Arctic peoples

Arctic Peoples ( Craig A Doherty Katherine M Doherty ((( Arctic Peoples Copyright © 2008 by Craig A Doherty and Katherine M Doherty Maps copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing Photo captions copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Doherty, Craig A Arctic peoples / Craig A Doherty and Katherine M Doherty p cm.—(Native America) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8160-5970-6 (alk paper) Arctic peoples—History—Juvenile literature Arctic peoples—Social life and customs—Juvenile literature I Doherty, Katherine M II Title III Series GN673.D66 2007 971.9—dc22 2007013413 Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755 You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www.chelseahouse.com Text design by Erika K Arroyo Cover design by Salvatore Luongo Maps by Dale Williams Printed in the United States of America VB MSRF 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper and contains 30% post-consumer recycled content MMMMMMM (Note on Photos( Many of the illustrations and photographs used in this book are old, historical images The quality of the prints is not always up to modern standards, as in some cases the originals are damaged The content of the illustrations, however, made their inclusion important despite problems in reproduction This book is dedicated to the many students of all ages we have worked with and taught over the years ((( Craig and Katherine Doherty ((( Photo credits for color insert: U.S Fish and Wildlife Service: pages C-1 (all), C-3 (middle); University of Alaska Museum Archaeology Collections: pages C-2 (top left and bottom right), C-4 (top right, bottom left, and bottom right); Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY: page C-2 (bottom left); Anchorage Museum at Rasmuson Center: pages C-2 (top right), C-3 (top), C-5 (all), and C-6 (bottom); Aldo Tutino/Art Resource, NY: page C-3 (bottom); Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY: page C-4 (top left); Daniel S Glover/ University of Missouri, Museum of Anthropology: page C-6 (top and middle); National Archives and Records Administration: page C-7 (top left); Wilkinson/NWT Archives/N1979-051-1659S: page C-7 (top right); AP Images: pages C-7 (bottom) and C-8 (all) MMMMMMM (Contents( Introduction BOX FEATURE: THE STUDY OF PALEO-INDIANS Map: Beringia, 18,000–12,000 Years Ago Map: Glaciers and Migration Routes, 25,000 Years before Present BOX FEATURE: STONE TOOLS The Last Arrivals ix X xi xiii XV BOX FEATURE: DATING ARTIFACTS Stage 1: 25,000 to 5,000 B.C Stage 2: 5000 to 2200 B.C Stage 3: 2200 to 1200 B.C BOX FEATURE: PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES ALEUT AND INUIT PEOPLE OF Stage 4: 1200 B.C to A.D 600 Map: Arctic Cultural Area Stage 5: A.D 600 to 1800 BOX FEATURE: INUIT METALWORK BOX FEATURE: VIKINGS IN GREENLAND Map: Possible Route of Eric the Red, ca A.D 985 Families and Tribal Groups 11 Families BOX FEATURE: LIFE IN A KASHIM BOX FEATURE: THE CREATION OF THE WORLD 11 12 15 Communities and Bands 16 Religion 18 20 BOX FEATURE: SEDNA Trade and Cooperation 21 Houses, Clothes, Tools, and Transportation 22 Houses BOX FEATURE: BUILDING AN IGLOO OR SNOW-HOUSE 22 25 Clothing 28 Tools and Weapons 31 Transportation 33 Daily Life in the Arctic 37 Winter RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES 38 38 BOX FEATURE: BLADDER FESTIVAL (THE FEAST FOR SEALS’ SOULS) WINTER HUNTING BOX FEATURE: SEALS Summer FISHING 39 41 43 SUMMER HUNTING GATHERING THE SUMMER FAIR 47 47 49 50 52 53 The Coming of the Europeans 55 BOX FEATURE: NANOOK OF THE NORTH Rupert’s Land BOX FEATURE: THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE The Return of the Vikings BOX FEATURE: EUROPEAN DISEASE Russians in Alaska BOX FEATURE: COMPETITION FOR ALASKA 55 57 58 59 62 63 The Aleut and Inuit in the Nineteenth Century Missionaries 65 67 BOX FEATURE: SEWARD’S FOLLY Whaling BOX FEATURE: BLUBBER, BALEEN, WHALE 65 69 AND THE BOWHEAD Fur Trade BOX FEATURE: FUR EXCHANGE RATES 69 70 72 Commercial Fisheries 73 Gold Rush 75 The Twentieth Century in the Arctic Map: Territory of the Copper Inuit, ca 1900 77 78 The Last to Be Contacted 79 The Reindeer Experiment 80 81 BOX FEATURE: THE DEW LINE Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) BOX FEATURE: TUNDRA TIMES 82 84 Hydro-Québec 86 Inuit Circumpolar Conference 86 88 BOX FEATURE: GREENLAND HOME RULE Nunavut Map: Nunavut Territory, Canada, April 1, 1999 The Arctic Peoples Today Global Warming BOX FEATURE: SHEILA WATT-CLOUTIER (1953– ) Oil in the Arctic BOX FEATURE: ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE (ANWR) Art and Cultural Renaissance BOX FEATURE: ZACHARIAS KUNUK (1958– ) The Future 88 89 92 93 96 97 98 101 102 103 Time Line Historical Sites and Museums Further Reading Index 104 108 113 115 MMMMMMM Introduction Native American peoples live and have lived for millennia throughout the Americas Many people think of Indians solely in the past tense, as part of history While these groups have a long and interesting history, their contributions to American society have continued through the 20th century and into the 21st century Native America today is an exciting place, with much waiting to be discovered This series of books will introduce readers to these cultures Thousands of years ago people from Asia migrated to the Western Hemisphere and spread throughout the lands that would later be called North and South America Over the millennia, before Europeans found their way there, these peoples settled the Western Hemisphere, and a number of elaborate Native cultures developed The Aztec, Maya, and Inca had large cities in North, Central, and South America In what is now the United States, Pueblo groups in the Southwest and the Mound Builders in the Mississippi River basin lived in large towns and small cities People lived in every corner of the land and adapted to every climatic condition, from the frozen Arctic home of the Inuit to the hot, dry desert inhabited by the Tohono O’odham of what is now southern Arizona and northern Mexico When in A.D 1492 Christopher Columbus arrived in what Europeans would call the Americas, he mistakenly thought he was in the part of Asia known as the Indies Columbus therefore called the people he encountered Indians These Native Americans all had their own names for their many tribes; however, as a group they are still often referred to as American Indians or just ix ( 110 ( Arctic Peoples GREENLAND NUUK Greenland National Museum The museum has numerous displays on Inuit history and culture Address: Hans Egedevej 8, Postboks 145, 3900 Nuuk, Greenland Phone: 299-32-26-11 Web Site: www.natmus.gl UNITED STATES Alaska ANAKTUVUK PASS Simon Paneak Memorial Museum The Simon Paneak Memorial Museum has exhibits on Nunamiut Inuit history and culture Address: POB 21085, 341 Mekiana Road, Anaktuvuk Pass, AK 99721 Phone: 907-661-3413 Web Site: www.north-slope.org/nsb/55.htm ANCHORAGE Alaska Native Heritage Center The Alaska Native Heritage Center has both indoor exhibits and outdoor sites that introduce local residents and visitors to Native culture Address: 8800 Heritage Center Drive, Anchorage, AK 99506 Phone: 907-330-8000 Web Site: www.alaskanative.net Anchorage Museum of History and Art The museum has exhibits of Alaska Natives’ history and art Address: P.O 196650, 121 West 7th Avenue, Anchorage, AK 99519-6650 Phone: 907-343-4326 Web Site: www.anchoragemuseum.org BARROW Inupiat Heritage Center The Inupiat Heritage Center has exhibits on Native history and culture Address: Ilisagvik College, Barrow, AK 99723 Phone: 800-478-7337 Web Site: www.nps.gov/inup FAIRBANKS University of Alaska Museum of the North The museum has programs and exhibits on Native history Historical Sites and Museums ( 111 ( Address: P.O Box 756960, 907 Yukon Drive, Fairbanks, AK 99775-6960 Phone: 907-474-7505 Web Site: www.uaf.edu/museum/index.html JUNEAU Alaska State Museum The Alaska State Museum displays the culture of the Native people of Alaska Address: 395 Whittier Street, Juneau, AK 99801-1718 Phone: 907-465-2901 Web Site: www.museums.state.ak.us KENAI Kenai Visitors and Cultural Center The cultural center has an extensive collection of materials and exhibits including Aleut materials Address: 11471 Kenai Spur Highway, Kenai, AK 99611 Phone: 907-283-1991 Web Site: www.visitkenai.com KODIAK Alutiiq Museum and Archaeological Repository The Alutiiq Museum has a large collection of Inuit artifacts Address: 215 Mission Road, Suite 101, Kodiak, AK 99615 Phone: 907-486-7004 Web Site: www.alutiiqmuseum.com KOTZEBUE NANA Museum of the Arctic The NANA Museum of the Arctic (one of 12 regional development corporations in Alaska) has storytelling, exhibits, as well as Inuit dancing and blanket toss in the summer Mailing Address: c/o Tour Arctic, 1001 E Benson Boulevard, Anchorage, AK 99508 Physical Address: 100 Shore Avenue, Kotzebue, AK 99501 Phone: 907-265-4157 NOME Carrie M McLain Memorial Museum The museum has exhibits on Inuit culture Address: Box 53, 200 E Front Street, Nome, AK 99762 Phone: 907-443-6630 Web Site: www.nomealaska.org UNALASKA Museum of the Aleutians The museum has exhibits that display the history and culture of the Aleut ( 112 ( Arctic Peoples Address: P.O Box 648, Unalaska, AK 99685-0648 Phone: 907-581-5150 Web Site: www.aleutians.org VALDEZ Maxine and Jesse Whitney Museum The Maxine and Jesse Whitney Museum has numerous exhibits, including an Inupiaq Inuit village scene Address: P.O Box 97, 300 Airport Road, Valdez Airport Terminal, Valdez, AK 99686 Phone: 907-834-1690 Further Reading BOOKS Ansary, Mir Tamim Arctic Peoples Des Plaines, Ill.: Heinemann, 2000 Burgan, Michael Inuit Milwaukee, Wis.: Gareth Stevens, 2005 Corriveau, Danielle The Inuit of Canada Minneapolis, Minn.: Lerner, 2002 Damas, David, ed Arctic Volume 5, Handbook of the North American Indians Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1984 George, Charles The Inuit San Diego, Calif.: KidHaven Press, 2005 Koestler-Graek, Rachel A The Inuit: Ivory Carvers of the Far North Mankato, Minn.: Blue Earth Books, 2004 Santella, Andrew The Inuit New York: Children’s Press, 2001 Thompson, Linda People of the Northwest and Subarctic Vero Beach, Fla.: Rourke, 2004 Williams, Suzanne The Inuit New York: Franklin Watts, 2003 Wolfson, Evelyn Inuit Mythology Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2001 WEB SITES Alaska Native Knowledge Network “Welcome to Alaska Native Cultural Resources: Alaska Native Cultural Resources: AleutAlutiiq-Unangan/s-Sugpiaq Available online URL: www.ankn.uaf edu/aleut.html Downloaded on August 16, 2005 “Arctic Circle.” Available online URL: arcticcircle.uconn.edu Updated July 8, 2005 Inuit Circumpolar Conference “Welcome to the Inuit Circumpolar Conference.” Available online URL: www.inuitcircumpolar.com Downloaded on August 27, 2005 “Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK): Canada’s National Inuit Organization.” Available online URL: www.itk.ca Updated on August 11, 2005 113 ( 114 ( Arctic Peoples Morrison, David “The Inuvialuit of the Western Arctic from Ancient Times to 1902.” Available online URL: www.civilization.ca/aborig/ inuvial/indexe.html Updated on April 28, 2004 U.S Fish & Wildlife Service “Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.” Available online URL: arctic.fws.gov/index.htm Downloaded on August 16, 2005 “Welcome to Nunavut.” Available online URL: www.polarnet.ca/ polarnet/nunavut.htm Downloaded on August 16, 2005 Index Page numbers in italic indicate photographs/illustrations Page numbers in boldface indicate box features Page numbers followed by m indicate maps Page numbers followed by g indicate tables Page numbers followed by t indicate time line entries A Abel (Inuit man) 23 Aboriginal Film-making Program (National Film Board of Canada) 102 Acoma Pueblo xvii acorns xvii AEC See U.S Atomic Energy Commission AFN See Alaska Federation of Natives Aglukark, Susan C-8 agriculture-based economy 81–82, 106t See also farming air pollution 94 Akpaliapik (Inuit child) 13 Alaska ANCSA 82–86, 85, 97, 106t ANWR 98, 98–99, 99, 107t, C-1 Arctic Small Tool Tradition Brooks Range C-1 James Cook’s mapping of 105t European competition for 63 fishing industry 73–74 gold rush 75–76 Inuit Circumpolar Conference 87 missionaries in 19th century 66–67 oil 83, 84–85, 97–101, 107t reindeer project 81–82 Russia’s arrival in 62–64, 105t Sheshalik summer fair 53 statehood 83–84, 106t Tundra Times 84, 84 U.S purchase of 67, 67, 82–83, 105t Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) 84–85, 106t Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 82–86, 85, 97, 106t alcohol 60, 61 Aleut ancestors carvings 33 decimation of population by Russians 62, 64 and European disease 59 fish preservation 50 fur trade 62, 64 future issues 103 geographical organization 18 housing 22 hunting hats 33 Inuit, early divergence from 3, kayaks 35 115 ( 116 ( Arctic Peoples language 5, 18 meaning of term 10 parkas 29 permanent villages 38 physical attributes of population (early 21st century) 92 protection of, as condition of U.S purchase of Alaska 82 and Russian fur traders 62 and Russian Orthodox Church 67 seal hunting restrictions 96 sea mammals for subsistence 37 stage of Arctic settlement stage of Arctic settlement 104t whaling 45 Aleutian Islands 5, 105t Algonquian language 10 Algonquian peoples American Paleo-Arctic tradition amulet 20 Amundsen, Roald 57, 106t ANCSA See Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Anderson, R M 79 Anglican Church 68 animal hides See hides animals, taboos surrounding 19 animal skins See skins antlers, for tools 31, 33 Anvil Creek, Alaska 76 ANWR See Arctic National Wildlife Refuge archaeologists x, xv archery 54 Arctic char 48 Arctic Cultural Area 2–10, 6m Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) 98, 98–99, 99, 107t, C-1 Arctic Slope Regional Corp 100 Arctic Small Tool Tradition Arctic Village, Alaska 93 Arctic whale (bowhead whale) 69 arrows art 101, 101–102, 102 Inuit girl postcard C-7 ivory sculpture C-2 Zacharias Kunuk’s work 102 seal carving C-6 art cooperatives 101 artifacts dating methods of stage of Arctic settlement Ashevak, Kenojuak 102 Asia and origins of Aleut and Inuit x, 1, and origins of Native Americans ix, x and search for Northwest Passage 57 and stage of Arctic settlement assimilation 68, 80 Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner) (film) 101–102, 102 Athabascan mittens C-5 Athabascan peoples atomic bomb and DEW Line 81 and Tundra Times 84 attributes, physical, of Aleut/Inuit peoples 4, B Baffin Island 56 baleen 69, 70 ball, sealskin C-4 ball games 54 Banks Island 79 barabara 22, 23 Barrow, Alaska 87 basal metabolic rate bearded seal 43, 43 beaver pelts 72 beluga whale 46 Bering, Vitus 62, 105t Beringia xi–xii, xim Bering Sea x, 62 berries 52, 52, 53 birds, hunting of 52 birds, sacred 15 bird skins 28 bison black fish trap 47 Bladder Festival 38–39, 39 blades 31 blanket toss 54, 54 blocks, snow 25 blood vessels blubber 69 blueberries 52 boat xiv boat(s) See also kayak; umiak Bonanza Creek 74 bone for dogsled 36 for kayaks 33 for needles 32 from seals 43 for tools 31, 33 for umiak 35 boots 28, 29, C-4 bow and arrow 33, 51 bowhead whale 69, 70, 94–96 bowls 32 boys and hunting 14 in kashim 12 and kayak construction 35 breathing holes 42–43 bride’s fee 13–14 Bristol Bay 74 Brooks Range, Alaska C-1 Burton, Ken 94 Bush, George W 100 butchering of caribou 51–52, 99 of seals 43–44 of whales 46, 47 C cache 50 cairns 51 calfskin boots C-4 California culture area xvii camps, fishing/hunting 47, 50 Canada Copper Inuit 79–80 DEW Line 106t English control of 58 fishing industry in 74 Martin Frobisher and 104t Hydro-Québec dam project 86 Independence I Culture Inuit Circumpolar Conference 87 Zacharias Kunuk’s movies 102 missionaries in 19th century 66–68 Nunavut Territory 88–91, 89m pre-Dorset Culture George Vancouver’s voyage 63 Index ( 117 ( Sheila Watt-Cloutier’s advocacy for Inuit 96 Yukon gold rush 75–76, 105t Canadian Northwest Territories 88–91, 89m canneries 73, 74 Cannes Film Festival 102 canvas 79 cape (clothing) C-5 Cape Thompson, Alaska 84, 106t Capturing Spirit: The Inuit Journey (video) 96 carbon-14 dating method caribou 37, 73, 99 and ANWR 98, 99 cooperation for hunting of 21 and diet of Aleut and Inuit firearms and hunting 72 hunting by Copper Inuit 79, 80 Inuit’s dependency on 37 summer hunting for 50–52 taboos 19 caribou drives 51 Caribou Festival 39 Caribou Inuit 37 carvings 33, 101, 102 celebrations of childbirth 14 of children’s passage into adulthood 14 feast preparation 21 hand-held drum for 53 summer fair 53, 53–55, 54 ceremonial buildings 40–41 ceremonial clothing 30, 39 ceremonial mask 18 ceremonies 45, C-8 Cession, Treaty of 67, 67 char 48 Charles II (king of England, Scotland, and Ireland) 56 chert xv childbirth 14 children 23 ceremonial clothing/dance 39 clothing 30 food-gathering by 53 of mixed marriages 61 raising of 14, 14, 16 China 63 Christianity 55, 59–61 See also missionaries Churchill smallpox epidemic 58, 105t cinema 101–102 Atanarjuat 101–102, 102 Capturing Spirit: The Inuit Journey 96 Nanook of the North 49, 106t Qaggiq/Gathering Place 102 classical period See Thule tradition cleats 29, 36 climate change xvi, 8–9 See also global warming clothing 28, 28–30, 28–31 animal hides for 51 Athabascan mittens C-5 calfskin boots C-4 caribou hides for 51 ceremonial 39 fish skin frock 19 fur outfits 59 seal gut cape C-5 summer suit C-5 for winter ceremonies 39–40 woman’s 18 Clovis culture xv Clovis points xvi coffee 60 coins, and fur exchange rates 72 cold war 81, 106t colonists, European 2, 9–10 Columbus, Christopher ix, 57 combs 32 commercial fisheries 73, 73–74 communities 16–18 computer-based language programs 92–93 Congregationalist Church 67 Congress, U.S ANCSA 85–86, 106t ANWR 100–101, 107t Seward’s Folly 67 conservation 61 construction work, by Copper Inuit 80 containers, sealskin 45 contemporary issues 92–103 Cook, James 63, 63, 105t cooking 27, 44 cooking utensils 32 cooperation 16, 21 Copenhagen, Denmark 87, 106t copper 5, Copper Inuit 5, 7, 78m, 79–80 Copper River Cordilleran ice sheet xiii Coronation Gulf 79 corral 51 cradleboards 32 cranberries 52 creation stories/myths 15 creator spirit 19 Cree 86, 106t cribbage board C-3 Crimean War 67 cultural renaissance 101, 101–102, 102 culture areas xvi–xviii current issues 92–103 D daily life 37–54 summer 47–54 boats 35 fairs 53, 53–55, 54 fishing 47–50, 47–50 gathering 52, 52–53 hunting 50–52 winter 38–47 hunting 41–47, 42–46 religious ceremonies 38–41 transportation 35–36 dance ceremonial 39 hand-held drum for 53 and winter ceremonies 40 dance mask 40 dating, of artifacts Davis, John 56, 105t Davis Strait 56 Dawson, Yukon Territory 75–76 dendrochronology Denmark claims to Greenland in 18th century 58 and fishing industry in Greenland 74 and Greenland Home Rule Act 88, 107t and Instruction of 1872 105t missionaries in Greenland 65–66 return to Greenland in 18th century 55 DEW (Distant Early Warning) Line 80, 81, 106t dialects 18 diet ( 118 ( Arctic Peoples disease European 58, 59, 62, 70 shamans and 19, 20 documentary films Capturing Spirit: The Inuit Journey 96 Nanook of the North 49 dog(s) 35–36, 42 dog harness 80 dogsled 6, 35, 35–36, 43, 44, 97, 100, C-7 dome 27, 27 Dorset tradition down, from ducks 61 drag handle C-2 dreams 20 drift ice 43 driftwood 22, 23, 48 drumming 53, C-8 drying, for food preservation 50, 53 duels 16 Dutch 59 E education effect on Arctic peoples 92–93 U.S government policy 80 Sheila Watt-Cloutier’s work in 96 Egede, Hans 59–61, 65, 105t eggs, gathering of 52 eider ducks 61 Eisenhower, Dwight 98 elders 16, 17 endangered species 69, 96 Energy Bill (2005) 100–101 England See Great Britain English language 80, 92 entertainment, at summer fairs 53–54 environmentalists 99, 100 epicanthic eye fold epidemics 58, 105t See also disease Episcopal Church 67 Eric the Red arrival in Greenland 104t and Norwegians in Greenland possible route of 9m Eskimaleut 18 Eskimo (origin of term) 10 Europe, as source of genetic traits of American Indians xiv European arrival in Arctic 2, 55– 64, 63, 104t–105t European diseases See disease, European evil spirits 19 F facial piercings 30–31, 31 fairs 21, 53, 53–55, 54 families 11, 11–14, 16–17, 17 farming xvii, 8, Feast for Seals’ Souls 39 feasts 21, 40 feathers, for clothing insulation 28, 52 felt 72 feuds 16 film(s) See cinema firearms See guns fish and diet of Aleut and Inuit drying for preservation 49 migration/spawning 47 preservation of 50 fishermen 47, 48 fishing commercial fisheries 73, 73–74 cooperation for 21 kayaks for 34–35 during summer 47–50, 47–50 tools for 33 fish-mask C-4 fish skin frock 19 fish traps 47, 48 fish weir 48 Flaherty, Robert 49 flint xv floats 46 flounder 48 Folsom culture xv food See also fishing; hunting; meat caribou as 50 and culture areas xvii diet of Inuit/Aleut in kashim 12 pursuit of 37 food cache 50 footraces 54 fox fur 58 France 58, 63 Frederick IV (king of Norway) 59 freezing, for fish/meat preservation 44, 50 Frobisher, Martin 55–56, 56, 104t frock 19 fur clothing 28, 59 fur exchange rates 72, 72 furs, for snow-house insulation 27 fur trade 58, 64, 70, 71 in 19th century 70–73 James Cook and 63 disruption of Inuit subsistence practices by 57–58 and early contact with Europeans 55 effect on traditional skills 68 exchange rates in 72, 72 Hudson’s Bay Company and 57–58 Russians in Alaska 62, 105t future issues 103 G games, at summer fairs 53–54 gathering 52, 52–53 genetic heritage, of Aleut and Inuit geochronological dating gifts 39 girls 11, 14 glaciers xii, xii–xiii, xiiim global warming xvi, 57, 93–97, 95, 97 gloves 29 goggles 28 Golden Camera Award 102 gold prospector 74 gold rush 74, 75, 75–76, 105t good spirits 19 Grant, Harold 13 grasses, gathering of 53 grass mats 22 grass weaving 53 Great Britain 58, 63 greenhouse gases 94 Greenland Danish missionaries in 55 effect of fishing industry on 74 Hans Egede and 105t home rule 88, 88, 107t Independence I Culture Instruction of 1872 105t Inuit Circumpolar Conference 87, 88 missionaries in 19th century 65–67 Index ( 119 ( Sarqaq Culture Siumut 106t Vikings in 8, 8–9, 9m, 10, 58–61 Greenland Home Rule Act 88, 107t guns and fur trade 70–72 rifles 71, 71, 79 and Russians in Alaska 62 Gwich’in Indians 99 H habitat halibut 48 hand-held drum 53 Hareide, Knut Arild 96 harpoon 34–35, 46 harpoon points 7, 32 heat, seal oil for 44 heat conservation height, of Aleut/Inuit herding 81–82 Hetzel, Theodore 84 Hickel, Walter 85 hides caribou 51–52 for clothing 51 seal 43 ulu for preparation 31–32 history 44 Holy Ascension Russian Orthodox Church (Unalaska Island) 66 home rule See Greenland, home rule hood(s) 29, 30 hook-and-line fishing 48 Hoonah Cannery (Hoonah, Alaska) 73 Hopson, Eben 87, 87 House of Representatives, U.S 101 housing 7, 7, 22–28, 23–27, 25 See also igloo Hudson, Henry 56 Hudson Bay 49 Hudson’s Bay Company 55–58 in 19th century 65 company store 57 formation of 105t and fur exchange rates 72 and missionaries in 19th century 68 humans, arrival in Arctic 1–10, 104t hunter-gatherers xii, xviii hunting 38 and Bladder Festival 39 by Copper Inuit 79 effect of trade on 70 and family organization 11 and Hydro-Québec dam project 86 and igloos 25, 26 kayaks for 34–35 mittens for 29–30 by Paleo-Indians xiv–xv sleds for 36 and stage of Arctic settlement 2–3 during summer 50–52 tents for temporary shelter 27–28 tools/weapons for 33 training of boys for 14 umiak for 35 during winter 41–47, 42–46 and winter ceremonies 38–41 hunting accessories C-3 Hydro-Québec dam project 86 I ICC See Inuit Circumpolar Conference ice, for windows 26–27 Ice Age xii–xiii, xvi and global warming 93–94 and stage of Arctic settlement 2, Iceland ice sheets xiii Idlout, Joseph 38 igloo 7, 24, 25, 25, 26, 26, C-7 Independence I Culture Indian (origin of term) ix–x infants 31, 32 influenza 59 Instruction of 1872 61, 105t insulation, for clothing 28 insults, duels by 16 intermarriage 11 International Whaling Commission (IWC) 95 Inuit and Aleut, early differentiation from 3, and ANWR 100 Asian origins x, Atanarjuat 102 battles with Russians at Kodiak Island 64, 105t and Cape Thompson, Alaska atomic explosion plan 106t and caribou 37 caribou hide trade 51, 52 carvings 33 ceremonial mask 18 child 14 contact with Vikings in Greenland and DEW Line 81 and disappearance of Norse settlements in Greenland effect of missionaries in 19th century 67 Hans Egede’s missionary work with 105t European diseases’ effect on 59 expansion of habitat family 11, 17, 24 feast preparation 21 fishermen 48 and fishing industry in 19th century 74 fish preservation 50 Martin Frobisher and 56, 104t fur clothing 59 and fur trade 70–71, 72 future issues 103 geographical organization 18 girl, depicted on postcard C-7 and global warming 97 and gold rush 75–76 in Greenland 66 and Greenland Home Rule Act 88 housing 22–28 and Hudson’s Bay Company 57–58 hunting during summer 47, 50 and Hydro-Québec dam project 86, 106t Inuit Circumpolar Conference 86–88, 106t kayaks 35 Zacharias Kunuk 102 language 5, 18 meaning of term 10 metalwork and missionaries in 19th century 68 Nanook of the North (film) 49 and Northwest Passage 57 Nunavut Territory 88–91, 89m ( 120 ( Arctic Peoples parkas 29 physical attributes of 4, population (early 21st century) 92 protection of, as condition of U.S purchase of Alaska 82 as recent arrivals in North America reindeer project 80–82, 82 Siumut 106t stage of Arctic settlement stage of Arctic settlement 104t Thule tradition house trade during summer fairs 21 and Tundra Times 84 umiaks 35 Sheila Watt-Cloutier 96, 107t whaling 46, 95 Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) 86–88, 106t, 107t and global warming 94, 97 Sheila Watt-Cloutier and 96 Inuit-Inupiaq language 18 Inuit Junior Rangers 90 Inuit Tapirisat (organization) 87, 88 Inuit woman 16, 18 iron 5, Isabella Bay 96 ivory 31–33, C-2 IWC (International Whaling Commission) 95 J James Bay 86 Joshua (Inuit man) 23 journalism (Tundra Times) 84, 84 K Kachemak Tradition Kalluk, Harold 38 karigi 41 kashim 12 as ceremonial building 41 life in 11, 12 and marriage ritual 13 and political decisions 17–18 Kaviagamutes 38 kayak 34 for caribou hunting 51 construction and use 33–35 and Copper Inuit 80 introduction during stage of settlement waterproof suits for 30 for whaling 45 Kingurk, Teresa 101 Klondike Gold Rush 75–76 knives 7, 25, 51 Kodiak Island 64, 105t Kodiak region Kotzebue Sound, Alaska 53 krill 69 Kunuk, Zacharias 102 Kuppak, Nina C-8 L labor, cooperative 21 labret piercing 31 lamps for cooking 27, 31, 32 for light/heat in housing 27 seal oil 27, 44 stone lamp 32, C-2 whale oil lance 47 land claims Alaskan 82–86, 85, 97, 106t Canadian 86, 88–91, 89m, 90, 106t, 107t land mammals, taboos surrounding 19 Landry, Bernard 103 language Aleut 5, 18 Algonquian 10 computer-based education programs 92–93 development during stage of Arctic settlement English 80, 92 Eskimaleut 18 Inuit 5, 18 preservation of traditional 92–93 similarities of Aleut/Inuit 18 Yup’ik 18 Laurentide ice sheet xiii layered clothing 28 leads (ice opening) 44–45 leather, for dogsled 36 legends See myths lighting See lamps lodge See kashim Lunan, Sandy 77 lure, fishing 49 Luther, Martin 59 Lutheran Church 61 M “made beaver” (pelt) 72 Magellan, Ferdinand 57 mammoths Manhattan (oil tanker/ice breaker) 57, 106t Marcy, William 67 market hunting 70 marriage 11, 13–14 arrangement during summer fairs 21 and Sedna myth 20 weddings 53, 53 mask(s) ceremonial 18, 40 dance mask 40 whalebone Yup’ik C-3, C-4, C-6 mats 22 McGill University 96 measles 59 meat from caribou 51 and diet of Aleut and Inuit preservation of 44, 50 raw/cooked 32 taboos surrounding 19 ulu for preparation 32 medicine, shamans and 19, 20 megafauna xii, xiv men clothing for 28, 29 creation myth 15 and family organization 11 life in kashim 11, 12 marriage age 11 tool kit for 33 Messenger Feast 39, 40 messenger sticks 41 metal traps 70 metalwork, Inuit migration xii–xiii migration routes xiiim mineral rights, and ANWR 100 missionaries in 19th century 65–68 and Copper Inuit 79 Danish 55 Index ( 121 ( Hans Egede’s work 59–61, 105t Moravian 60, 61 missionary school 68 mittens 29–30, 30, C-5 mixed marriages 61 money, and fur exchange rates 72 Moon, spirits’ control of 19 Moravian Church/missionaries 60, 61 movies See cinema Mukpi (Inuit child) 14 multiple spouses 13 mumps 59 myths Atanarjuat 102 creation stories 15 Sedna 20 and storytelling 44 N Nanook of the North (film) 49, 49, 106t Napoleon Bonaparte 65 Napoleonic Wars 65 narwhal (whale) natchcek (seal) 43 National Film Board of Canada 102 National Petroleum Reserve (Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska) 99 Navajo code talkers xviii needles 32 Netherlands 59 nets 48, 79 niknik (seal) 43 19th century 65–76 Nobel Peace Prize nomination (Sheila Watt-Cloutier) 96, 107t nomadic groups xviii Nome, Alaska 75, 76 Norse settlers 8–9, 10 See also Vikings Northern Archaic culture 3, 104t northern pike 48 North Slope 84–85, 97 Northwest Passage 57 Roald Amundsen and 106t global warming’s effect on 94 search for 55–56 Norton tradition Norway 58 nose piercing 31 nuclear weapons and DEW Line 81 and Tundra Times 84 Nunavut Territory 88–91, 89m, 90 drumming ceremony celebrating opening of C-8 establishment of 107t government arts support in 101 oil reserves in 101 whale sanctuary 96 nursing (of babies) 31 O obsidian xv obsidian hydration dating Ocean Bay I culture 3, 104t Office of Native Claims (Canada) 86 oil (from seals) for berry preservation 53 extraction of 43 for seal meat preservation 44 trade at summer fairs 53 oil (petroleum) 83, 97–101, 98 current effect on Arctic peoples 92 on North Slope 84 and Northwest Passage 57 in Nunavut Territory 101 oil drilling rig 83 Old Crow River archaeological site 2, 104t otter 64 P pack 16, 36 paddle 33, 35 Paleo-Archaic period 104t Paleo-Indians x, xii–xvi Paleolithic x, xii pants 28, 28 parka 13, 28, 28–30, 29, 33 Parry, William 102 permafrost, effect of global warming on 94 Peter the Great (emperor of Russia) 62, 62, 105t physical attributes, of Aleut/Inuit peoples 4, piercings 30–31, 31 Piungittuq, Arnaujumajuq 27 Plano culture xvi Plateau culture area xvii platforms 24 Pleistocene xvi Point Hope, Alaska pokes 53 polar bear 41, 42, 43 political organization 17–18 pollution 94 Porcupine caribou herd 98, 99 pottery pre-Dorset Culture Presbyterian Church 67 preservation of berries 53 of caribou meat 51 of fish 49, 50 oil for 44, 53 of seal meat 44 Pribilof Islands 96 prospectors 74, 75–76 Protestant Church 59, 61 puberty 14 Pueblo Indians xvii Puttiuq 13 Q Qaggiq/Gathering Place (film) 102 Qlittalik 13 Québec 86 R radar stations 81, 106t radiocarbon dating 1, ranching, reindeer 81–82 raven (bird) 15, 15 Raven (trickster) 20, 44 reindeer 80–82, 82 Reindeer Act of 1937 106t religion, traditional 18–20, 68 religious ceremonies, winter 38–41 religious education 81 renewal 39, 40 reservations 80 Revillion Frères 49 Richfield Oil rig 83 rifles 71, 71, 79 right whale (bowhead whale) 69 ringed seal 43 rites of passage 14 rituals 38 Rock, Howard 84, 84 Roman Catholic Church 68 Roman Catholic Mission (Cape Dorset, Nunavut) 81 root plants 53 ( 122 ( Arctic Peoples roots, gathering of 52 runners, dogsled 36 Rupert (prince of Bavaria) 56 Rupert’s Land 56–57 Russia Alaskan expeditions 62–64, 63, 105t battle with Inuit at Kodiak Island 105t and Vitus Bering expedition 105t early contact with 55, 105t and fur trade 64, 65, 105t and Inuit Circumpolar Conference 88 and Kodiak Island 105t and Seward’s Folly 67 U.S purchase of Alaska from 105t Russian American Company 64 Russian Orthodox Church 66, 66–67, 68 S sacred birds 15 salmon xvii, 48, 48, 73–74 Sandia Mountains culture xv Sarqaq Culture sauna 12 saw, for building igloos 25 Scandinavians disappearance from Greenland 104t in Greenland 8, 8–9, 9m, 10, 58–61 possible route of 9m scrapers 31, 32 sea animals, Sedna myth and 20 sea ice, global warming’s effect on 94–95 seal carving C-6 sea level, global warming and 94 seal gut, for waterproof suits 30 seal gut cape C-5 seal hides 43 seal hunting by Copper Inuit 79, 80 effect of rifles on 71, 71 and global warming 96 sleds for 36 in winter 38, 41–44, 44 sea lion 96 seal oil for berry preservation 53 extraction of 43 for seal meat preservation 44 trade at summer fairs 53 seal oil lamp 27 seal pups 43 seals 38, 43, 43, 44, 95 and Bladder Festival 38–39, 39 and global warming 96 and Sedna myth 20 taboos surrounding 19 seal skin containers 45 for kayaks 33 for oil storage 44 sea mammals and Sedna myth 20 for subsistence 5, 37 taboos about mixing with land mammals 19 sea otter 63, 71 seasons 37 See also summer; winter Second Inuit Circumpolar Conference 107t Sedna myth 19, 20 self-determination 88, 91 settlements, of Vikings in Greenland 8, 10 Seward Peninsula, Alaska 105t “Seward’s Folly” 67, 67 sewing kit 32, C-3 shaman 19–20, 20, 40 shelter 35 See also housing Sheshalik summer fair 53 shirts 28 Shishmaref, Alaska 94 Simiguluk 33 sinew 51 singing 40 Siumut 87, 88, 106t skins for clothing 28 for kayaks 33 for snow-house insulation 27 for tents 27 for umiak 35 “Skraellings” sled See dogsled sledding C-8 sled dog 35–36, C-7 smallpox 58, 59, 105t smoke 39, 50 smoke hole 39, 41 smoking, of caribou meat 51 Snapp, Tom 84, 84 snow, for igloo construction 25 snow goggles 28, C-4 snow-house 26–27 See also igloo snowmobile 100 snowshoes 36 socks 28, 29 sod, for housing construction 22 Sophie Prize (Sheila Watt-Cloutier) 96 souls 20, 39 South America xiv Soviet Union 81 Spain 63, 105t spawning 47, 48 spear(s) 33 for caribou drives 51 Copper Inuit metalwork as earliest weapons of PaleoIndians xv for fishing 48 for hunting in kayak 34–35 for seal hunting 42, 44 spear points xv, xvi, 42 spirits 18–19 spirit visions 40 spirit world 41, 44 spouses, multiple 13, 13 stages, of human arrival in Arctic 2–10 stage (25,000–5,000 B.C.) 2–3, 104t stage (5000–2200 B.C.) 3, 104t stage (2200–1200 B.C.) 3, 5, 104t stage (1200 B.C.–A.D 600) 5–6, 104t stage (A.D 600–1800) 6–10, 104t statehood, Alaskan 83–84, 106t Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur 79 Steller sea lion 96 Stoeckl, Eduard 67 stone lamp 31, C-2 stone tools xv, 2–3, 33 storytelling 44 stove 77 Subarctic peoples, enmity with Arctic peoples 21 Index ( 123 ( subsistence disruption by trade 57–58, 60 and global warming 97 sea mammals for 5, 37, 70 subsistence hunting 70 summer 47–54 boat use 35 fairs 53, 53–55, 54 fishing 47–50, 47–50 gathering 52, 52–53 hunting 50–52 summer fairs 21, 53, 53–55, 54 summer skin tent 27 summer suit C-5 Sun, spirits’ control of 19 survival, cooperation for 16 sweat lodge 12 T taboos 11, 19 Takli Culture tattoos 30, 31 technology 92–93 tent 27 and Copper Inuit 79 for fishing camp 47 for summer hunts 27–28 Thompson, Anna and Bonnie 32 throwing board 46 Thule tradition 6, 7, 8, 104t tobacco 60 Togiak National Wildlife Refuge 97 tokens, for fur trade 72 tools xv, xv, 31–33, 32, 33 for building igloos 25 Copper Inuit sewing and hunting accessories C-3 during stage of Arctic settlement trade See also fur trade; Hudson’s Bay Company of caribou hides 51, 52 by Copper Inuit 79 disruption of Inuit subsistence practices by 60 in Greenland 60 by Hudson’s Bay Company 57–58 Instruction of 1872 provisions 61 by Norse settlers in Greenland prior to European arrival 21 seal oil for 44 and search for Northwest Passage 57 at summer fairs 53 as supplement to whaling 70 trade goods 70 traditions/traditional lifestyle and ANCSA 86 in Atanarjuat 101–102 and Copper Inuit 79–80 eradication by U.S government policy 80–82 and fishing industry 74 and fur trade 68, 71–73 future issues 103 and global warming 93, 97 and Hydro-Québec dam project 86 language preservation 92–93 preserving, in 20th–21st century 77, 79 religion 18–20, 68 and whaling 69–70 transportation 6, 33–36, 34, 35 traps 71, 79 tribal groups See communities Tundra Times (newspaper) 84, 84, 85, 106t Tungavik Federation of Nunavut 90 tunnel, for housing entrance 23–24, 25 20th century 77–91 20th century 92–103 U Ugiyaku-Nunivak woman 31 ulu 31–32, 32, 43 umiak 7, 34, 35, 45 umialik/umelik 45, 47 United States competition with Europeans for Alaska 63 DEW Line 81, 106t purchase of Alaska 67, 67, 82–83, 105t reindeer program 80–82, 82 U.S Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 84, 106t V Vancouver, George 63, 63 Victoria Island 7, 79 video 96, 102 Vikings in Greenland 8, 8–9, 9m, 10 return to Arctic 58–61 villages 38, 40, 93, 104t See also winter village violence 16 W wage-paying work 73, 74 walking 36 walrus 42 and Sedna myth 20 tusk trade winter hunts for 41 walrus gut, for waterproof suits 30 walrus hunting, effect of rifles on 71 walrus skin 33, 35 waterproof suits 30 Watt-Cloutier, Sheila 96, 96, 97, 107t wealth, clothing as sign of 30 weapons xv, 40 See also guns weaving 53 weddings 53, 53 See also marriage weir 48, 48 western Inuit 79–80 whale(s) global warming’s effect on 94–96 and Sedna myth 20 women butchering 46 whale bone, for housing construction 22, 23 whalebone mask Whale Feast 39 whale oil 69 whale oil lamp whale sanctuary 95–96 whaling 44–47, 46, 69 in 19th century 65, 69–70 cooperation for 21 and early contact with Europeans 55 effect on traditional life 69–70 global warming’s effect on 94–96 and Instruction of 1872 61 tools for 33 umiak for 35 waterproof suits for 30 white fish 48 ( 124 ( Arctic Peoples windows 23, 26–27 winter 38–47 daily life 38–47 hunting 41–47, 42–46 religious ceremonies 38–41 transportation 35–36 winter festivals 39 winter solstice 39 winter village 38, 41 Wisconsin Glaciation wives, and kashim 12 wolf dance 38 women 16, 18, 31 See also marriage berry collectors 52 caribou butchering 51–52, 99 clothing 18, 28, 29 as clothing makers 30 competition from European whalers for 69–70 creation myth 15 fishing/fish preservation by 50 gathering by 53 seal butchering 43 tool kit for 31–32 whale butchering 46, 47 wood 31, 33, 35, 36 woolly mammoth xiv, xv Y Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge 99 Yukon Gold Rush 75–76, 105t Yup’ik language 18 Yup’ik mask C-4, C-6 Z Zapadni Rookery (St George Island) 95 .. .Arctic Peoples ( Craig A Doherty Katherine M Doherty ((( Arctic Peoples Copyright © 2008 by Craig A Doherty and Katherine M Doherty... Doherty, Craig A Arctic peoples / Craig A Doherty and Katherine M Doherty p cm.—(Native America) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8160-5970-6 (alk paper) Arctic peoples History—Juvenile... Nunavut Territory, Canada, April 1, 1999 The Arctic Peoples Today Global Warming BOX FEATURE: SHEILA WATT-CLOUTIER (1953– ) Oil in the Arctic BOX FEATURE: ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE (ANWR) Art