 165–166, 173, 198, 234, 269, 285, 289, 297, 354, 357–358 Salmonella sp, 240–244, 252–253, 359 S enterica, 240–241, 244, 252–254 S enteritidis, 240, 253–255 S flexneri, 254–255 S Group I, 242, 253 S O48, 255 S serotype Anatum, 243, 253, 255 S serotype Arizona, 241, 253 S serotype Blockley, 240, 253, 255 S serotype Caracas, 242, 253, 255 S serotype Enterica, 240–241, 244, 252–254 S serotype Llandoff, 244, 253, 255 S serotype Molade, 242, 253, 255 S serotype Rubislaw, 242, 253, 255 S serotype Saintpaul, 253, 255 S serotype Sandiego, 240, 253, 255 S serotype Typhi, 252–254, 257 S serotype Typhimurium, 241, 253–255, 257 S serotype Virchow, 241, 253–255, 267 S sonnei, 255 S Typhimurium var Copenhagen, 255 Sandflies, 27, 167, 226, 295–296, 298 Sarcocystis, 273 Sarocladium strictum, 339 SARS‐CoV, 13–14, 17, 111, 113–123, 125, 129, 131–135 SARS‐like CoV, 114–115, 117, 119–121, 132–133, 354 Schizogony, schizont, 263, 269–270, 273 Schizotrypanum, 285, 290, 297 Scotophilus, 151 S dinganii, 225, 231 S kuhlii, 39, 58, 156–157, 166, 188–189, 191–193, 197, 244, 277–278 S marovaza, 232 S robustus, 232 Scrapie, 361 Sedoreovirinae, 139 Seizure, 59, 67 Selection, selective pressure, xvi, 6–7, 18, 21, 77, 95, 116–118, 121, 130, 208, 212 Sendai virus, 9, 11, 13 Sennetsu fever, 230 Seoul virus, 166 Sepik virus, 162 Seroprevalence, 10, 72, 75, 99, 102, 105, 316 Serratia sp., 241, 251–252 S liquefaciens, 243–244, 254–255 S marcescens, 240, 252–254 Sers gammaretrovirus, 206, 215 Sesquiterpene trans, trans‐farnesol, 319 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus see SAR‐CoV Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus, 167–168, 171 Sheep, 212, 218, 228, 245, 249, 273, 276, 351, 361 Shigella S boydii‐2, 242, 253, 255 S flexneri, 254–255 Shimoni virus, 29, 32, 38, 48–49 Shingles, 192 Siadenovirus, 191 Siberian tick typhus, 230 Sicilian virus, 167 Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STAT1 and STAT2), 8–10, 13–14, 20, 70–71, 92 Sikamat, 154 Simian herpesvirus B, 192, 200 Simian immunodeficiency virus, 208 Sindbis virus, 13, 150 Sin Nombre virus, 166, 359 Siphonaptera, 231 Skin, dermal, 42–43, 59, 91, 98, 103, 130, 161, 173, 190, 192, 194, 199–200, 216, 230, 245, 255, 257, 289, 295–297, 311–313, 352, 358 Skirts, 73, 82 INDEX Smallpox, xv, 190, 199, 355 Sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide, 213 Sokoluk virus, 148, 162, 173 Somatic hypermutation, 16, 20 Sosuga virus, 57, 76, 81 Spanish influenza, 168, 360 Spatiotemporal, 64, 366 Sphingobacteriaceae, 255 Sphingomonas, 252, 256 Spillover, 37, 63–66, 68, 81, 97, 100–102, 105, 114–115, 121, 124, 154, 217, 227, 294, 352, 355, 360, 362–365 see also Zoonotic Spinareovirinae, 139 Spinturnix S acuminatus, 233 S americanus, 233 S bakeri, 233 S myoti, 233, 306 Spirochete, 229–230, 234, 245–247, 357–358 Spleen, 3, 9, 13, 16, 18–19, 34, 41, 47–48, 61, 65–66, 73, 76, 79, 91, 93, 96–101, 105, 116, 123–124, 155, 158–159, 162, 167, 171, 173, 191, 193, 195–196, 216, 227, 230–231, 235, 247–248, 251, 256–257, 272, 295, 297, 333–335, 337, 339, 341–343, 353 Spongiform encephalopathy, 361 Spore, 272, 305, 318, 332, 336–338, 341, 343–344, 361 Sporothrix schenckii, 340 Sporotrichum, 330, 339, 344 Spotted fever, 233–235, 251 Sprattiella, 270, 278–279 S alecto, 267, 270 Spumavirus, 209, 216 see also Foamy virus St Louis encephalitis virus, 141–144, 146–149, 151, 158, 161, 172 Staphylococcus sp, 241, 243–244, 252–253 S aureus, 243–245, 252, 254, 315, 359 S epidermis, 254 S faecalis, 252 Steatonyssus occidentalis, 233 Sternopsylla texanus, 233 Stimulator of interferon genes (STING), 6, 23 Streblidae, 231 Streptococcus, 252, 257 Streptomyces, 318 Stress, 4, 65, 248, 256, 292, 316, 355, 357, 364 391 Sturnira sp., 151 S lilium, 41, 58, 76, 151, 159, 169, 171, 181, 195, 205, 229, 244, 253, 268, 296, 330, 338, 340 S ludovici, 151, 288, 296 S mordax, 225, 229 S tildae, 244, 340 Sturnira lilium B0454, 195 Stuttering transmission, 352 Sudan ebolavirus (SEBOV), 89, 95, 99 Super‐spreader, 69, 115 Susceptible, 39, 42, 45, 62, 66, 69, 95, 100, 104–105, 117, 126, 128, 157, 165, 167, 191, 274, 277, 280, 308, 317–318, 337, 341, 352, 355, 363, 365 Syncytia, 11, 13, 53, 59, 62–63, 73–74, 78, 140 Syndrome hémorragique de Durba, 96 Syngamy, 263 SZ3, 120 T‐cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain (TIM‐1), 92, 94, 96, 104 T‐cell leukemia virus, 208 T lymphocytes (T cells), 12, 17, 44, 73, 95, 116, 316, 337–338 Gamma delta T cells, 316 T helper lymphocytes, 12–13, 17–18, 20–21, 73, 123, 315 T killer lymphocytes, xvi, 14, 17, 20–21 T regulatory lymphocytes, 14 Tacaribe virus, 141–143, 152, 170–171, 174, 358 Tadarida sp., 31, 151–152, 166, 232, 288, 291 T brasiliensis, 4–5, 11–12, 31–32, 151, 154, 161–163, 171, 173, 189, 194, 198–199, 201, 233, 268, 276, 288, 330–331, 333–336, 343 T condylura, 103, 151 T femorosacca, 268, 276 T mexicana, 339, 344 T plicata, 31, 39 T pumila, 103, 151 T teniotis, 31, 37, 41 T yucatanica, 331, 334 Tadarida brasiliensis circovirus (TbCV‐1), 189, 198 Tadarida brasiliensis polyomavirus and (TbPyV1, TbPyV2), 189, 194 Tamana bat virus, 1142–144, 146, 148–149, 151, 162–163 392INDEX TANK binding kinase (TBK1), 6, 8, 14, 91 Tapasin, 19 Taphozous sp., 58, 79, 163 T melanopogon, 58, 78, 152, 156, 167, 171, 189, 191, 268, 275, 277 T nudiventris, 288, 290 T perforatus, 129, 132, 154, 268 TBHBV, 214 TcbI and TcbII, 294 Telemetry, 309–356 Temperate, xvi, 64, 164, 271, 279, 314, 355–356 Temperature, xv, xvi, 4, 19, 69–70, 77, 81, 102, 115, 126, 130, 169, 174, 271, 305–306, 308–309, 313, 315, 317–319, 332, 334, 356, 365 Terpeneless orange oil, 317 Teviot virus, 57, 64, 79, 81 Thai tick typhus, 230 Thaumapsylla, 228 Theilaria, 272 Thermolysin, 94 Thymus, 3, 18–19 Thyroptera tricolor, 288, 291 Tick, 18, 27, 46–47, 158, 162, 164, 173, 215, 223, 226–227, 229–235, 295, 357–358, 360 Tick‐borne lymphadenopathy, 230 Tick‐borne encephalitis virus, 158 Tick‐borne relapsing fever, 229, 235, 358 Tioman virus, 12–13, 56–58, 61, 69, 72, 75, 79, 81, 140, 153 Toll‐like receptor (TLR), 6–8, 18, 20–21, 44–45, 71, 295 Tomopeas raves, 268, 276 Tonatia bidens, 152, 171, 288, 291, 331, 334 Tor2, 121 Torpor, xvi, 4, 19, 174, 308–310, 312, 315–316, 320–321, 353, 356–357 Torque teno minivirus, 198 Torque teno virus, 189, 198 Torulopsis sp., 331 T aeria, 339 T candida, 339 T colliculosa, 328, 339 T dattila, 339 T famata, 339 T glabrata, 329, 339–140, 344 T inconspicua, 339 Toscana virus, 148, 167 Tospovirus, 165 Toxoplasma gondii, 264–268, 273, 279 Trachops cirrhosis, 4, 288, 291, 340 Transporter associated with antigen processing, 19 Transpose, transposition, 190, 208, 210, 217 TrBHV‐1, 189, 207, 216 Trematodes, 231, 235 Treponema saccharophilum, 255 Triaenops T afer, 58, 79 T furculus, 244, 247, 268 T menamena, 58, 77, 244, 247 T persicus, 225, 227, 244 Triatoma Triatoma dispar, 294 Triatoma gerstaeckeri, 292 Triatoma infestans, 295 Triatoma sanguisuga, 292 Triatomine, 289, 291–295 Trichoderma sp., 319 T harzianum, 339 T polysporum, 318–319 Trichodysplasia spinulosa‐associated polyomavirus, 195 Trichophyton T mentagrophytes, 331, 339 T redellii, 312, 340 T rubrum, 331, 339 T terrestre, 331, 339 Trichosporon sp., 340, 342 T beigelii, 339–340, 344 T cutaneum, 330, 342 T laibachii, 342 T porosum, 342 T pullulans, 328, 331, 339 Trombigastia cadei, 233 Tropism, 32, 42, 62, 91–92, 94–95, 104, 119, 127, 129, 153, 155, 174, 190, 213, 354 Trypanosoma T aunauwa, 290 T brucei brucei, 289 T brucei gambiense, 289 T brucei rhodesiense, 289 T cruzi clade, 286–287, 290–295, 298, 360 T cruzi cruzi, 290–294, 297–298 T cruzi marinkellei, 286–288, 290–292, 294 T cruzi Tc1, 286–288, 291–292 T cruzi TcBat, 286–287, 291 INDEX T desterrensis, 290 T dionisii, 286–288, 290–293, 295 T erneyi, 287–288, 290–291, 294–295 T hastatus, 290 T hedricki, 290 T hipposideri, 290–292 T lewisi, 290 T lineatum, 290 T livingsoni, 290 T longiflagellum, 288, 290 T myotis, 290 T phyllostomae, 290 T pteropid, 287 T rangeli, 286–287, 290–292, 295, 298 T teixeirae, 287, 293, 298 T vegrandi, 286–287, 290, 292 T vespertilionis, 287, 290–291 T wauwau, 287, 291 Trypomastigote, 285, 289, 293–294 Tuhoko virus, 58, 75–76 Tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF), 8, 16–18, 21, 45, 73, 116, 315–316 TNF receptor associated factor (TRAF), 8, 14 Tumor necrosis factor‐related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL), 72 Tupaiid herpesvirus 1, 193 Tylonycteris pachypus, 113–114, 127, 189 Type transmembrane serine protease (TMPRSS2), 116, 127 Typhoid fever, 253 Tyro3 receptor tyrosine kinase, 94, 104 Undulating membrane, 285, 289 Ungulate, 59, 78, 356–357 Urban, urbanization, xv, 32–34, 64–65, 81, 102, 114, 239, 246, 252–253, 256, 274, 296, 342, 362, 365 Urine, 40, 60, 64–70, 75, 79, 81, 98, 102, 104, 124, 126, 130–134, 154–155, 157, 159, 165–166, 172, 191, 197, 215, 245–247, 250, 255–257, 342, 354, 357, 359, 362, 365 Uroderma U biobatum, 159 U magnirostrum, 268, 276 Uukuniemi virus, 167 Vaccine, vaccination, 27, 30–33, 35–36, 38–39, 43–44, 48–49, 66, 72, 74, 82, 168, 190, 199, 208, 213 366 Vaccinia osteomyelitis, 190 393 Vampire bats, 28, 33–34, 40–41, 44, 48, 54, 90, 143, 145, 162, 182, 192, 195, 200, 206, 209, 211, 224, 241, 253, 264–265, 274, 286, 328 Vampyressa thyone, 225, 229 Vampyriscus bidens, 152, 169, 225, 229 Vampyrodes caraccioli, 152, 164, 207, 288, 291 Vampyrops helleri, 152, 171, 331, 340 Varicella‐zoster, 192 VDJ rearrangements, 15–16 Vector, xvi, 27, 32, 37, 43, 48, 76, 82, 158–161, 163, 165, 172–173, 226–228, 230, 232, 235, 245–246, 256–257, 269–271, 278, 289, 291–296, 298, 351, 353–354, 357–359, 364, 366 Venezuelan encephalitis (VE) virus, 159, 162–163, 172 Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever, 170, 172 Vertical transmission, xvi, 66, 97, 208, 213, 231, 357 Vesicular stomatitis virus, 9, 13, 42, 45, 141–143, 151–152 Vesiculovirus, 27–28, 45–46, 48–49 Vespertiliibacter pulmonis, 241, 243, 249 Vespertilio V murinus, 152, 157, 189, 244, 249, 268 V pipistrellus, 166 V serotinus, 152, 166, 268 V superaus, 268, 274 Viannia, 296 Vibrio, 254 Virome, 164, 215–218, 364 Virulence, xv, 32, 37, 91–92, 117, 121, 209, 250, 354 Waddlia sp., 251, 257 W chondrophila, 250 W cocoyoc, 240, 251 W malaysiensis, 241, 250 Walchiella W impar, 233 W oudemansi, 233 Wallace’s Line, 60–61 Wangiella dermatitidis, 329–330, 338, 343 West Caucasian bat lyssavirus, 10, 29, 32, 38–39, 48 Western equine encephalitis virus, 141, 158, 162–163 West Nile virus, 141, 144, 147, 150–151, 158, 161, 320, 360, 364 394INDEX Whartonia caobangensis, 233 White blood cell (WBC), 3–4, 18–19, 272 White‐nose syndrome, xvi, 250, 255–256, 306, 308–318, 320–321, 344, 364 Williopsis californica, 343 Wind farm, xvi, 314 WiVi, 121 Wolbachia, 232 Xi River virus, 151, 153, 171 Xuan Son virus, 145, 167, 359 Yara Bend paramyxovirus, 57, 64, 81 Yeast, 69, 239, 319, 327, 332–337, 339, 341–344 Yellow fever virus, 141–144, 146, 148–149, 152, 158, 162, 171 Yeppoon virus, 57, 79 Yersinia sp., 257–260 Y enterocolitica, 243, 248, 254, 256 Y pseudotuberculosis, 242, 244, 248, 254, 256 YN‐BtCV‐1 to YN‐BtCV‐5, 198 Yogue virus, 150, 165, 173 Yokose virus, 145, 152, 162, 173 Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV), 89–91, 93, 95, 97–105 Zoonotic, zoonosis, 81, 133, 256, 352, 357–360 Zygomycota, 319–320, 340 Zygosaccharomyces florentinus, 343 ... in bats and domestic animals 3.9.3 Tioman virus in bats and humans 3.9.4 Tuhoko viruses in bats 3.9.5 Achimota viruses in bats 3.9.6 Sosuga virus in bats and humans 3.9.7 Jeilongvirus in bats ... 4.2.1 Marburg virus in humans and bats 4.2.2 Experimental infection of bats with Marburg virus 4.3 Ebola Virus 4.3.1 Ebola virus in humans and bats 4.3.2 Ebola virus and bats prior to the 2014... species and bats 11.3.2 Other Piroplasmida in bats 11.4 Order Eimeriida 11.4.1 Toxoplasma gondii and bats 11.4.2 Eimeria species and bats 11.5 Order Adeleida, Crytoporidium Species, and Bats