Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry

Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry Volume 1 photovoltaic solar energy 1 09 – overview of the global PV industry

1.09 Overview of the Global PV Industry A Jäger-Waldau, Institution for Energy Transport, Ispra, Italy © 2012 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved 1.09.1 1.09.2 1.09.3 1.09.3.1 1.09.3.2 1.09.3.2.1 1.09.3.2.2 1.09.3.2.3 1.09.3.2.4 1.09.3.2.5 1.09.3.2.6 1.09.3.2.7 1.09.3.2.8 1.09.3.2.9 1.09.3.2.10 1.09.3.2.11 1.09.3.2.12 1.09.3.2.13 1.09.3.2.14 1.09.3.2.15 1.09.3.2.16 1.09.3.2.17 1.09.3.2.18 1.09.3.2.19 1.09.3.2.20 1.09.3.3 1.09.3.3.1 1.09.3.4 1.09.3.4.1 1.09.3.4.2 1.09.3.4.3 1.09.3.4.4 1.09.3.4.5 1.09.3.4.6 1.09.3.4.7 1.09.3.4.8 1.09.3.4.9 1.09.3.4.10 1.09.4 References Introduction Development of the Photovoltaic Industry The Photovoltaic Industry in 2010 Technology Mix Solar Cell Production Companies Suntech Power Co Ltd (PRC) First Solar LLC (USA) JA Solar Holding Co Ltd (PRC) Yingli Green Energy Holding Company Ltd (PRC) Trina Solar Ltd (PRC) Motech Solar (Taiwan) Q-Cells AG (Germany) Sharp Corporation (Japan) Gintech Energy Corporation (Taiwan) Neo Solar Power Corporation (Taiwan) Canadian Solar Inc (PRC) Renewable Energy Corporation AS (Norway) Solar World AG (Germany) SunPower Corporation (USA) Kyocera Corporation (Japan) SANYO Electric Company (Japan) E-Ton Solar Tech Co Ltd (Taiwan) Sun Earth Solar Power Co Ltd (PRC) Hanwha SolarOne (PRC) Bosch Solar (Germany) Polysilicon Supply Silicon production processes Polysilicon Manufacturers Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation (USA) Wacker Polysilicon (Germany) OCI Company (South Korea) GCL-Poly Energy Holdings Limited (PRC) MEMC Electronic Materials Inc (USA) Renewable Energy Corporation AS (Norway) LDK Solar Co Ltd (PRC) Tokuyama Corporation (Japan) Elkem AS (Norway) Mitsubishi Materials Corporation (Japan) Outlook Glossary EC Framework Programme This is the main instrument of the European Union for funding research Feed-in tariff A feed-in tariff is a policy mechanism that obliges regional or national electric grid utilities to buy renewable electricity (electricity generated from renewable sources, such as solar power, wind power, wave and tidal power, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal power) from all eligible participants at a fixed price over a fixed period of time Comprehensive Renewable Energy, Volume 162 164 167 168 169 169 169 170 170 170 170 170 170 171 171 171 171 171 171 171 172 172 172 172 172 173 173 173 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 175 175 175 175 177 Photovoltaics (PV) PV is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect The energy conversion devices are called solar cells Photovoltaic capacity The capacity of photovoltaic systems is given in Wp (watt peak) This characterizes the maximum DC (direct current) output of a solar module under standard test conditions, that is, at a solar radiation of 1000 W m−2 and at a temperature of 25 ºC doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00110-4 161 162 Economics and Environment Photovoltaic electricity generation The actual electricity generation potential of a photovoltaic electricity system depends on the solar radiation and the system performance, which depends on the balance of system component losses For a solar radiation between 600 and 2200 kWh m−2 yr−1, an average PV system can produce between 450 and 1650 kWh of AC electricity Photovoltaic (PV) energy system A PV system is composed of three subsystems: • On the power generation side, a subsystem of PV devices (cells, modules, arrays) converts sunlight to direct current (DC) electricity • On the power-use side, the subsystem consists mainly of the load, which is the application of the PV electricity • Between these two, we need a third subsystem that enables the PV-generated electricity to be properly applied to the load This third subsystem is often called the ‘balance of system’ or BOS Photovoltaic module and photovoltaic system A number of solar cells form a solar ‘module’ or ‘panel’, which can then be combined to solar systems, ranging from a few watts of electricity output to multi-megawatt power stations Polysilicon or polycrystalline silicon A material consisting of small silicon crystals Solar cell production capacities • In the case of wafer silicon-based solar cells, only the cells • In the case of thin films, the complete integrated module • Only those companies that actually produce the active circuit (solar cell) are counted • Companies that purchase these circuits and make cells are not counted 1.09.1 Introduction Since more than 10 years, photovoltaics (PV) is one of the fastest growing industries with growth rates well beyond 40% per annum This growth is driven not only by the progress in materials and processing technology, but also by market introduction programs in many countries around the world and the increased volatility and mounting fossil energy prices Despite the negative impacts of the economic crisis in 2009, PV is still growing at an extraordinary pace Production data for the global cell production in 2010 vary between 18 and 27 GW The significant uncertainty in the data for 2010 is due to the very competitive market environment, as well as the fact that some companies report shipment figures, whereas others report sales or production figures In addition, the difficult economic conditions and increased competition led to a decreased willingness to report confidential company data The previous tight silicon supply situation reversed due to massive production expansions as well as the economic situation This led to a price decrease from the 2008 peak of around 500 $ kg−1 to about 50–55 $ kg−1 at the end of 2009 with a slight upward tendency throughout 2010 and early 2011 Our own data, collected from various companies and colleagues, were compared to various data sources and thus led to an estimate of 21.5 GW (Figure 1), representing again a production growth of about 80% compared to 2009 [1–3] Since 2000, total PV production increased almost by orders of magnitude, with annual growth rates between 40% and 80% The most rapid growth in annual production over the last years could be observed in China and Taiwan, which together now account for more than 50% of worldwide production The market has changed from a supply- to a demand-driven market and the resulting overcapacity for solar modules has resulted in a dramatic price reduction of more than 50% over the last years Especially for companies in their start-up and expansion phase with limited financial resources, the oversupply situation anticipated for at least the next few years in conjunction with the continuous pressure on average selling prices (ASPs) is of growing concern The recent financial crisis added pressure as it resulted in higher government bond yields and ASPs have to decline even faster than previously expected to allow for higher project internal rate of returns (IRRs) In 2008, new investments in solar power surpassed those in bioenergy and were second only to wind with US$ 33.5 billion (€25.8 billion (exchange rate: €1 = US$1.30)) or 21.6% of new capital [4] Business analysts are confident that despite the current turmoil the industry fundamentals as a whole remain strong and that the overall PV sector will continue to experience a significant long-term growth Following the stock market decline, as a result of the financial turmoil, the PPVX (photon pholtovoltaic stock index) declined from its high at over 6500 points at the beginning of 2008 to 2095 points at the end of 2008 (The PPVX is a noncommercial financial index published by the solar magazine Photon and ÖKO-INVEST The index started on August 2001 with 1000 points and 11 companies and is calculated weekly using the Euro as reference currency Only companies that made more than 50% of their sales in the previous year with PV products or services are included.) At the beginning of April 2011, the index stood at 2571 points and the market capitalization of the 30-PPVX companies (please note that the composition of the index changes as new companies are added and others have to leave the index) was €43.5 billion Market predictions for the 2011 PV market vary between 17.3 GW by the Navigant Consulting conservative scenario [5], 19.6 GW by Macquarie [6], and 22 GW by iSuppli [7] with a consensus value in the 18–19 GW range Massive capacity increases are under way or announced and if all of them are realized, the worldwide production capacity for solar cells would exceed 50 GW at the end of 2011 This indicates that even with the optimistic market growth expectations, the planned capacity increases are way above the market Overview of the Global PV Industry 163 25 000 ROW USA Annual PV production (MW) 20 000 Taiwan PR China Europe 15 000 Japan 10 000 5000 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Figure World PV cell/module production from 2000 to 2010 ROW, rest of world Data source: Mints P Manufacturer Shipments, Capacity and Competitive Analysis 2009/2010 Palo Alto, CA: Navigant Consulting Photovoltaic Service Program [1]; Mints P (March 2010) The PV Industry’s Black Swan Photovoltaics World [2]; PV News (May 2010) Published by The Prometheus Institute, ISSN 0739-4829 [3]; our own analysis growth The consequence would be the continuation of the low utilization rates and therefore a continued price pressure in an oversupplied market Such a development will accelerate the consolidation of the PV industry and spur more mergers and acquisitions The current solar cell technologies are well established and provide a reliable product, with sufficient efficiency and guaranteed energy output for at least 25 years of lifetime This reliability, the increasing potential of electricity interruption from grid overloads, as well as the rise of electricity prices from conventional energy sources add to the attractiveness of PV systems About 80% of the current production uses wafer-based crystalline silicon (c-Si) technology A major advantage of this technology is that complete production lines can be bought, installed, and be up and producing within a relatively short time frame This predictable production start-up scenario constitutes a low-risk placement with calculable returns on investments However, the temporary shortage in silicon feedstock and the market entry of companies offering turnkey production lines for thin-film solar cells led to a massive expansion of investments in thin-film capacities between 2005 and 2009 More than 200 companies are involved in the thin-film solar cell production process ranging from R&D activities to major manufacturing plants Projected silicon production capacities available for solar in 2012 vary from 140 000 metric tons from established polysilicon producers, up to 185 000 metric tons, including the new producers [8], and 250 000 metric tons [9] The possible solar cell production will in addition depend on the material use per Wp (watt peak) Material consumption could decrease from the current to g Wp−1 or even g Wp−1, but this might not be achieved by all manufacturers Similar to other technology areas, new products will enter the market, enabling further cost reduction Concentrating photo­ voltaics (CPV) is an emerging market There are two main tracks – either high concentration >300 suns (HCPV) or low to medium concentration with a concentration factor of to ∼300 In order to maximize the benefits of CPV, the technology requires high direct normal irradiation (DNI) and these areas have a limited geographical range – the ‘Sun Belt’ of the Earth The market share of CPV is still small, but an increasing number of companies are focusing on CPV In 2008, about 10 MW of CPV was produced, and market estimates for 2010 are in the 10–20 MW range and for 2011 about 50–100 MW is expected In addition, dye-cells are getting ready to enter the market as well The growth of these technologies is accelerated by the positive development of the PV market as a whole It can be concluded that in order to maintain the extremely high growth rate of the PV industry, different pathways have to be pursued at the same time: • continuation to expand solar-grade silicon production capacities in line with solar cell manufacturing capacities; • accelerated reduction of material consumption per silicon solar cell and Wp, for example, higher efficiencies, thinner wafers, and less wafering losses; • accelerated ramp-up of thin-film solar cell manufacturing; and • accelerated CPV introduction into the market, as well as capacity growth rates above the normal trend Further PV system cost reductions will depend not only on the technology improvements and scale-up benefits in solar cell and module production, but also on the ability to decrease the system component costs, as well as the whole installation, projecting, operation, permitting, and financing costs 164 Economics and Environment 1.09.2 Development of the Photovoltaic Industry With the oil crisis of the 1970s, many countries in the world started solar energy research and development (R&D) programs, but it took another 20 years until the first market implementation programs for grid-connected solar PV electricity generation systems started in the early 1990s and began to prepare the basis for the development of a PV industry Between 1982 and 1990, the annual shipments increased from roughly to 48 MW per year In the early 1980s, the PV market had been strongly dominated by the large-scale segment where the influence of the USA Carissa plains plant (1983–85) is obvious Since then, the main driver for the production expansion was the increasing use of PV electricity for communication purposes, leisure activities (camping, boats), solar home systems, and water pumping Figure gives a breakdown of the different applications in which PV systems were used during the period from 1990 to 1994 [10] At that time, about 90% of PV applications worldwide were not grid connected with a somewhat higher share of 22% of grid-connected systems in Europe due to the German 1000 PV-roof program The development of the world PV cell production between 1988 and 1994 is shown in Figure Other remote 3% Remote houses 7% Camping/boating/ leisure 15% Solar home systems 15% Consumer indoor 7% Grid-connected large scale 5% Village power 5% Grid-connected small scale 6% Water pumping 12% Communication 21% Military/signaling 3% Cathodic protection 3% Figure World PV application market breakdown from 1990 to 1994 [10] 80 ROW Japan USA Europe Annual solar cell shipments (MW) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1988 1989 1990 1991 Figure World solar cell production from 1988 to 1994 [11] ROW, rest of world 1992 1993 1994 Overview of the Global PV Industry 165 80 ROW Japan USA Europe Annual production capacity (MW) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 C-Si Ribbon a-Si CdTe CIS Others Figure Regional and technology distribution of solar cell production capacities in 1994 [10] a-Si, amorphous silicon; c-Si, crystalline silicon; ROW, rest of world In 1994, about 80 companies with a total production capacity of 130 MW existed worldwide and their activities ranged from research to production of solar cells About half of them were actually manufacturing Another 29 companies were involved in module production only Out of the solar cell companies, 41 companies used c-Si, ribbon silicon, 19 amorphous silicon (a-Si), CdTe, CIS (copper indium diselenide), and 10 companies worked on other concepts like III–V concentrator cells or spherical cells The breakdown of the production capacities for the different technologies is shown in Figure The largest annual manufacturing capacity of a single company at that time was about 10 MW for single c-Si solar cells and MW for a-Si Most companies had an annual capacity of 1–3 MW The annual production capacities and their utilization rates for 1992 and 1994 are shown in Figure The first large-scale program to introduce decentralized grid-connected PV systems started in September 1990 in Germany with the so-called 1000 PV-roof program The aim of the program, which was initiated by the German ministry for Science and Technique, was to evaluate the current status of the technology and to determine the future research and development needs for small-scale grid-connected PV systems Under the 1000 PV-roof program, applicants received 50% funding of investment costs from the federal government plus 20% from the Land government Eventually, 2250 PV-roof systems with about MW were installed between 1991 and 1995 [13] However, with the end of the program, a number of solar cell manufacturers and a lot of smaller companies, especially installers, had financial problems, which were only partly compensated by some smaller local support programs 140 120 ROW Japan USA Europe (MW) 100 80 60 40 20 Annual production capacity 1992 Annual production 1992 Annual production capacity 1994 Annual production 1994 Figure Geographical distribution of production and capacity in 1992 and 1994 [10, 12] ROW, rest of world 166 Economics and Environment Others 23.5% 414 MW Sharp (JP) 24.3% 428 MW Shell Solar 3.4% Motech (TW) 3.4% Q-Cells (DE) 9.4% Suntech (PRC) 4.7% Kyocera (JP) 8.1% BP Solar 5.0% Schott Solar 5.4% Sanyo (JP) 7.1% Mitsubishi Electric (JP) 5.7% Figure Top 10 photovoltaic companies in 2005 (total shipments in 2005: 1759 MW) [16] Please note that BP Solar, Schott Solar, and Shell Solar have cell production capacities in more than one country In 1994, the first long-term PV implementation program, which led to a rapid increase in solar cell production capacities, was started in Japan The first program to stimulate the implementation of PV in Japan was called ‘Monitoring Programme for Residential PV Systems’ and it lasted from 1994 to 1996 and was managed by the New Energy Foundation (NEF) Within this program, 50% of the installation costs were subsidized The follow-up was the ‘Programme for the Development of the Infrastructure for the Introduction of Residential PV Systems’, which started in March 1997 and continued until October 2005 During this period, the average price for kWp in the residential sector fell from million ¥ kWp−1 in 1994 to 670 000 ¥ kWp−1 in 2004 These programs were not only expanding the Japanese PV market to a total cumulative installed capacity of 1420 MW at the end of FY 2005, but were also fostering the development of the Japanese PV industry [14, 15] From 1994 to 2005, the production capacity of the Japanese PV industry increased from 25.2 to 1264 MW or about 50-fold Actual production during this time span increased from 16.5 MW in 1994 to 819 MW in 2005 of which 528 MW or 65% was exported [15] Between 1994 and 2005, the Japanese solar cell manufacturing industry grew much faster than the industry in other world regions and reached almost a 50% market share in 2005 (Figure 6) The biggest boost for the development of the PV industry was the introduction of the German Renewable Energy Sources Act or Erneuer-Energien-Gesetz (EEG) in 2000 [17] For the first time, this Act guaranteed a cost-covering feed-in tariff for 20 years of initially 50 €ct kWh−1 for PV-generated electricity The setup of the scheme was to decrease this guaranteed feed-in tariff every year by 5% for new PV systems in order to put pressure on the reduction of the price for PV systems In addition, the Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), a public bank, gave loans with reduced interest rates to buyers of PV systems under the so-called 100 000-roof program With these mechanisms a market for PV systems and consequently the basis for the accelerated buildup of the PV industry was created From the beginning, the Renewable Energy Sources Act foresaw a regular revision of the feed-in tariffs to react on price developments every years The first revision in 2004 accelerated the growth of the German market, which overtook the until then dominating Japanese market [18] The structure of the PV industry changed quite drastically between the early 1990s and 2005 A significant number of the 80 companies that existed in 1994 were either bought by other companies or seized operation The first company that exceeded a production capacity of 100 MW was Sharp (Japan) at the end of FY 2002 and it kept the position as No manufacturing company until 2008 when Q-Cells (Germany) moved to the front rank Since the late 1990s, the number of new companies entering the PV manufacturing business started to increase, mainly in Germany, China, and Taiwan This development can also be seen in the increase of shipments (Figure 7) Between 1994 and 2004, the market share of thin-film solar cells continuously decreased from 30% to less than 10% This development was due to the technology progress in the different c-Si technologies as well as the rapid expansion of production capacities where production lines for silicon could be faster realized due to the availability of the necessary equipment and ramped up than those in thin-film technologies, where the equipment was custom made The temporary silicon shortage, which stared to emerge in 2003, and the market entry of companies offering turnkey production lines for thin-film solar cells led to a massive expansion of investments in thin-film capacities It opened the window of opportunities for a number of thin-film technologies and companies to get into the market The most prominent example is First Solar (USA) The development to industrialize the technology and prepare for production started almost 25 years ago at First Solar’s predecessor Solar cell Inc., which was founded back in 1986 When in 1999 First Solar was formed out of Solar Cell Inc., the company started to develop the production line, and full commercial operation of its initial manufacturing line started in late 2004 with a capacity of 25 MW Since then on, the manufacturing capacity has grown to more than 1.2 GW in 2009 Overview of the Global PV Industry 167 2000 Annual solar cell shipments (MW) ROW 1800 Japan 1600 USA Europe 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Figure World solar cell production from 1994 to 2005 [11] ROW, rest of world In the early 2000s, the buildup of solar cell manufacturing capacities in China and Taiwan started to gain pace and, in 2004, the Taiwanese company Motech Solar made it to the top-10 list, followed by Suntech from China in 2005 Since then, the growth of the PV industry in China and Taiwan outperformed that in the rest of the world PV industry activities in India existed since the 1980s, but it took almost 30 years until the Indian Government in 2009 recognized it as a promising industry with the launch of the Indian National Solar Mission in January 2010 1.09.3 The Photovoltaic Industry in 2010 In 2010, the PV world market grew in terms of production by ∼80% to 21–22 GW The market for installed systems doubled again and the current estimates are between 16 and 18 GW, as reported by various consultancies One could guess that this represents mostly the grid-connected PV market To what extent the off-grid and consumer product markets are included is unclear The difference of roughly 3–6 GW has therefore to be explained as a combination of unaccounted off-grid installations (∼1–200 MW off-grid rural, ∼1–200 MW communication/signals, ∼100 MW off-grid commercial), consumer products (∼1–200 MW), and cells/ modules in stock In addition, the fact that some companies report shipment figures, whereas others report production figures, adds to the uncertainty The difficult economic conditions added to the decreased willingness to report confidential company data Nevertheless, the figures show a significant growth of the production, as well as a trend toward a silicon oversupply situation, for the next 2–3 years The announced production capacities – based on a survey of more than 300 companies worldwide – increased despite difficult economic conditions Although a significant number of players announced a scale-back or cancellation of their expansion plans for the time being, the number of new entrants into the field, notably large semiconductor or energy-related companies, overcompen­ sated this At least on paper the expected production capacities are increasing Only published announcements of the respective companies or their representatives and no third source info were used The cutoff date of the used info was March 2011 Therefore, the capacity figures just give a trend, but not represent final numbers It is worthwhile to mention that despite the fact that a significant number of players have announced a slowdown of their expansion, or cancelled their expansion plans for the time being, the number of new entrants into the field, notably large semiconductor or energy-related companies, is overcompensat­ ing this and, at least on paper, is increasing the expected production capacities It is important to note that production capacities are often announced taking into account different operation models such as number of shifts and operating hours per year In addition, the announcements of the increase in production capacity not always specify when the capacity will be fully ramped up and operational This method has of course the setback (1) that not all companies announce their capacity increases in advance and (2) that in times of financial tightening, the announcements of the scale-back of expansion plans are often delayed in order not to upset financial markets In addition, the assessment of all the capacity increases is further complicated by the fact that announcements of the increase in production capacity often lack the information about completion date Therefore, the capacity figures just give a trend, but not represent final numbers If all these ambitious plans can be realized by 2015, China will have about 38.4% of the worldwide production capacity of 88 GW, followed by Taiwan (18.0%), Europe (11.4%), and Japan (9.3%) (Figure 8) 168 Economics and Environment Annual production/production capacity (MW) 90 000 80 000 70 000 60 000 50 000 Japan Europe China Taiwan USA South Korea India ROW 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 Production 2009 Estimated production 2010 Planned capacity 2009 Planned capacity 2010 Planned capacity 2012 Planned capacity 2015 Figure Worldwide PV production in 2009 and 2010 with future planned production capacity increases ROW, rest of world All these ambitious plans to increase production capacities at such a rapid pace depend on the expectations that markets will grow accordingly This, however, is the biggest uncertainty as the market estimates for 2010 vary between and 24 GW with a consensus value in the 13 GW range In addition, most markets are still dependent on public support in the form of feed-in tariffs, investment subsidies, or tax breaks Already now, electricity production from PV solar systems has shown that it can be cheaper than peak prices in the electricity exchange In the first quarter of 2011, the German average price index for rooftop systems up to 100 kWp was given with €2546 kWp−1 without tax [19] With such investment costs, the electricity generation costs are already at the level of residential electricity prices in some countries, depending on the actual electricity price and the local solar radiation level But only if markets and competition will continue to grow, prices of the PV systems will continue to decrease and make electricity from PV systems for consumers even cheaper than from conventional sources In order to achieve the price reductions and reach grid parity for electricity generated from PV systems, public support, especially on regulatory measures, will be necessary for the next decade 1.09.3.1 Technology Mix Wafer-based silicon solar cells are still the main technology and had around 80% market shares in 2010 Polycrystalline solar cells still dominate the market (45–50%), even if the market share has slightly decreased since the beginning of the decade Commercial module efficiencies are within a wide range between 12% and 20%, with monocrystalline modules between 14% and 20% and polycrystalline modules between 12% and 17% The massive manufacturing capacity increases for both technologies are followed by the necessary capacity expansions for polysilicon raw material In 2005, production of thin-film solar modules reached for the first time more than 100 MW per annum Since then, the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of thin-film solar module production is even beyond that of the overall industry, increasing the market share of thin-film products from 6% in 2005 to 10% in 2007 and 16–20% in 2010 More than 200 companies are involved in thin-film solar cell activities, ranging from basic R&D activities to major manufactur­ ing activities, and over 150 of them have announced the start or increase of production The first 100 MW thin-film factories became operational in 2007 If all expansion plans are realized in time, thin-film production capacity could be around 22 GW, or 32% of the total 69.4 GW, in 2012 and about 30 GW, or 34%, in 2015 of a total of 87.6 GW (Figure 9) The first thin-film factories with GW production capacity are already under construction for various thin-film technologies One should bear in mind that only one-fourth of the over 150 companies with announced production plans have already produced thin-film modules on a commercial scale in 2009 More than 100 companies are silicon based and use either a-Si or an amorphous/microcrystalline silicon structure Thirty companies announced using Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2 as absorber material for their thin-film solar modules, whereas nine companies use CdTe and eight companies go for dye and other materials CPV is an emerging technology which is growing at a very high pace, although from a low starting point About 50 companies are active in the field of CPV development and almost 60% of them were founded in the last years Over half of the companies are located either in the United States of America (primarily in California) and in Europe (primarily in Spain) Within CPV, there is a differentiation according to the concentration factors (high concentration >300 suns (HCPV), medium concentration < x < 300 suns (MCPV), low concentration