Bioenergy systems for the future 1 biomass an overview

Bioenergy systems for the future 1 biomass an overview Bioenergy systems for the future 1 biomass an overview Bioenergy systems for the future 1 biomass an overview Bioenergy systems for the future 1 biomass an overview Bioenergy systems for the future 1 biomass an overview

Biomass: An overview C Bonechi, M Consumi, A Donati, G Leone, A Magnani, G Tamasi, C Rossi University of Siena, Siena, Italy 1.1 Introduction Energy production from renewable resources is based on the capture of energy coming directly or indirectly from the sun, as in the case of energy production by photovoltaic, solar thermal, wind, and biomass technologies A premise for energy production from biomass is the definition of biomass, how it is produced and where it is sourced To determine the optimal size of biomass plants, it is necessary to have details about the availability of residues from agricultural, agro-industrial, and forestry production in a given area The term biomass indicates organic matter of plant or animal origin, spontaneous or cultivated by humans, terrestrial and marine, produced directly or indirectly through the process of photosynthesis involving chlorophyll In general, biomass can be defined as anything having an organic matrix Thus, the term biomass identifies a great variety of heterogeneous materials and matrices In order to limit the range of the present analysis, we consider only biomass of plant origin and specifically agricultural and agro-industrial residues and wastes, energy crops, and forestry residues and wastes We not consider the problems related to land use and how energy crop production competes for land with food production Indeed, the concept of energy from biomass regards biomass as a renewable energy product obtained as a side product of a primary product, for example, fruit tree prunings or straw as a by-product of cereal production The potential global availability of unexploited biomass alone could provide 10%–20% of the primary energy demand of the planet What are the main reasons biomass should be exploited as a source of energy? Biomass is universally available and is therefore a strategic resource in case of a shortage of traditional energy resources This energy could also help reduce the overall cost of energy and the demand for fossil-sourced energy Another positive contribution could be the reduction of atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases, since the complete production cycle, processing, and use of this material theoretically have a zero carbon dioxide balance However, although biomass is the first fuel of humans and has been burned for thousands of years, no method to define guidelines for its use by correct modern technologies has yet been developed This is because biomass is the residual part of different crops and these residues vary widely, macroscopically, and at molecular level We also have to consider that, besides structural components, crop and food industry residues often contain bioactive substances such as antioxidants, flavonoids, lignans, and carotenoids that could be extracted This possibility would depend on the economic and environmental sustainability of purifying and reutilizing these resources Bioenergy Systems for the Future http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101031-0.00001-6 © 2017 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved Bioenergy Systems for the Future The production of energy from biomass is therefore complex, requiring agricultural production to be considered as part of a process based on global sustainability principles: environmental, economic, and social This means that for all types of agricultural production, we consider not only the primary product (usually food) but also the residues, which if correctly processed could lead to products with biological activity useful in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries At the end of these processes, the fibrous structural part of plant matter can be recovered and used for energy production In this way, energy production from biomass is not divorced from agricultural production but becomes an element in a circular process that at least partly resembles a natural cycle, placing inputs and outputs of the system in a framework of global sustainability Practices typical of production lines are replaced by an interconnected system The land where different crops are grown is regarded as a system that provides different types of farm and food industry residues, processing of which should occur in a plant (biorefinery) that combines different technologies in order to maximize recovery of components with high biological and chemical value (economic importance) and maximize the energy obtained from the material remaining at the end of the process (Fig 1.1) The biorefinery is therefore a plant designed in relation to an area of reference (on average a 10–15 km radius) in which processes using crop residues to obtain products for the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, and other industries are combined with energy production from the plant structural components, which are the final residue after complete exploitation In specific cases, the biomass for energy production may also contain starches, sugars, and oily substances that cannot be used for food Agricultural products Food Fertilizers Manure straw Waste Fibers, end product, raw materials Collection Energy Storage Pharma, chemicals, cosmetics Biorefinery Fig 1.1 A circular economy in the processing of agricultural resources Biomass: An overview In this chapter, we analyze the chemical characteristics of plant biomass and outline the processes necessary to recover its energy content 1.2 Chemical characterisation of biomass Residual biomass can generally be classified as consisting largely of polysaccharides or lignin The processes by which its energy content is extracted are shown schematically in Fig 1.2, which also includes oil-rich biomass High-molecular-weight polysaccharides are the main constituents of biomass: cellulose and hemicelluloses account for 60%–80% of woody material and together with lignin constitute the structural component of plants 1.2.1 Cellulose Cellulose is a high-molecular-weight linear polymer of D-glucose, with up to 10,000 monomer units, that only occurs in plants It is the most abundant polysaccharide present in nature It consists of glucose units linked by β-1,4-glucoside bonds About 40%–50% of all the carbon on the planet is estimated to occur in this polymer Other Fatty acids Glycerol Triglycerides Glucose Lignin Biomass Monolignols conyferil alcohol sinapyl alcohol coumaryl alcohol Hemicellulose Polysaccharides Fibrous polysaccharides Xylani mannans galactans Xylose glucose arabinose mannose Amylose amilopectins Reserve polysaccharides Cellulose Glucose Chitins peptidoglycans Fig 1.2 Biomass classification and components Bioenergy Systems for the Future polymers of D-glucose exist in nature, for example, starch, which consists of two polymers, amylose (about 20%) and amylopectin (about 80%), that differ from cellulose by virtue of alpha-1,4-glucoside bonds in the case of amylose and alpha-1,4-glucoside and alpha-1,6-glucoside bonds in the case of amylopectin The structural basis of cellulose is cellobiose, 4-o-β-D-glucopyranosyl-Dglucopyranose, shown in Fig 1.3 As shown in Fig 1.3, all hydroxide groups are in equatorial position Rotation of glucose molecules at the 1,4 bond is limited due to residual repulsive van der Waals forces The cellobiose conformation is the most favorable from the steric point of view: it is stabilized by the formation of a hydrogen bond between the hydroxide in position and the oxygen atom of the next pyranose ring unit, as shown in Fig 1.4 The fact that the cellulose molecule is linear and the presence of hydrogen bonds between units (OHdH⋯O) prevents any rotational mobility in the direction of the principal axis determines a linear ribbon-like structure The hydrophilic groups are arranged laterally, and all hydrophobic hydrogen atoms are on the surface This makes the polymer cluster in long chains (microfibrils) Cellulose fibers are arranged in a very specific way and have fractal-like features (Ummartyotin and Manuspiya, 2015; Lavoine et al., 2012) Fig 1.3 β-1,4-Glucoside bond in cellobiose, 4-o-β-Dglucopyranosyl-Dglucopyranose, the fundamental unit of cellulose CH2OH HO HO O OH β-D-Glucose O OH HO OH O CH2OH β-D-Glucose b a O C H Fig 1.4 Linear conformation of polymer chains in crystal structures of cellulose II, viewed down the c-axis in P21 Reproduced with permission from Kaduk, J.A., Blanton, T.N., 2013 An improved structural model for cellulose II Powder Diffr 28, 194–199 Biomass: An overview Cellulose microfibrils are also stabilized by specific and aspecific interactions (hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces) between chains, which prevent any translational dynamics of the molecules but impart great flexibility and elasticity to the structure for torsional movements The association of microfibrils into macrofibril aggregates gives them great mechanical resistance, similar to that of steel (see Fig 1.5) In plants, a rigid wall with high mechanical resistance enables these cell systems to take up large volumes of water without stressing cell structure Similar behavior in animal cells having only a cell membrane would cause an increase in intracellular pressure and damage/lysis of the membrane The cellulose present in plant cells has a structure in which crystalline and amorphous regions alternate (Fig 1.6) X-ray diffraction shows regions with monoclinic and triclinic crystalline phases (Fig 1.7) These regions are very stable and resistant to attack by cellulase enzymes The most vulnerable part of the molecule is the amorphous region, which is attacked by cellulase (an enzyme complex consisting of exo- and endoglucanase and β-glucosidase), causing hydrolysis of the glucose in the cellulose molecule (Fig 1.8) Hydrolysis of cellulose at glucose units is the focus of the process of bioethanol production, where glucose is exploited for industrial production of bioethanol by classical fermentation (e.g., by Saccharomyces cerevisiae) There are two possible approaches: acid hydrolysis of cellulose or enzyme hydrolysis Current industrial processes tend to favor enzyme hydrolysis Various methods of industrial production of very effective high-yield cellulase have been developed, (a) Cellulose fibers (b) Macrofibril (c) Microfibril (d) Chains of cellulose molecules Fig 1.5 Organization of linear chains of cellulose into microfibrils, macrofibrils, and cellulose fibers Reproduced with permission from Nutrition Resources, 2006 Chemistry review: carbohydrates Jones and Bartlett Publishers http://nutrition.jbpub.com/resources/ chemistryreview9.cfm Accessed 2016 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Crystalline region Fiber Microfibril Interfibrillar molecules Noncrystalline region Fig 1.6 Cellulose structure characterized by alternation of crystalline and amorphous regions Reproduced with permission from Lin, N., Huang, J., Dufresne, A., 2012 Preparation, properties and applications of polysaccharide nanocrystals in advanced functional nanomaterials: a review Nanoscale 4, 3274–3294 a c b Cellulose phase Iα triclinic P1 a c b Cellulose phase Iα triclinic P1 Cellulose phase Iβ monoclinic P21 a(A) = 6.717 (7) b(A) = 5.962 (2) c(A) = 10.400 (6) a(°) = 118.08 (5) b(°) = 114.80 (5) g(°) = 80.37 (5) a(A) = 7.784 (8) b(A) = 8.201 (8) c(A) = 10.338 (10) g(°) = 96.5 (5) Cellulose phase Iβ monoclinic P21 Fig 1.7 Crystalline structure of cellulose, characterized by phase I alpha triclinic P1 and phase I beta monoclinic P21 Reproduced with permission from Sarkar, A., Perez, S., 2012 A Database of Polysaccharide 3D structures http://polysac3db.cermav.cnrs.fr/discover_cellulose.html last updated: 24 April 2012 Biomass: An overview Cellulases Exo HO HO CH2OH O Endo OH HO O O HO OH CH2OH OH HO O O O Exo OH CH2OH O CH2OH O n HO CH2OH O OH HO O OH O CH2OH CH2OH O O OH HO OH Cellobiohydrolase Cellobiohydrolase Acting from nonreducing end e.g Piromyces sp E2 Cel6A Acting from reducing end e.g Phanerochaete Cel17s Endoglucanase Acting from the middle e.g Piromyces E2 Cel9A Pc_Cel7A Product—cellobiose HO HO CH2OH O OH OH O HO O CH2OH OH Product—oligosaccharides of different sizes CH2OH OH O HO O CH2OH O OH O O n HO CH2OH OH CH2OH OH CH2OH O O HO HO O O O O HO HO n OH OH CH2OH HO Pc_Cel7D Product—cellobiose OH HO HO O CH2OH CH2OH O O HO OH OH OH Fig 1.8 Hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulase, a complex consisting of a pool of enzymes, such as exocellulase, endocellulase, and β-glucosidase Reproduced with permission from Emerald Biology, 2014 Fuels for biofuels part 5: free cellulases and cellulose hydrolysis http://www.emeraldbiology.com/2014/03/fuels-forbiofuels-part-5-free.html Accessed 11 March 2014 making these enzymes particularly economical At present, this solution seems the only sustainable process for the production of bioethanol from cellulose- and hemicellulose-rich materials (second-generation bioethanol) The main advantages are that this process is not applied to food crops and that secondary products can be recovered, increasing economic value and making even primary agricultural production sustainable The only negative note is that for conversion plants to achieve economic sustainability of process, they must produce of the order of 50 million tons/year of bioethanol 1.2.2 Hemicellulose Hemicelluloses make up about 20%–30% of lignocellulose biomass These polymers consist of the same monomeric units as cellulose, but their structure is different They are branched polymers, whereas cellulose is linear; they have a shorter chain length of 500–3000 glucose units compared with the 10,000–15,000 glucose units of cellulose While cellulose consists solely of glucose units linked with β-1,4-glycoside bonds, hemicellulose is a mix of polysaccharides consisting mainly of sugars with five carbon atoms (xylose and arabinose) and six carbon atoms (glucose, galactose, mannose, and rhamnose) In hemicellulose, glycoside links involving positions 2, 3, 4, and are 10 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Layered mesh of microfibrils in plant cell wall Microfibril structure Single microfibril Hemicellulose Paracrystalline cellulose Crystalline cellulose Fig 1.9 Hemicellulose creates a network of connections between microfibrils of cellulose Reproduced with permission from US DOE, 2005 Genomics: GTL Roadmap, DOE/SC-0090 U.S Department of Energy Office of Science possible, resulting in very disorderly and essentially amorphous polymers This property makes them more soluble in water and more reactive and renders their basic sugar constituents very readily hydrolyzed Hemicelluloses play an important function in wood, creating a network of connections between cellulose microfibrils, as shown in Fig 1.9 Based on the prevalence of glucose units, hemicelluloses can be distinguished as xylan, glucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, and glucomannan The most frequent sugar units are indicated in Fig 1.10 1.2.3 Xylans Xylans are polysaccharides containing xylose as basic monomeric unit The main chain of xylans consists of D-β-xylopyranose, the units of which are linked by 1,4 bonds The linear chain has branches made up of xylose or arabinose (as L-arabinofuranoside), 4-o-methylglucuronic acid, mannose, galactose, and rhamnose (Motta et al., 2013; Hao and Mohnen, 2014) Xylans have very low water solubility, which can however increase with reduction in the degree of polymerization of the molecule In nature, xylans are bound to Biomass: An overview 11 H OH H OH H O OHO H O H HO HO OH H OH H OH H H OH OHCH2 H H OH H OH OH H H OH OH H H H β-D-Galactopyranose H H H H COOH H O H HO OH H β-D-Mannopyranose OH COOH H O HO HO OH H β-D-Xylopiranose α-L-Arabinofuranose H HO OH H H OH OHO H O HO HO H H2 OH α-L-Fucopyranose H H HO H β-L-Rhamnopyranose O OH H OH H2 OH β-D-Glucopyranose H HO H O H HO HO OH OH H H α-D-Galactopyranosyluronic acid OH OH H β-D-Galactopyranosyluronic acid CH2OH OH H O HO H C OH CHOH H H2 H O H OH HO H HO H H β-L-Apiofuranose O HO OC OH CH3 H HO H O H COOH HO H β-L-Aceric acid Fig 1.10 Sugars found in hemicellulose H H OH 2-Keto3-deoxy-D-manno2octulosonic acid OH H OH COOH H OH H COOH 3-Deoxy-D-lyxo-2-hep-2 tulosaric acid 12 Bioenergy Systems for the Future cellulose and lignin via ether or ester bonds In the case of lignin, the most frequent bond is between the phenol group of lignin and an arabinose or a 4-omethylglucuronic acid unit of hemicellulose Structurally, xylans are the most abundant type of hemicellulose in nature and are typical of hardwood They are also found in large quantities in crop residues (e.g., leaves and stalks of maize) and in paper production wastes This class includes all polysaccharides containing high percentages of D-xylose In hardwood, the most common xylan is a linear chain consisting solely of xylose, 70% of which is acetylated Structurally, the xylan chain can be considered the same as that of cellulose except for the absence of the dCH2OH group in equatorial position on C5, which imparts less steric hindrance and therefore a greater possibility of rotation at the glycosidic bond Solid-state polymer structure has been reconstructed by X-ray diffraction analysis of crystal structure The chain forms a tight left-handed helix (three xylose residues ˚ and an angle of rotation of 120 degrees per turn) with a repetition distance of 15 A between residues (Fig 1.11) 1.2.4 Mannans Together with xylans, mannans are major constituents of hemicelluloses observed in the walls of higher plants Mannans show great affinity for cellulose, to which they are often bound in wood (Preston, 1968; Brennan et al., 1996; Liepman et al., 2007) They are classified in four families: linear mannans, glucomannans, galactomannans, and galactoglucomannans (Petkowicz et al., 2001; Fig 1.12) Linear mannans are linear polymers composed essentially of 1,4-linked β-D-mannopyranosyl units; they contain traces of other sugar units, mainly galactose Other mannans have a backbone based on mannose units or occasionally glucose and mannose bound by β-(1–4) glycoside bonds (Liepman et al., 2007) Glucomannans have a backbone consisting of (1,4)linked β-D-mannopyranosyl residues containing D-glucose in 3:1 ratio (Northcote, 1972; Popa and Spiridon, 1998) They have branches due to α-1,6 links with galactose residues These polymers are the prevalent hemicelluloses in softwoods Acetyl groups can often be identified distributed in an irregular manner in the chains of the carbohydrate backbone Galactomannans are branched polymers that are soluble in water, with a backbone consisting of 1,4-linked β-D-mannopyranosyl residues with side chains containing single 1,6-linked α-D-galactopyranosyl groups (McCleary and Matheson, 1986; Shobha et al., 2005; Parvathy et al., 2005) Galactoglucomannans have a backbone like that of glucomannans with branches containing D-galactose residues linked with alpha-1,6- bonds to D-glucosyl and D-mannosyl units Structurally, the galactosidic side chain forms intramolecular hydrogen bonds with mannose and/or glucose units of the backbone, creating a compact and rather rigid structure The different types of mannans are of great industrial interest for their aggregating and gelling properties, which are useful in food technology As in the case of cellulose, enzyme complexes consisting of β-mannanase, β-glucosidase, β-mannosidase, acetyl mannan esterase, and α-galactosidase have been 28 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Table 1.6 World primary energy production and world energy consumption in 2013 All values in EJ Final energy Fuels Fossil fuel Nuclear Renewables (total) Bioenergy Hydro Wind Solar PV Solar thermal Geothermal Tidal, wave, … Total Primary energy Total Electricity Derived heat Direct heat Transport 462 27.1 78.1 282 7.44 65.0 47.1 7.41 15.5 10.7 0.02 0.77 120 0.00 46.0 105 0.00 2.70 57.7 13.6 1.90 0.42 1.19 2.77 0.00 567 49.5 11.6 1.90 0.42 1.10 0.32 0.00 355 1.38 11.6 1.90 0.42 0.02 0.21 0.00 70.0 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0004 0.003 0.00 11.5 44.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.09 0.08 0.00 166 2.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 107 Data from IEA Table 1.7 Primary energy production from biomass in the various continents of the world All values in EJ 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 World Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 42.9 47.2 53.9 54.9 56.1 57.7 10.4 11.9 13.7 14.3 14.6 15.0 7.30 8.21 9.67 9.70 9.69 10.4 21.6 22.6 24.3 24.7 25.0 25.5 3.33 4.20 5.96 6.01 6.48 6.61 0.26 0.27 0.22 0.22 0.26 0.26 Data from IEA Fig 1.22 shows fuelwood production in different parts of the world Fuelwood is a major renewable resource In the period 2000–14, use of this resource increased sharply in Africa and Europe This is an important fact but must be seen in relation to the variation in the area of forested land in these continents Indeed, in the reference period, the area of forest decreased in Africa, whereas it increased in Europe If this trend is confirmed in coming years, it will be necessary to Biomass: An overview Table 1.8 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 Production of electric energy from renewable sources in the period 2000–13 All values in TWh Total Total renewables Biomass Hydro Wind Solar photovoltaic Solar thermal Geo thermal Tide ocean wave 15,505 18,367 21,549 22,244 22,740 23,406 2954 3421 4354 4572 4885 5190 170 237 380 409 435 462 2699 3017 3530 3592 3753 3874 31.4 104 341 435 523 637 1.03 4.04 32.3 63.2 98.7 139 0.53 0.60 1.65 2.86 4.77 5.46 52.0 58.3 68.1 69.3 70.2 71.6 0.55 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.93 Data from IEA 29 30 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Biomass Forest wood Forestry residues tree surgery residues fuel wood Energy crops Short rotation forestry (SRF) Short rotation coppice Grasses and nonwood energy Aquatics (hydroponics) Agricultural energy crops Agriculture Dry residues Wet residues Straw and husks corn stoves animal litter Manure grass sillage Waste Industrial waste and co-products Food waste Wet food oils Woody waste Untreated wood Treated wood Wood composite and laminate Nonwoody waste Paper pulp and waste sewage sludge textiles Fig 1.21 Classification of biomass for energy production consider the dimension of deforestation occurring in Africa and in parts of the Americas Use of forestry biomass is not sustainable if it occurs in a context of decreasing area of forested land Table 1.14 shows estimated potential energy production from forestry residues according to sources of forestry biomass and different uses of forestry resources Biomass: An overview 31 Land available for biomass production, with crop type and land use classification All values in 1000 Table 1.9 Land area Classification of land area 13,009,337 Agriculture area 4,928,929 Forest area 4,005,749 Other land 4,089,540 Classification of agriculture, forest, and other land Arable land Permanent crops Permanent pastures and meadows Primary forests Other naturally regenerated forests Planted forests 1,407,843 164,661 3,353,666 1,281,582 2,437,258 286,934 Data from FAO Table 1.10 Analysis of biomass residues available at world level from different sectors of production, including uses of biomass Sector Fuel Share (%) Forestry Fuelwood Pellets Charcoal Forest residues Black liquor Wood industry residues Bioethanol from crops Biodize from crops Hydrotreated vegetable oils Biogas from crops/animal Municipal waste 68 0.8 10 1.8 6.8 0.8 4.0 2.1 0.3 2.6 2.6 Agriculture Waste 88 Data from WBA 1.4.1.3 Biofuels Biofuels (bioethanol and biodiesel) are a major energy product from the processing of biomass residues Biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass is an important way of reutilizing this renewable resource In 13 years, world production of biofuels increased by nearly one order of magnitude, from about 18 to 118 billion liters Table 1.15 shows overall production of biodiesel and bioethanol in the period 2000–13 Table 1.16 shows biofuel production in 2013 in different continents World Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 2000 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 592 4.32 2562 1022 5.57 5693 77.6 2.10 163 526 7.70 4052 304 5.15 1565 113 6.01 678 0.64 8.21 5.29 599 3.89 2328 741 4.54 3363 31.2 2.69 84.0 37.7 5.63 212 667 4.63 3087 4.00 6.23 24.9 0.83 10.54 8.74 586 2.72 1592 729 3.29 2398 26.1 2.63 68.7 112 2.93 329 316 3.09 977 249 4.25 1058 25.7 2.03 52.2 133 2.44 325 144 2.91 420 6.02 1.38 8.29 15.6 3.27 51.0 19.6 1.74 34.2 93.6 3.70 346 9.6 2.47 23.7 27.7 0.75 20.6 27.8 0.89 24.7 12.4 0.63 7.80 0.31 1.75 0.54 14.3 1.33 18.9 0.79 1.41 1.12 0.04 110 0.05 26.1 2.06 53.7 23.0 2.39 55.0 0.20 1.19 0.24 5.65 2.79 15.8 1.12 2.17 2.42 14.7 2.39 35.1 1.27 1.78 2.27 32 Table 1.11 Analysis of the main crops in relation to their geographic areas of production Area in million hectare, yield in tons/hectare, and production in million tonnes Maize Area Yields Production Rice Area Yields Production Wheat Area Yields Production Barely Millet Area Yields Production Oats Area Yields Production Bioenergy Systems for the Future Area Yields Production Area Yields Production 20.1 2.05 41.2 15.3 2.92 44.8 0.09 1.80 0.17 0.44 1.96 0.86 1.15 2.75 3.17 13.6 3.02 41.2 0.03 0.60 0.02 2.12 3.40 7.20 1.29 2.41 3.11 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 15.6 1.87 29.2 15.5 1.51 23.4 2.75 0.87 2.40 0.53 3.79 2.01 2.71 1.42 3.83 9.43 1.87 17.6 0.10 2.26 0.22 39.5 1.53 60.5 71.0 1.98 141 0.25 1.35 0.34 17.2 1.92 32.9 20.8 1.40 29.2 28.9 3.17 91.6 3.83 1.41 5.40 161 2.17 350 308 2.62 808 2.38 1.28 3.04 271 2.95 801 25.8 1.32 34.1 9.00 2.00 18.0 0.08 2.16 0.17 26.5 1.25 33.1 41.3 1.67 69.0 2.40 1.22 2.92 3.65 1.57 5.72 5.78 1.42 8.24 29.5 1.80 53.0 0.04 1.41 0.05 Sorghum Area Yields Production Biomass: An overview Rye Olives Area Yields Production Rapeseed Area Yields Production Soybeans Area Yields Production Sunflower Continued 33 Area Yields Production 34 Table 1.11 Continued World Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 2000 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2.23 – – 52.8 – – 0.30 – – 2.39 – – 49.0 – – 0.61 – – 0.52 – – 176 10.4 1830 270 11.2 3016 147 8.38 1230 32.8 12.9 424 90.4 21.9 1975 – – – 0.25 11.5 2.89 250 41.6 10,404 267 59.6 15,903 13.5 53.2 716 30.9 62.4 1926 32.7 5.8 1664 190 61.5 11,673 – – – 1256 64.7 81,315 1900 69.6 132,809 96.7 631 6101 1010 71.2 71,984 760 68.8 52,360 0.01 86.3 0.47 32.4 77.1 2495 Oil palm Area Yields Production Cassava Area Yields Production Sugar beet Area Yields Production Area Yields Production Data from FAO Bioenergy Systems for the Future Sugar cane Biomass: An overview 35 Estimated maximum energy production from crop residues available in different parts of the world All values in EJ Table 1.12 World Africa 21.2 2.32 0.89 0.10 38.5 13.9 7.55 Americas Asia Europe Oceania 1.08 0.12 19.05 2.09 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.00 2.92 1.06 0.57 19.83 7.17 3.89 11.46 4.14 2.25 4.25 1.54 0.83 0.02 0.01 0.00 9.47 0.34 1.46 4.10 3.24 0.33 0.29 0.13 0.00 0.15 0.01 0.00 1.48 0.06 0.16 0.20 0.96 0.10 2.64 1.13 1.04 0.37 0.05 0.05 2.01 1.09 0.24 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.95 0.11 0.28 0.04 0.10 0.22 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.39 0.05 5.62 0.53 0.19 0.00 12.0 2.48 0.61 0.13 6.6 1.32 4.79 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.04 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.04 0.18 0.71 0.01 0.04 Rice Straw Husk Maize Stalk Cob Husks Wheat Straw Millet/rye/oats Straw Barley Straw Sorghum Straw Cassava Stalk Groundnut Husks/shells Straw Soybean Straw Cane Bagasse Tops Jute Stalk Cotton (lint) Stalk Continued 36 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Table 1.12 Continued World Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 000 0.99 0.11 0.55 0.32 0.00 0.01 1.91 0.01 0.46 0.56 0.78 0.10 1.14 0.07 0.10 0.16 0.81 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 Leaves 0.22 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.15 0.00 Total 128 9.76 Oil palm (fruit) Shell Fiber Bunch Coffee Husk Rapeseed/canola Straw Sunflower seed Straw Jatropha Shells Olives Kernels Sugar beets 49.9 54.7 13.0 1.01 Data from WBA Area of forested land in the different continents and variation in the period 2000–13 All values in 1000 ha, Russia is included in Europe continent Table 1.13 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 World Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 4,055,602 4,032,743 4,015,673 4,012,365 4,009,057 4,005,749 670,372 654,679 638,282 635,446 632,610 629,774 1,639,376 1,616,564 1,602,412 1,600,462 1,598,512 1,596,563 565,912 580,868 589,405 590,197 590,988 591,779 1,002,302 1,004,147 1,013,572 1,013,954 1,014,336 1,014,718 177,641 176,485 172,002 172,306 172,610 172,915 Data from FAO 900 808 800 737 700 600 657 542 500 Fuel wood 2000 Fuel wood 2014 400 314 310 300 200 94 150 100 13 11 Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania Fig 1.22 Global production of fuel wood in 2000 and 2014 in different continents All values in million tons Data from FAO Estimated potential energy production from forestry residues All values in EJ Table 1.14 World Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 2.93 0.58 0.84 0.89 0.57 0.06 0.75 0.24 0.02 0.01 0.28 0.09 0.16 0.05 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.32 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.27 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 Black liquor 3.36 0.03 1.84 0.65 0.80 0.04 Forest-based residues Processing base—Solid wood Processing base—Fine dust Processing base—Liquids 2.93 0.58 0.84 0.89 0.57 0.06 1.07 0.03 0.32 0.43 0.27 0.03 0.27 0.01 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.01 3.36 0.03 1.84 0.65 0.80 0.04 Total 7.64 0.64 3.10 2.03 1.73 0.15 Logging Solid Saw milling Solid Sawdust Plywood Solid Dust Particle board Dust Chemical pulp Data from FAO and WBA 38 Table 1.15 Biofuel production 2000–13 Biofuels 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 Bioethanol Biodiesel Other biofuels Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) 18.0 38.7 105 106 108 118 0.45 1.00 2.82 2.85 2.90 3.19 13.2 26.9 65.4 69.2 68.4 73.5 0.31 0.63 1.53 1.62 1.60 1.72 0.84 3.67 20.2 23.3 25.3 28.9 0.03 0.13 0.71 0.82 0.89 1.02 3.94 8.14 19.8 13.8 13.8 15.4 0.12 0.24 0.58 0.41 0.41 0.45 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Data from IEA Biomass: An overview Table 1.16 Biofuel production in 2013 by continent Biofuels Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania World Bioethanol Biodiesel Other biofuels Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) Volume (BI) Energy (EJ) 0.01 89.8 9.36 18.2 0.38 118 0.00 2.32 0.28 0.58 0.01 3.19 0.01 64.0 4.07 5.11 0.29 73.5 0.00 1.5 0.10 0.12 0.01 1.72 0.00 11.0 5.22 12.5 0.09 28.9 0.00 0.39 0.18 0.44 0.00 1.02 0.00 14.8 0.07 0.60 0.00 15.4 0.00 0.43 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.45 Data from IEA 39 40 1.5 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Conclusions Biomass is a complex natural renewable material with enormous chemical variability Its potential for energy production varies in relation to the process used, which may involve elementary or highly sophisticated technologies Since this material can be found in all continents, its use for energy production and secondary energy products (solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels) should be promoted and the recovery capacities of agricultural, forestry, and industrial residues increased Together with other renewable resources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric, biomass is a major future sustainable energy resource of the planet Acknowledgments The authors thank the MIUR, Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (Programma Operativo Nazionale Ricerca e Competitività per le Regioni della Convergenza 2007/2013: PON01_00878 dal titolo “DIRECT FOOD—Valorizzazione delle Produzioni agroalimentari dei Sistemi Locali e di quelli tradizionali del Made in Italy attraverso la gestione integrata delle filiere e di canali innovativi produttore-consumatore”) References Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., Baucher, M., 2003 Lignin biosynthesis Annu Rev Plant Biol 54, 519–546 Brennan, C.S., Blake, D.E., Ellis, P., Schofield, J.D., 1996 Effects of guar galactomannan on wheat bread microstructure and on the in vitro and in vivo digestibility of starch in bread J Cereal Sci 24, 151–160 Buleon, A., Colonna, P., Planchot, V., Ball, S., 1998 Starch granules: structure and biosynthesis Int 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Res 157, 139–156 Coultate, T., 2009 Food The Chemistry of Its Components, fifth ed RSC Publishing, Cambridge (Chapter 3) Emerald Biology, 2014 Fuels for Biofuels Part 5: Free Cellulases and Cellulose Hydrolysis http://www.emeraldbiology.com/2014/03/fuels-for-biofuels-part-5-free.html (Accessed 11 March 2014) Kaduk, J.A., Blanton, T.N., 2013 An improved structural model for cellulose II Powder Diffr 28, 194–199 42 Bioenergy Systems for the Future Kamm, B., Kamm, M., Gruber, P.R., Kromus, S., 2006 Biorefinery systems—an overview In: Kamm, B., Gruber, P.R., Kamm, M (Eds.), Biorefineries-Industrial Processes and Products (Status Quo and Future Directions) Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim Lin, N., Huang, J., Dufresne, A., 2012 Preparation, properties and applications of polysaccharide nanocrystals in advanced functional nanomaterials: a review Nanoscale 4, 3274–3294 Miguel, A.S.M., Martins-Meyer, T.S., da Costa Figueiredo, E.V., Lobo, B.W.P., DellamoraOrtiz, G.M., 2013 Enzymes in bakery: current and future trends In: Muzzalupo, I (Ed.), Future Trends, Food Industry InTech Publisher, Rijeka Nutrition Resources, 2006 Chemistry Review: Carbohydrates Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Burlington, MA http://nutrition.jbpub.com/resources/chemistryreview9.cfm (Accessed 2016) Sarkar, A., Perez, S., 2012 A Database of Polysaccharide 3D Structures http://polysac3db cermav.cnrs.fr/discover_cellulose.html (Last updated: 24 April 2012) US DOE, 2005 Genomics: GTL Roadmap, DOE/SC-0090 U.S Department of Energy Office of Science ... 19 81 1982 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 1992 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 2000 20 01 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2 010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 2 015 Fig 1. 19 Global energy... Future 14 ,000 Renewables Hydroelectricity 12 ,000 Nuclear Natural gas Oil 10 ,000 Coal 8000 6000 4000 2000 19 65 19 66 19 67 19 68 19 69 19 70 19 71 1972 19 73 19 74 19 75 19 76 19 77 19 78 19 79 19 80 19 81 1982 19 83... 17 .2 1. 92 32.9 20.8 1. 40 29.2 28.9 3 .17 91. 6 3.83 1. 41 5.40 16 1 2 .17 350 308 2.62 808 2.38 1. 28 3.04 2 71 2.95 8 01 25.8 1. 32 34 .1 9.00 2.00 18 .0 0.08 2 .16 0 .17 26.5 1. 25 33 .1 41. 3 1. 67 69.0 2.40 1. 22