Volume 2 wind energy 2 02 – wind energy contribution in the planet energy balance and future prospects

Volume 2 wind energy 2 02 – wind energy contribution in the planet energy balance and future prospects Volume 2 wind energy 2 02 – wind energy contribution in the planet energy balance and future prospects Volume 2 wind energy 2 02 – wind energy contribution in the planet energy balance and future prospects Volume 2 wind energy 2 02 – wind energy contribution in the planet energy balance and future prospects Volume 2 wind energy 2 02 – wind energy contribution in the planet energy balance and future prospects

2.02 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects JK Kaldellis and M Kapsali, Technological Education Institute of Piraeus, Athens, Greece © 2012 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved 2.02.1 Introduction 2.02.2 Energy Consumption around the Planet 2.02.3 Electrical Power and Electrical Generation 2.02.4 Fossil Fuel Status of Our Planet 2.02.4.1 Oil Data 2.02.4.2 Natural Gas Data 2.02.4.3 Coal Data 2.02.5 The Role of RES and Fossil Fuels in the Energy Future of Our Planet 2.02.5.1 The Energy Balance of Our Planet 2.02.5.2 Time Depletion of Fossil Fuels 2.02.5.3 Environmental Impacts of Energy: Carbon Dioxide Emissions 2.02.5.4 Comparing RES and Fossil Fuels (Pros and Cons) with Emphasis on Wind Energy 2.02.6 Wind Power Status in the World Market 2.02.7 Time Evolution of the Major Wind Power Markets 2.02.8 Forecasting the Wind Power Time Evolution 2.02.9 The Future and Prospects of Wind Energy 2.02.10 Conclusions References Further Reading Relevant Websites Glossary Developing country A term generally used to describe a nation with a low level of material well-being Energy fuel mix The distribution within a given geographical area, of the consumption of various energy sources (i.e., crude oil, natural gas, coal, nuclear energy, and renewable energy) Fossil fuel A hydrocarbon deposit, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, derived from the accumulated 11 12 14 17 17 20 20 21 21 22 22 25 25 27 31 35 37 37 39 39 remains of ancient plants and animals and used as fuel Renewable-based electricity generation Electricity which comes from natural resources such as sun, wind, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished) Thermal power station A place where electric energy is produced from thermal energy released by combustion of a fuel or consumption of a fissionable material 2.02.1 Introduction Survival of the humankind along with the majority of human activities are directly dependent on the exploitation of energy sources, with the continuous increase of global energy consumption being actually a reflection of the constant evolution of humankind, especially in the days following the industrial revolution During the time being, a transition may be noted from the early days of biomass (human power, animal power, wood, etc.), solar and wind energy exploitation, to the times of today, where people’s welfare much relies on the consumption of fossil fuel reserves (oil, natural gas, and coal) and nuclear energy, with much faith presently given to the solution of nuclear fusion for the energy supply security of future generations [1] In this context, if considering the huge amounts of energy consumed in the various sectors (i.e., industrial, residential, commercial, agricultural, stock farming, and transportation), one should emphasize on the critical role of energy in contemporary societies, not only as a measure of life quality [2] but also as an important factor of production processes On top of that, contribution of energy is also critical in the field of global water reserves’ management [3], while during the recent years, special attention has been given to issues of association between energy and the natural environment [4] Energy use by modern people includes electrical energy consumption, mainly for the satisfaction of domestic needs as well as for the coverage of loads during work hours, and direct consumption of liquid fuels or natural gases for transportation and heating Comprehensive Renewable Energy, Volume doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00202-X 11 12 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects 10 1980 2008 Energy (toe/cap) U M e ni te xic d o St at es Br az Fr il a G nce er m a G ny re ec U e ni te Tu rk d Ki ey ng m R us si a Ira n Eg y Et pt hi op N ia Ba ige ng ria la de sh C hi na In d In ia ne si a Ja pa Pa n ki st an W or ld Country Figure Total primary energy consumption per capita (1980–2008) for selected countries needs, while on top of that one should also consider the energy included in nutrition along with the embodied energy of products and services used on a daily basis As a result of these activities, the average US resident uses on an annual basis almost 8.5 toe of primary energy (or 60 barrels of oil equivalent), while the corresponding energy consumption per capita in the biggest European countries and Japan is almost 4.5 toe (or 30 barrels of oil equivalent) (see also Figure 1) Besides, it is worthwhile mentioning that almost one-third of the above-mentioned energy consumption is attributed to the domestic sector and thus comprises direct energy use by each typical resident of a given country On the other hand, primary energy consumption of the less-favored developing countries is by far lower than the one corresponding to the developed world and does not exceed 0.5 toe yr−1, while the global average is kept within the range of 1.9 toe yr−1, presenting an increase of approximately 15% during the last decade In this context, it is interesting to note that the average annual nutrition requirements of a person does not exceed 0.12 toe yr−1, with implications deriving from the comparison of figures given illustrating the current energy state of our planet 2.02.2 Energy Consumption around the Planet In order to describe the energy consumption state of our planet, in Figure one presents the long-term time evolution of primary energy consumption at a global and regional level during the last 30 years As it may be concluded from the information provided in the figure, 14000 12000 Energy (Mtoe) 10000 Rest Asia & Oceania Japan India China Africa Middle East Eurasia Europe Central & S America N America 8000 6000 4000 2000 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Figure Primary energy consumption time evolution (1980–2008) globally and per region Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects 13 there is a remarkable increase of the global primary energy consumption during the specific period that reaches approximately 80%, while at the regional level, one may distinguish the cases of China and India where an impressive increase is recorded [5] Considering the above, relation between population increase and primary energy consumption is designated [6], especially in cases of developing countries where one should also consider the vast need for the improvement of life quality that also leads to the increase of energy consumption per capita On the other hand, however, technology advancements, more rational use of energy resources, and efforts toward energy saving comprise the main elements of deceleration for the constant increase of primary energy consumption, especially in the industrially developed countries of our planet [7] Meanwhile, based on the latest official data (see also Figure 3), the world population has increased rapidly since 1950 from 2.5 billion to almost billion people in 2010, while it is expected to exceed billion by 2050 What is even more interesting, however, is the fact that the increase recorded is attributed to the population of developing countries, reaching nowadays a total of billion people Keep in mind that although in the specific regions primary energy consumption per capita was up to now kept quite low, constant development of local economies shall lead to considerable improvement of life quality standards and thus to an outbreak of primary energy consumption at a global level In view of the expected increase of the global primary energy consumption, Figure presents the long-term time evolution of the energy fuel mix of our planet during the last 30 years As it may accrue from the data given in the figure, energy demand of our planet is primarily covered by the use of fossil fuel reserves at the dominant percentage of over 90%, while participation of renewable 10000 9000 1950 billion people 1975 OECD 2000 Non OECD Population (million) 8000 7000 2025 6000 2050 5000 4000 Developing countries 3000 2000ven in Figure 37 Besides that, environmental performance of wind energy perceived by the majority of people (over 70% in favor) [104, 105] and transformed into widespread social support (only solar energy seems to be more socially accepted) further boosts wind energy developments (Figure 38) On the other hand, one of the challenges that wind energy is faced with during recent years is the paradox of increased social support being obscured by real-life NIMBY attitudes [36, 106, 107], especially since availability of good sites is becoming increasingly rare Recapitulating, unless out of the box solutions appear, it is anticipated that despite the economic recession encountered at a global level, in the next few years the capital cost of wind energy applications will stabilize at the levels of 1000 € kW−1, with the cost of offshore projects gradually approaching the one of onshore Furthermore, public attitude toward wind energy applications is expected to remain positive although some minor shocks are also anticipated, owing to the fact that presence of wind parks near densely inhabited areas will inevitably increase On the other hand, operation of offshore wind parks will alleviate the situation in the industrialized world, while in developing countries of the planet wind energy will continue to be appraised as a ‘blessing of nature’ Finally, given the up to now progressive strengthening of competitiveness in the field, it is (Employees/MW) K U Au st r Be ia lg iu Bu m C he lg ar ch ia R ep u D blic en m ar Fi k nl an d Fr an ce G er m an G y re ec e H un ga ry Ire la nd Ita N et he ly rla nd Po s la n Po d rtu ga l Sp Sw n ed en Figure 35 Employment opportunities in the wind energy sector by EU country (2006–07) Based on data from Eurostat (2010) Energy statistics-infrastructure http://epp.eurostat.ec europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010); Blanco MI and Rodrigues G (2009) Direct employment in the wind energy sector: An EU study Energy Policy 37: 2847–2857 34 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects Global Warming Potential-LC GHG Emissions LC Emissions (kgCO2/MWh) 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 d W w po uc H yd ro N in er ar le PV G N C oa O il l Figure 36 Comparison of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions between different electricity generation technologies Based on data from Weisser D (2007) A guide to life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric supply technologies Energy 32: 1543–1559 Avoidance of External Costs (in M ) in Accordance with the European 2020 "High" Scenario 8330 7660 335 Germany Spain UK France Italy Poland Sweden Netherlands Greece Ireland Other 1696 676 844 6429 1246 2669 3737 4662 Figure 37 Estimated avoidance of external costs through the use of wind energy in EU in 2020 Based on the data from Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Avoided emissions and external cost for different wind deployment scenarios in the EU27 Member States in 2020 http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) Social Acceptance of Wind Energy in Comparison with Other Technologies 100% 80% 60% Don’t Know 40% Opposed Balanced Views 20% Nuclear Coal Oil Gas Ocean Energy Hydropower Wind Energy Solar Energy 0% Biomass Energy In favour Figure 38 Social acceptance of various electrical power technologies Based on the data from European Commission (2007) Special Eurobarometer, energy technologies: Knowledge, perception, measures http://ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects 35 anticipated that gradually some of the States’ support mechanisms – in force until now – will be gradually abandoned, although wind parks will still entail considerable environmental gains and minimization of external costs of energy through the substitution of thermal power stations 2.02.9 The Future and Prospects of Wind Energy Through the study of projections concerning the future of wind energy carried out in the last 15 years, what is impressive to note is the level of underestimation with regard to the evolution of wind power in Europe More specifically, the initial target of 40 GW set by the White Paper of the European Commission was during 1997 – as one would expect – also adopted by the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) (Figure 39) Nevertheless, years afterwards, due to the remarkable increase rates of wind power growth met in Germany, Spain, and Denmark, EWEA had to review the target set for 2010 and actually increase it by 50%, that is, at 60 GW by 2010 while also setting a target for 2020 at 150 GW Following, EWEA proceeded to a second review of targets in 2003, this time increasing them by 25%, meaning 75 GW by 2010 and 180 GW by 2020 Eventually, due to the extension of the EU and the inclusion of new Member States, the targets for 2010 and 2020, respectively, were reassessed for the third time to the goal of achieving 80 GW by 2010, maintaining the same 180 GW for 2020, and finally aiming at 300 GW by 2030 The result of all these projection inadequacies was the emergence of many different points of view and contradictions between experts of the field, with the European cumulative installed capacity of wind power in 2010 however growing, as already mentioned, to 86 GW (i.e., almost 10% of the respective total European electricity power capacity) In this context, by acknowledging the possibility of vitiation for any given claim or prediction, in the following, it is only official data that are recorded concerning future developments in the field of wind energy Up till now, the policy framework of the EU was of critical importance for the promotion of RES and wind energy in particular In this context, new targets set call for 20% coverage of the final energy consumption by RES by 2020, while in terms of electricity consumption, wind energy is expected to contribute by 14–17% In fact, the two following scenarios have been elaborated on the basis of the 2020 target [108]: The ‘baseline’ scenario that assumes a total installed wind power capacity of 230 GW (Figure 40), producing 580 TWhe of electricity and increasing the electricity demand coverage by wind from 4.1% in 2008 to 14.2% in 2020 The ‘high’ scenario where the total installed wind power capacity is assumed to reach 265 GW by 2020, producing 681 TWhe of electricity and increasing the electricity demand coverage from 4.1% in 2008 to 16.7% in 2020 In both cases, the EU targets to increase its energy supply security and also reduce the corresponding environmental impacts (including greenhouse gas emissions) replacing imported and heavy polluting fossil fuels with domestic and clean wind-based electricity In this context, EU forecasts the addition of 250 GW onshore and 150 GW offshore (see also Figure 41) by 2030, although it is quite possible that the addition of new offshore installations will be eventually much more significant Germany Spain Denmark EU-27 90 2010 EWEA Target (2005): 80 GW 80 Wind Power (GW) 70 2010 EWEA Target (2000): 60 GW 60 50 2010 EC Target (1997): 40 GW 40 30 20 10 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year Figure 39 EU Wind Market Development along with EU targets 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 36 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects Expectation to Meet the 230 GW Target (New Installations in GW of 165 GW, 2009–2020) 25.1 26.8 5.5 7.3 Germany 23.3 Spain UK France Italy Poland Sweden 10 22.8 11.8 19.6 Netherlands Greece Ireland Other Figure 40 Future targets of wind energy in the EU Based on the data from Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Scenarios and targets http://www.wind­ energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) Meeting the 400 GW Target by 2030; Onshore vs Offshore Capacity 450 Offshore Onshore Installed Capacity (GW) 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 20 20 09 20 20 20 1 20 20 20 15 20 20 17 20 18 20 20 20 20 20 20 23 20 20 20 26 20 20 20 29 20 30 Year Figure 41 Meeting the EU targets for onshore and offshore wind energy installations Based on the data from Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Scenarios and targets http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) Moreover, according to long-term plans [108], 400 GW of wind power in the EU and 20% of the US electricity demand covered by wind by 2030 [109], along with China requesting 150 GW installed by 2020 [110], set the scenery of wind power prospects and challenge the target of 1000 GW globally by 2030 In this context, one should also note that • Future of wind energy in the United States is directly related with the time frame dictated by Section 1603 RES grant program of the Congress Given the already existing capacity of 40.3 GW as well as the planned installation of 10 GW in the early 2011, the target of 150 GW in 2020 seems both achievable and hard to accomplish • China has by 2010 installed 42.3 GW, thus the target of 150 GW may be pessimistic in view of the continuous energy consumption increase of the local economy • In India, existence of a domestic industry and 65–70 GW of assessed wind potential along with 10% of RES capacity and 4–5% of RES energy shares by 2012 are the main drivers of wind energy, with estimations calling for GW yr−1 in the following period Considering such a growth rate, India wind power increase is expected to push the corresponding installed wind power between 30 and 40 GW by 2020 • Wind potential for onshore wind energy capacity in Brazil has been assessed at 143 GW (at 50 m high), with the existing wind power installations being just around GW, thus underlining the opportunities for drastical development during the next years • At the end of 2008, Australia expanded the country RES target to 20% by 2020; hence, wind energy is expected to strongly contribute to the implementation of the target set • South Africans will also turn to wind, since the major part of the 100 TWh produced by RES up to 2025 is to be assigned to wind power Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects 37 2.02.10 Conclusions The continuous increase of energy consumption encountered across the planet along with the techno-economic problems related with the dominance of conventional fuels and the severe environmental impacts entailed by thermal power generation during recent years, illustrate the importance of increased RES contribution in the planet’s energy balance At this point, it should be pointed out that the role of wind energy may be already granted as rather significant, while is expected to be critical during the current decade On the basis of the available data, dynamics of wind power at the global energy scene during the last 30 years is illustrated, while according to the targets set, the perspective of exceeding TW of wind power installations by 2030 seems feasible, especially if considering the challenges introduced by the need of each country to safeguard security of supply and promote clean power technologies Besides that, although the leading role of the EU throughout the period of wind energy development has been designated, the return of the United States and the tremendous growth of the wind energy industry in China are also reflected On top of that, of special interest is also the gradual adoption of wind energy by several countries of the developing world, which is clearly demonstrating both the catholic character of wind power and its ability to largely substitute fossil-fueled power generation in the years to come References [1] D’Haeseleer WD (2003) The importance of fusion development towards a future energy source Fusion Engineering and Design 66–68: 3–15 [2] Martínez DM and Ebenhack BW (2008) Understanding the role of energy consumption in human development through the use of saturation phenomena Energy Policy 36(4): 1430–1435 [3] Zhelev TK (2005) Water conservation through energy management Journal of Cleaner Production 13(15): 1395–1404 [4] Dias RA, Mattos CR, and Balestieri JAP (2006) The limits of human development and the use of energy and natural resources Energy Policy 34(9): 1026–1031 [5] Pachauri S and Jiang L (2008) The household energy transition in India and China Energy Policy 36(11): 4022–4035 [6] Sheffield J (1998) World population growth and the role of annual energy use per capita Technological Forecasting and Social Change 59(1): 55–87 [7] Taylor PG, d’Ortigue OL, Francoeur ML, and Trudeau N (2010) Final energy use in IEA countries: The role of energy efficiency Energy Policy 38(11): 6463–6474 [8] UN Statistics Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (2009) World population prospects: The 2008 revision http://www.un.org (accessed December 2010) [9] Shell International BV (2008) Shell energy scenarios to 2050 http://www-static.shell.com (accessed October 2010) [10] Sternberg R (2010) Hydropower’s future, the environment, and global electricity systems Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14(2): 713–723 [11] Hall DO, Rosillo-Calle F, and de Groot P (1992) Biomass energy: Lessons from case studies in developing countries Energy Policy 20(1): 62–73 [12] Jianzhong X, Dexin H, and Xiaolu Z (2010) Status and prospects of Chinese wind energy Energy 35(11): 4439–4444 [13] Changliang X and Zhanfeng S (2009) Wind energy in China: Current scenario and future perspectives Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13(8): 1966–1974 [14] International Energy Agency (IEA) (2010) Projected Costs of Generating Electricity Paris, France: IEA Publications [15] U.S Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2010) International Energy Outlook (IEO2010) http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org (accessed February 2011) [16] Kaldellis JK and Zafirakis D (2011) The wind energy (r)evolution: A short review of a long history Renewable Energy 36(7): 1887–1901 [17] Eurostat (2010) Energy statistics-infrastructure http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) [18] Razykov TM, Ferekides CS, Morel D, et al (2011) Solar photovoltaic electricity: Current status and future prospects Solar Energy 85: 1580–1608 [19] U.S Energy Information Administration (EIA) International energy statistics http://tonto.eia.doe.gov (accessed February 2011) [20] Owen NA, Inderwildi OR, and King DA (2010) The status of conventional world oil reserves: Hype or cause for concern? Energy Policy 38(8): 4743–4749 [21] Economides MJ and Wood DA (2009) The state of natural gas Journal of Natural Gas Science Engineering 1(1–2): 1–13 [22] Pahle M (2010) Germany’s dash for coal: Exploring drivers and factors Energy Policy 38(7): 3431–3442 [23] Thielemann T, Schmidt S, and Gerling JP (2007) Lignite and hard coal: Energy suppliers for world needs until the year 2100: An outlook International Journal of Coal Geology 72(1): 1–14 [24] BP (2010) BP statistical review of world energy 2010 http://www.bp.com (accessed February 2011) [25] Meadows D, Meadows D, and Randers J (1992) Beyond the Limits White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Co [26] Lightfoot S and Burchell J (2004) Green hope or greenwash? The actions of the European Union at the world summit on sustainable development Global Environmental Change Part A 14(4): 337–344 [27] Clarke D (2007) The Battle for Barrels: Peak Oil Myths and World Oil Futures London, UK: Profile Books [28] Kaldellis JK, Zafirakis D, and Kondili E (2009) Contribution of lignite in the Greek electricity generation: Review and future prospects Fuel 88(3): 475–489 [29] Kim SH (2007) Evaluation of negative environmental impacts of electricity generation: Neoclassical and institutional approaches Energy Policy 35(1): 413–423 [30] Quadrelli R and Peterson S (2007) The energy–climate challenge: Recent trends in CO2 emissions from fuel combustion Energy Policy 35(11): 5938–5952 [31] Lenzen M and Munksgaard J (2002) Energy and CO2 life-cycle analyses of wind turbines: Review and applications Renewable Energy 26: 339–362 [32] de Vries BJM, van Vuuren DP, and Hoogwijk MM (2007) Renewable energy sources: Their global potential for the first-half of the 21st century at a global level: An integrated approach Energy Policy 35(4): 2590–2610 [33] Morrison ML and Sinclair K (2004) Wind energy technology, environmental impacts Encyclopedia of Energy 6: 435–448 St Louis: Elsevier [34] Pedersen E, Hallberg LR-M, and Persson WK (2007) Living in the vicinity of wind turbines: A grounded theory study Qualitative Research in Psychology 4: 49–63 [35] Pedersen E, van den Berg F, Bakker R, and Bouma J (2010) Can road traffic mask sound from wind turbines? Response to wind turbine sound at different levels of road traffic sound Energy Policy 38(5): 2520–2527 [36] Jones CR and Eiser JR (2010) Understanding ‘local’ opposition to wind development in the UK: How big is a backyard? Energy Policy 38(6): 3106–3117 [37] Kaldellis JK, Kavadias KA, and Paliatsos AG (2003) Environmental impacts of wind energy applications: Myth or reality? Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 12(4): 326–337 [38] Blanco MI (2009) The economics of wind energy Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13(6–7): 1372–1382 [39] Albadi MH and El-Saadany EF (2010) Overview of wind power intermittency impacts on power systems Electric Power Systems Research 80(6): 627–632 [40] Kabouris J and Perrakis K (2000) Wind electricity in Greece: Recent developments, problems and prospects Renewable Energy 21: 417–432 [41] Kaldellis JK (2007) Maximum wind energy contribution in autonomous electrical grids based on thermal power stations Applied Thermal Engineering 27: 1565–1573 38 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects [42] Kaldellis JK, Zafirakis D, and Kavadias K (2009) Techno-economic comparison of energy storage systems for island autonomous electrical networks Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13(2): 378–392 [43] Kaldellis JK, Kapsali M, and Kavadias KA (2010) Energy balance analysis of wind-based pumped hydro storage systems in remote island electrical networks Applied Energy 87(8): 2427–2437 [44] Zafirakis D and Kaldellis JK (2010) Autonomous dual-mode CAES systems for maximum wind energy contribution in remote island networks Energy Conversion and Management 51(11): 2150–2161 [45] Kapsali M and Kaldellis JK (2010) Combining hydro and variable wind power generation by means of pumped-storage under economically viable terms Applied Energy 87(11): 3475–3485 [46] Kaldellis JK (2002) Estimating the optimum size of wind power applications in Greece Proceedings of Global Windpower Conference, 2–5 April Paris Paper No GWP_077 [47] Sherif SA, Barbir F, and Veziroglu TN (2005) Wind energy and the hydrogen economy: Review of the technology Solar Energy 78(5): 647–660 [48] Fleming PD and Probert SD (1984) The evolution of wind-turbines: An historical review Applied Energy 18: 163–177 [49] Pasqualetti MJ, Righter R, and Gipe P (2004) Wind energy, history Encyclopedia of Energy 6: 419–433 Amsterdam: Elsevier [50] Musgrove P (2010) Wind Power, 1st edn Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press [51] Righter RW (1996) Pioneering in wind energy: The California experience Renewable Energy 9: 781–784 [52] Ackermann Th and Söder L (2002) An overview of wind energy-status 2002 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 6: 67–127 [53] European Wind Energy Association (2010) Annual report – 2009 http://www.ewea.org (accessed December 2010) [54] Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) (2010) Global wind energy outlook – 2010 http://www.gwec.net/ (accessed December 2010) [55] Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) (2011) Global wind energy statistics report for 2010 http://www.gwec.net/ [56] Breton SPh and Moe G (2009) Status, plans and technologies for offshore wind turbines in Europe and North America Renewable Energy 34: 646–654 [57] Bird L, Bolinger M, Gagliano T, et al (2005) Policies and market factors driving wind power development in the United States Energy Policy 33: 1397–1407 [58] Sperling K, Hvelplund F, and Vad Mathiesen B (2010) Evaluation of wind power planning in Denmark: Towards an integrated perspective Energy 35: 5443–5454 [59] Kaldellis JK and Zervos A (2002) Wind power: A sustainable energy solution for the world development Proceedings of the Energy International Conference 83: 1384–1403 [60] Jacob A (2008) Continuing boom in wind-power Renewable Energy Focus 52(2): 42–44 [61] Blanco MI and Rodrigues G (2008) Can the future EU ETS support wind energy investments? Energy Policy 36: 1509–1520 [62] Eurostat (2010) Energy statistics – Supply, transformation, consumption http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) [63] Snyder B and Kaiser MJ (2009) Offshore wind power in the US: Regulatory issues and models for regulation Energy Policy 37: 4442–4453 [64] Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Offshore developments http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) [65] European Environment Agency (EEA) (2009) Europe’s onshore and offshore wind energy potential Technical Report No http://www.eea.europa.eu (accessed December 2010) [66] Hays K (2007) Windpower markets surge Renewable Energy Focus 8(5): 42–45 [67] Hays K and Attwood D (2006) Asia: Out of the shadows?: Led by China and India, Asia Pacific wind markets poised for major growth Refocus 7(6): 24–26 [68] Kirby B and Milligan M (2008) Facilitating wind development: The importance of electric industry structure The Electricity Journal 21(3): 40–54 [69] Hohler A and Hopwood D (2008) Suzlon feels the need for speed Renewable Energy Focus 9(2): 38–39 [70] Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) (2008) Global wind energy outlook 2008 http://www.gwec.net/ (accessed December 2010) [71] Mabel C and Fernandez E (2008) Growth and future trends of wind energy in India Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12: 1745–1757 [72] Zahedi A (2010) Australian renewable energy progress Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14: 2208–2213 [73] Bennett C (2010) Latin American wind takes shape Renewable Energy Focus 11: 12–15 [74] Khalil AK, Mubarak AM, and Kaseb A (2010) Road map for renewable energy research and development in Egypt Journal of Advanced Research 1: 29–38 [75] Mostafaeipour A and Mostafaeipour N (2009) Renewable energy issues and electricity production in Middle East compared with Iran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13: 1641–1645 [76] Junginger M, Faaij A, and Turkenburg WC (2005) Global experience curves for wind farms Energy Policy 33: 133–150 [77] Morthorst PE (2009) Wind Energy the Facts – Part III – The Economics of Wind Power Denmark: Risø DTU National Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark [78] Department of Trade and Industry (2007) Study of the costs of offshore wind generation A Report to the Renewables Advisory Board (RAB) & DTI URN Number 07/779 UK [79] Garrad Hassan GL (2009) UK Offshore Wind: Charting the Right Course Scenarios for Offshore Capital Costs for the Next Five Years London, UK: Garrad Hassan on behalf of British Wind Energy Association [80] Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (2002) Studie zur aktuellen kostensituation 2002 der Windenergienutzung in Deutschland http://www.dewi.de (accessed March 2008) [81] Kaldellis JK (2002) An integrated time-depending feasibility analysis model of wind energy applications in Greece Energy Policy 30: 267–280 [82] European Commission (2009) Future fossil fuel electricity generation in Europe: Options and consequences http://ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) [83] European Commission Strategic energy technologies information system, production cost of electricity – 2020 projection http://setis.ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) [84] Royal Academy of Engineering (2004) The cost of generating electricity http://www.raeng.org.uk/ (accessed December 2010) [85] Lewis JI and Wiser RH (2007) Fostering a renewable energy technology industry: An international comparison of wind industry policy support mechanisms Energy Policy 35: 1844–1857 [86] Kaldellis JK (2011) Critical evaluation of financial supporting schemes for wind-based projects: Case study Greece Energy Policy 39: 2490–2500 [87] Butler L and Neuhoff K (2008) Comparison of feed-in tariff, quota and auction mechanisms to support wind power development Renewable Energy 33: 1854–1867 [88] Ragwitz M, Held A, Resch G, et al (2007) Assessment and optimization of renewable energy support schemes in the European electricity market (OPTRES), intelligent energy http://ec.europa.eu /energy/ (accessed December 2010) [89] Blanco MI and Rodrigues G (2009) Direct employment in the wind energy sector: An EU study Energy Policy 37: 2847–2857 [90] Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Employment in the wind energy sector http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) [91] Lehr U, Nitsch J, Kratzat M, et al (2008) Renewable energy and employment in Germany Energy Policy 36: 108–117 [92] Bishop ID and Miller DR (2007) Visual assessment of off-shore wind turbines: The influence of distance, contrast, movement and social variables Renewable Energy 32: 814–831 [93] Björkman M (2004) Long time measurements of noise from wind turbines Sound and Vibration 277: 567–572 [94] Sovacool BK (2009) Contextualizing avian mortality: A preliminary appraisal of bird and bat fatalities from wind, fossil-fuel, and nuclear electricity Energy Policy 37: 2241–2248 [95] Erickson WP, Johnson GD, and Young DPA, Jr (2002) Summary and comparison of bird mortality from anthropogenic causes with an emphasis on collisions http://studentaffairs.case.edu (accessed December 2010) [96] Crawford RH (2009) Life cycle energy and greenhouse emissions analysis of wind turbines and the effect of size on energy yield Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13: 2653–2660 [97] Danish Wind Industry Association (1997) The energy balance of modern wind turbines http://www.windpower.org/ (accessed March 2009) [98] Tremeac B and Meunier F (2009) Life cycle analysis of 4.5 MW and 250 W wind turbines Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13: 2104–2110 [99] Martínez E, Jiménez E, Blanco J, and Sanz FLC (2010) A sensitivity analysis of a multi-megawatt wind turbine Applied Energy 87: 2293–2303 [100] El-Kordy MN, Badr MA, Abed KA, and Ibrahim SMA (2002) Economical evaluation of electricity generation considering externalities Renewable Energy 25: 317–328 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects [101] Klaassen G and Riahi K (2007) Internalizing externalities of electricity generation: An analysis with MESSAGE-MACRO Energy Policy 35: 815–827 [102] Weisser D (2007) A guide to life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric supply technologies Energy 32: 1543–1559 [103] Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Avoided emissions and external cost for different wind deployment scenarios in the EU27 Member States in 2020 http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) [104] European Commission (2006) Special Eurobarometer, attitudes towards energy http://ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) [105] European Commission (2007) Special Eurobarometer, energy technologies: Knowledge, perception, measures http://ec.europa.eu/ (accessed December 2010) [106] Kaldellis JK (2005) Social attitude towards wind energy applications in Greece Energy Policy 33: 595–602 [107] Swofford J and Slattery M (2010) Public attitudes of wind energy in Texas: Local communities in close proximity to wind farms and their effect on decision-making Energy Policy 38: 2508–2519 [108] Wind Energy the Facts (2010) Scenarios and targets http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/ (accessed December 2010) [109] American Wind Energy Association (2008) 20% Wind energy by 2030 http://www.awea.org/ (accessed December 2010) [110] Chinese Renewable Energy Industries Association (2010) China wind energy outlook – 2010 http://www.greenpeace.org/ (accessed December 2010) Further Reading [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Cocks FH (2009) Energy Demand and Climate Change: Issues and Resolutions UK: Wiley Diesendorf M (2007) Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy Sydney: UNSW Press Eggleston D and Stoddard F (1987) Wind Turbine Engineering Design USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Giddens A (2009) Politics of Climate Change UK: Wiley Gipe P and Canter B (1997) Glossary of Wind Energy Terms Denmark: Forlaget Vistoft Goodstein D (2004) Out of Gas: The End of the Age of Oil New York: W W Norton & Company Johnson G (1985) Wind Energy Systems New York: Prentice Hall Kaldellis, JK (ed.) (2010) Stand-Alone and Hybrid Wind Energy Systems: Technology, Energy Storage and Applications UK: Woodhead Publishing Kaldellis JK (2005) Wind Energy Management, 2nd edn Athens, Greece: Stamoulis Leggett J (1999) The Carbon War: Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era New York: Penguin Le Gourières D (1980) Énergie Éolienne: Théorie, Conception, et Calcul Pratique des Installations Paris, France: Eyrolles Molly J-P (1990) Windenergie, 2nd edn Karlsruhe, Germany: C.F Müller Roberts P (2005) The End of Oil The Decline of the Petroleum Economy and the Rise of a New Energy Order London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Relevant Websites http://www.eia.doe.gov – US Energy Information Administration http://europa.eu http://europa.eu – Official website of the European Union http://www.awea.org – American Wind Energy Association http://www.windstats.com – Windstats Newsletter http://www.iea.org – International Energy Agency http://www.bwea.com – RenewableUK The voice of wind and marine energy http://www.wind-energie.de – Bundesverband WindEnergie e.V http://www.canwea.ca – Canadian Wind Energy Association http://www.windenergy.org.nz – Wind: New Zealand’s Energy http://fee.asso.fr/ – France Energie Eolienne http://www.wwindea.org – World Wind Energy Association http://www.ewea.org – The European Wind Energy Association http://www.gwec.net – Global Wind Energy Council http://www.offshorewindenergy.org – Offshore wind energy http://www.sealab.gr – Lab of Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection, Technological Education, Institute of Piraeus http://www.cres.gr – Center of Renewable Energy Sources and Saving 39 ... Onshore Installed Capacity (GW) 400 350 300 25 0 20 0 150 100 50 20 20 09 20 20 20 1 20 20 20 15 20 20 17 20 18 20 20 20 20 20 20 23 20 20 20 26 20 20 20 29 20 30 Year Figure 41 Meeting the EU targets... 20 20 Based on the data from Wind Energy the Facts (20 10) Avoided emissions and external cost for different wind deployment scenarios in the EU27 Member States in 20 20 http://www .wind- energy- the- facts.org/... Rodrigues G (20 09) Direct employment in the wind energy sector: An EU study Energy Policy 37: 28 47? ?28 57 34 Wind Energy Contribution in the Planet Energy Balance and Future Prospects Global Warming Potential-LC