DSpace at VNU: Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam

DSpace at VNU: Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam tài liệu, giá...

Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ecosystem Services journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoser Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam Hideyuki Mohri a,n, Shruti Lahoti a, Osamu Saito a, Anparasan Mahalingam a, Nimal Gunatilleke b, Irham c, Van Thang Hoang d, Gamini Hitinayake e, Kazuhiko Takeuchi a,f, Srikantha Herath a a Institute for Sustainability and Peace, United Nations University, 5-53-70 Jingumae, Shibuya, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka c Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia d Centre for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, Vietnam National University, Vietnam e Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka f Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, University of Tokyo, Japan b art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t Article history: Received December 2012 Received in revised form July 2013 Accepted 15 July 2013 Available online 22 August 2013 Numerous studies have been conducted on homegarden systems by researchers from different disciplines and countries, but most of them focus on ecological structure or specific ecosystem services in a selected study area Few studies take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by homegardens, especially on a regional scale This paper shows how these homegardens are ecologically, socially, and economically diversified and how beneficial they are to human well-being as ecosystem services It also investigates the impacts of drivers on homegarden systems in rural areas in three countries These studies involved comprehensive literature reviews and field survey along with a framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Four types of ecosystem services—provision, regulation, cultural, and support—were assessed and compared We found that traditional homegardens maintain high ecosystem diversity especially in rural areas; however, recent socio-economic changes are converting subsistence-oriented homegardens into commercial ones Future challenges for further research include how to enhance the resilience of homegarden systems against socioeconomic and global climate changes by integrating traditional homegarden systems, modern technology, and the global economy & 2013 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved Keywords: Homegarden Ecosystem assessment Ecosystem services Agrodiversity Biodiversity Contents n Introduction Methodology and materials 2.1 Methodology 2.2 Study area Results 3.1 Scale, structure, and diversity of homegarden systems 3.1.1 Scale 3.1.2 Structure of homegarden systems 3.1.3 Vertical structure of homegarden systems 3.1.4 Diversity in homegarden systems 3.2 Ecosystem services provided from homegarden systems 3.2.1 Provisioning services 3.2.2 Regulating services Corresponding author Tel.: +81 5467 1212; fax: +81 5406 7347 E-mail address: mohri@unu.edu (H Mohri) 2212-0416/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2013.07.006 125 125 125 125 126 126 126 126 127 129 129 129 131 H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 e125 3.2.3 Cultural services 3.2.4 Supporting services 3.3 Biodiversity Discussion 4.1 Drivers of change in homegarden systems 4.2 Homegarden studies and global initiatives Conclusion Acknowledgments References 132 133 133 133 133 134 134 134 134 Introduction A homegarden is a garden surrounding a residence that provides various goods and services to members of the household A homegarden is usually a small-scale supplementary food production system designed for local inhabitants, but sometimes it mimics natural, multilayered ecosystems (Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993) Soemarwoto and Christanty (1985) define a homegarden as a land use system with a structure resembling a forest and one that combines the natural architecture of a forest with species fulfilling the social, economic, and cultural needs of people A homegarden is often considered part of an agro-socio-ecological system that comprises domesticated plants and/or animals, as well as people (Soemarwoto and Conway, 1992) By producing a variety of fruits, vegetables, and non-timber forest products, homegardens contribute to a family′s diet and may even provide additional income The majority of homegardens are distributed in East and West Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, and Mesoamerica, which suggests that homegardens are predominantly a tropical phenomenon (Kumar and Nair, 2006) Tropical homegardens are considered one of the oldest forms of managed land use activity next to shifting cultivation (Kumar and Nair, 2004) Various studies have been conducted on these homegarden systems, but most of them focus on physical structure, function, and ecological structure or a specific ecosystem service in a particular study area (e.g., Abdoellah et al., 2006; Karyono, 1981; Kehlenbeck et al., 2007; Phong et al., 2006; Phong et al., 2010; Soemarwoto and Conway, 1992; Ueda, 1996; Wiersum, 1977) Methodological problems associated with each homegarden′s uniqueness have hindered research, despite the structural and functional similarities between various homegardens (Kumar and Nair, 2004) A challenge in homegarden research is the use of commonly accepted research frameworks and procedures (Kumar and Nair, 2004) Agroforestry and traditional production systems that include homegardens are recently reevaluated as effective measures for adapting to climate and ecosystem changes (Rao et al., 2007; Takeuchi, 2010) However, several studies present empirical evidence demonstrating how a homegarden system can contribute to the enhancement of adaptive capacity The objectives of this research are as follows: (a) To investigate the scale, structure, and diversity in home(b) garden systems of Southeast Asia countries To assess the biodiversity and ecosystem services provided by homegarden systems (c) To identify recent changes and drivers of these changes, including climate change, on homegarden systems in rural Asia Methodology and materials 2.1 Methodology We have used the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) framework to evaluate the interaction among various services offered by homegarden systems and current drivers of change to address the recent findings on ecosystem services and environmental benefits provided by the homegarden system Although the MA (2003, 2005) states that homegardens are intensively managed and modified by humans to avail ecosystem services, it is an important source of the maintenance of local biodiversity The MA framework focuses mainly on linkages and dynamic interactions between ecosystem services and human well-being (MA, 2005) In addition to the dynamic process of evolution in homegardens, sociocultural and economic factors alter the human condition, while various natural factors influence ecosystems On the basis of the MA framework, a comprehensive literature review was conducted As listed in the references, a total of 104 books, peer-reviewed journal articles, and conference papers were examined Distribution of publications is diverse in terms of publication year and theme Almost equal numbers of literature for three countries’ homegarden studies are referenced to identify components, spatial layout, temporal/spatial scales, diversity, and functions of each system by country In addition to the literature review, field observation and professional workshops were conducted in each country in 2011 and 2012, as shown in Table 2.2 Study area The homegarden is a traditional land use system that has evolved from prehistoric times (e.g., hunters and gatherers), through ancient civilizations to the modern era Hutterer (1984) reported that the homegardens of Java originated in the 7th millennium BC The historical records suggest that they were attached to temples, palaces, elite residences, and the homes of Table Professional workshops in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam Country Indonesia Sri Lanka Vietnam Workshop date Workshop venue Number of local experts 6–8 January 2012 Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 16 17–19 September 2011 Peradeniya University, Kandy, Sri Lanka 13 30 June–1 July 2011 Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam 10 e126 H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 common people The homegarden system originated in Central Java and parts of East Java, spreading to West Java in the mid-18th century (Terra, 1954) Early references to a garden in ancient Sri Lankan literature that resembled modern homegardens can be found in the ancient epic Ramayana (Puri and Nair, 2004; Kumar and Nair, 2004) This garden type has evolved into a multistoried vegetation plot established by rural families around their homes, using an ingeniously selected mixture of multiple-use species of both indigenous and exotic origin with complementary ecological characteristics (Gunatilleke et al., 1993) In the Kandyan region, rural and semi-rural tree gardens were also referred to as forest gardens owing their social functions and links to local natural forests (McConnell, 2003; Perera and Rajapakse, 1991; Jacob and Alles, 1987) The VAC system which stands for Vuon-AoChuong in Vietnamese, which translates to Garden-Pond-Livestock pen, originated in the Red River delta and midlands of northern Vietnam and utilizes land for carrying out various agriaquacultural activities in domestic dwellings (Trinh et al., 2003) Implementation of the Doi Moi policy in 1986 promoted the VAC system with an aim to increase and stabilize the nutritional standard of poor rural people (Luu, 2001) Consequently, integrated farming has spread extensively across Vietnam especially irrigated lowlands, rainfed uplands, and semi-urban areas, and almost 44% of all households now have such a system (Luu, 2001; Nguyen, 1997; Phong et al., 2003; Phong et al., 2010) There are many types of homegarden systems worldwide This paper focuses on three countries in Asia—Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam—each of which has different characteristics depending on the socioeconomic and geographic conditions of their land use forms However, other countries such as India or Bangladesh have very similar homegarden systems (Bardhan et al., 2012; Kabir and Webb, 2008; Kumar and Nair, 2004; Nair and Kumar, 2006; Nair and Sreedharan, 1986) As described below, this study basically focuses on one particular kind of homegarden in each country, such as the Pekarangan, Kandyan, and VAC system Indonesia is the world′s largest island nation and has diverse land use patterns and various bioproduction systems The development of oil palm plantations has been a primary driving force of changes in Indonesia′s rural landscape Various homegarden systems exist in different areas (Kaya et al., 2002; Kehlenbeck and Maass, 2004; Michon and Mary, 1994) In this study, we focus on a typical traditional homegarden system in Java, known as the Pekarangan This is generally managed by individuals who grow various products, including timber, vegetables, and fruits (Wiersum, 2006) Sri Lanka has the highest percentage of rural population among the Asian nations, which reached 85% in 2010 (World Bank, 2011) Kandyan homegardens play an important role both as a link to agricultural and natural landscapes and as a source of income in the country′s midlands (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) Vietnam is the world′s second largest rice-exporting country and has shown rapid economic growth as a socialist country with relatively stable political conditions and flexible economic policies Agricultural production in Vietnam is expected to expand, but such a trend may cause significant changes in rural land use and traditional bioproduction systems, including the VAC system Moreover, it is known as a traditional integrated agriculture– aquaculture (IAA) system in Vietnam This integrated farming system has spread across the entire country In addition, this study initiated a new research project to investigate a strategy for enhancing resilience to climate and ecosystem changes utilizing traditional bioproduction systems in rural Asia The project was supported by the Ministry of the Environment, Japan from 2011 to 2013, and selected Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam as case studies We know that homegarden systems also exist in areas other than Asia, but as a pilot comparative study on homegarden systems, it was reasonable to start with these three Asian countries Table lists their biophysical and socioeconomic features Results 3.1 Scale, structure, and diversity of homegarden systems This section summarizes the spatial scale, temporal scale, structure, and layout of homegarden systems Both the scale and structure of homegardens vary according to the physical, social, and ecological attributes of the area 3.1.1 Scale Spatial scale In terms of land area, the spatial scale under homegardens varies depending upon the climate, soil type, topography, rainfall, economic activity, and culture Twenty percent of the total area in West Java is occupied by homegardens, while about 70% of households in the Kandy area have homegardens Homegardens cover 20% of the total land area in Java overall (Wiersum, 1980; Terra, 1954), while they occupy 30–40% of the total cultivated area in Sri Lanka (Verheij, 1982; Ensing et al., 1985) The area of individual homegardens varies from a few square meters to hectares However, in general, small land management units commonly cover an average land area of 0.6 and 0.4 in Java and Kandy, respectively The total area under gardens, average size, and range of area and pond areas for selected homegardens are shown in Table It is difficult to define a general scale of integrated homegardens in Vietnam because the VAC system has spread irregularly across the country and land has been allocated directly by the government The Mekong region has larger homegardens, averaging 0.75 ha, than the northern part of Vietnam, which averages 0.14 At 0.15 ha, pond sizes are the largest in Mekong delta and are approximately 0.02 m2 in the north (Trinh et al., 2003) In the northern Vietnam uplands, the garden area ranges from 0.01 to 1.5 and the fishpond area ranges from 0.001 to 0.015 ha, in comparison with the lowlands where they range from 0.002 to 0.003 and fishpond area is around 0.004 (Luu, 2001) Temporal scale This refers to the time and labor spent in managing homegardens as a subsidiary activity along with the primary activity of farming In general, homegardens require minimal labor, which is mostly provided by household members with flexible schedules Labor and time spent on homegardens change regionally according to the area of homegarden, intensity of farming, number of family members, and the household′s primary occupation (Torquebiau, 1992) According to Stoler (1978), a maximum of 8% of total working time is spent on homegardens, which might reach up to two persons per day in peak seasons (Ninez, 1986) In Java, the labor requirement is comparable mainly in homegardens, rice fields, and kebun talun (Christanty et al., 1986) In Kandy, apart from household members, labor is hired for skilled operations (Jacob and Alles, 1987) such as harvesting cash crops such as cloves, black pepper, and tea Most VAC homegardeners are relatively young (35 years on average) and family members maintain these farming activities For households, the average number of family members is five and labors is 2.85 (Trinh et al., 2003) Table shows the time spent and labor input in homegardens for selected countries 3.1.2 Structure of homegarden systems Homegarden gardens’ vertical and horizontal structure changes depending on the local communities’ communal, financial, cultural, and ecological attributes (Abdoellah et al., 2001) The Javanese and Kandyan homegardens represent complex horizontal zoning and vertical stratification at different heights with a high H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 e127 Table Biophysical and socioeconomic features of homegardens in the study areas Characteristics Javanese homegardens Kandyan homegardens VAC system Location/country Local name Population density(person/km2) Eco-zone Javanese/Indonesia Pekarangan 700a Humid; medium altitude and lowlands Kandy/Sri Lanka Kandyan gardens 500–699 Humid; medium altitude Rainfall(mm) Altitude range(m amsl) Annual mean temperature(1C) Relative humidity(%) Number of vertical strata Dominant soil type 1800–2400 0–600a 22–29 Average 75 5a Reddish brown to brown latosols 2000–2500 400–1000 24–26 65–80 (day) and 75–90 (night) 3–5 Reddish brown latosol to immature brown loam Slope of land(%) Land tenure Varied Privately ownedb 10–40 Mainly privately owned Classification Market orientation Traditional and commercial Subsistence/commercial Vietnam VAC system 199–949e Red River delta: Tropical to subtropical, midlands: tropical and subtropical, lowlands: tropical, Mekong delta: Tropical 1388–1900 1–80 26–29.5 82 N/A North: Loam and sandy loam, Central: Bazan, South: Alluvial clay, Mekong delta: Clay Varied Privately owned (allocated by government) Traditional, commercial, mixed Subsistence/commercial Net income/family 6.6–55.7% of family income and average of 21.1% depending on size, family needs, and composition of homegardensc Commercial with subsidiary subsistence 30–50% of family incomed 30–60% of family income a Fernandes and Nair (1986) Wiersum (1982) c Soemarwoto (1987) d Pushpakumara et al (2010) e General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2013) b Table Total area under homegardens, mean management unit, and range of management unit in homegarden systems Area Javanese homegardens 20% c Kandyan homegardens 30–40% d Total area under homegarden of cultivated area (%) Mean management unit (ha) 0.6a 1.0a/0.4b Range of management unit (ha) 0.01–3.0a 0.4–2.2a/0.05–2.5b Pond area (m2) NA NA VAC North: 27%, Central: 70%, South: 34%, Mekong Delta: 47%e North: 0.14, Central: 0.27, South: 0.28, Mekong Delta: 0.75e North: 0.05–0.32, Central: 0.02– 1.0, South: 0.08–0.72, Mekong delta: 0.2–2.2e North: 220, Central: 350, South: 72, Mekong Delta: 1500 a Fernandes and Nair (1986) Pushpakumara et al (2010) c Wiersum (1980), Terra (1954), Verheij (1982) d Ensing et al (1985) e Trinh et al (2003), Luu (2001) b diversity of species, resulting in intimate plant association in a virtually closed canopy structure, on the other hand VAC system has a simpler vertical structure 3.1.3 Vertical structure of homegarden systems In Javanese homegardens, the ground level is occupied by starchy food plants, vegetables, and spices, followed by fruit trees and cash crops in the next layer, and tall trees such as coconut and timber trees in the highest layer Table shows the vertical structure and main species present at different levels of the homegardens Perera and Perera (1997a) study on the relative frequency of occurrence suggests that in Kandyan homegardens, the highest canopy layer is dominated by jackfruit and coconut trees, followed by areca nut, fishtail palm, gliricidia, mango, and cloves in the next canopy, and coffee in the lower canopy In the ground layer, the species vary from one garden to another However, recently it has been observed that the homegarden structure can be affected by factors such as population density, socioeconomics, proximity to the market area, owners’ preference, and management objectives Horizontal structure of homegarden systems A large number of species are randomly arranged without specific geometrical patterns and are planted in order to achieve maximum space utilization and fulfill their light, water, and fertility requirements (Christanty et al., 1986) Apart from these factors, managementassociated aspects are also important to determine the horizontal zoning in the front, back, and sides of the house On the basis of a e128 H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 Table Time spent, cutting and harvesting cycle, labor spent, and division of labor in homegarden systems Time scale Javanese homegardens Kandyan homegardens VAC Time spent on homegardens Cutting/Harvesting cycle h/week/100 m²a Irregular work scheduleb 220 days/yearh Continuous harvest Labor spent Small amount of time and family labor spent during free time after workd 57 man days/yearc Continuous harvest depending on the output from different crops Relatively small amount of labor by household membersf Division of labor Land preparation & cultivation of tree crops by men, cultivation of annual crops by women Harvesting is done by all household members, but marketing is predominantly a male activitye Equal division of labor between males and females with few activities being exclusively the domain of either sexg Household commercially manages VAC spent more time Less labor and capital on the homegarden in households that have other income sources Usually, family members manage the farming activities a Stoler (1978) Christanty (1985) Torquebiou (1992) d Laumans and Kasijadi (1985) e Christanty et al (1986), Laumans and Kasijadi (1985), Matahelumual and Verheul (1987) f Pushpa kumara et al (2010) g Jayawardena and Jayathilake (1998) h Trinh et al (2003) b c Table Vertical stratification in homegarden systems Stratum Height in meters (m) Javanese homegardens Kandyan homegardens VAC Level 1-ground level o3 Vegetables, medicines, spices, fruits trees, subsistence, and cash crops- Okra, eggplant, beans, tea, cassava, ginger, turmeric, anthurium, pineapple, and chili peppers Flowers, medicinal plants, herbs, spices, fruits, plants in the pond (or on the banker), and vegetables Level 2-lower stratum 3–10 Medicines, food staple, subsistence, and cash crops-Vanilla, banana/plantain, cacao, coffee, passion fruit, betel vine Fruits trees- Lucuma mamosa, orange, tangerine, grapefruit, longan, rambutan, kapok, and water apple; bamboo, cashew, Acacia aneuna Level 3-lower-middle stratum 10–15 15–25 Level 5-upper stratum 25–30 Subsistence food staple, seasonal fruits and cash crop- papaya, pepper, avocado, mangosteen, breadfruit, rambutan, citrus Fruits, timber, medicines, cash cropsmango, bamboo, areca palm, nutmeg, clove, rubber, wild breadfruit, kitul palm Timber, cash crops, fiber and oil seed cropsdurien, talipot palm, jak, coconut palm, kapok, pepper Coconut, areca, bamboo, eucalypts, cajeput, and Caplophyllum inophyllum Level 4-upper-middle stratum Starchy food plants, vegetables, and spices- Languas, ganyong, xanthosoma, cassava, sweet potatoes, taro, chili peppers, eggplant, spinach, and wing bean Fruit trees and cash crops-Bananas, papayas, mango, jakfruit, and other fruit trees; Soursop, jakfruit, pisitan guava, and mountain apple; or other cash crops such as cloves Other trees for building material and fuel woodcoconut trees and other trees (e.g., Albizia) Christanty et al (1986), McConnell (2003), Trinh et al (2003), An (1997) literature review and field observations, we have drawn an aerial view for each sample layout (Figs 1–3) In Kandyan homegardens, the horizontal zoning of planting is random, without any specific pattern or arrangement, but a significant correlation exists between different species with tree species dominating (McConnell, 2003) Layouts of the VAC system show a combination of garden, pond, and livestock pens, although the components are diversified according to topological conditions, culture, and economy According to (Trinh et al., 2003), there are four basic types of VAC systems in Vietnam: the homegarden H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 Fig Schematic view of Javanese homegarden (a) road, (b) ornamental, cash crops and fruit trees, (c) pathway, (d) fruit trees, (e) tall shady trees, (f) buruan (cleared patch), (g) house, (h) vegetable plants and spices, (i) hedges along the front and side boundary, (j) bathroom, (k) well, (l) poultry, (m) fishpond, (n) aquatic plants and grasses, (o) fruit trees, (p) cattle shed, (q): latrine, (r) tall trees and bamboo clumps, and (s) garbage dump Fig Schematic view of Kandyan homegarden (a) road, (b) ornamental and fruit trees, (c) pathway, (d) ornamental shrubs, (e) cleared patch, (f) house, (g) vegetable plants and spices, (h) shrubs and hedges along the side boundary, (i) fruit trees, and (j) tall timber trees, coconut and spice trees Fig Schematic view of VAC (a) road, (b): pathway, (c) fishpond, (d) aquatic plants and grasses along fishpond, (e) well, (f) vegetable plants spices and bonsai, (g) cattle shed, pig pen and storage, (h) bamboo cluster along the side boundary, (i) house, (j) coffee plants alongside boundary, and (k) fruit trees in backyard (The figures are drawn by Shruti Lahoti.) combined with (1) fruit trees in South Vietnam; (2) pond and covered livestock areas around the Red River delta and central Vietnam; (3) vegetables in the Red River delta and central Vietnam; and (4) forest trees, which is the type of VAC system that generally consists of both and upper and lower levels (An, 1997) Over the past years, many attempts have been made by either local organizations such as the Southern Vietnam Gardening Association (VACVINA) or foreign investors to integrate new technologies and introduce new crop species into the VAC system For example, a VAC combined with rice cultivation (particularly hybrid rice) or forestry is called RVAC VACB (VAC combined with biogas) is applied in many places (Zhu, 2006) In addition, some e129 communes have community- or village-scale VAC systems that connect each household to a community farm and lake The community-scale systems grow more products suitable for sale to larger markets (Ueda, 1996) Several of the common differences among the three homegardens are related to the position of service area and species layout All services such as toilets, bathrooms, wells, smaller fishponds, cattle sheds, and garbage dumps are located in the backyard of the Javanese garden, thus this area is larger than the front yard The VAC system is opposite of this, with the front yard encompassing a bigger area with a larger fishpond, cattle shed well that are well-organized in front of the house In Kandy homegardens, a pond and cattle shed are rarely seen Poultry is common in all the homegardens located in back yards In both Javanese and Kandy homegardens, ornamental species, fruit trees, and cash crop species are planted in the front yard for aesthetic and security reasons, while vegetable plants and spices, some fruit trees and fiber trees are in the back yard Vegetables and other plants are planted in front of the house in the VAC system 3.1.4 Diversity in homegarden systems Diversity in homegardens’ structure, composition, and function is a result of associated socioeconomic changes In the past, several studies conducted on Javanese homegardens illustrated their diversity as an outcome of differences in geographic location, climatic condition, cultural factors, role in the farming system, and socioeconomic conditions Wiersum (2006) summarized these important factors and highlighted the importance of livelihood condition in determining the structure and composition of homegardens On the basis of household economy, Wiersum suggested four types of homegardens: survival, subsistence, market, and budget gardens Apart from market economy, access to markets also determines the types of homegardens McConnell (1992) classifies the forest garden such as those we see in Kandy into basically two types: “forested house-lots alone” or “forested house-lots in combination with some small area of paddy land in one of the nearby narrow valleys (McConnell, 1992, p 3).” Likewise, components and types of VAC are dependent on geography, commune policy, and personal decision as mentioned above, although the basic structure, garden, pond, and livestock are always common (Edwards, 2010) Coastal areas inevitably weighed on aquaculture and mountainside focused farming and forestry (An, 1997) As previously mentioned, VAC has been customized to improve its productivity, which leads to more diversity in the system itself For example, the more commercial VAC is called “improved VAC” (Edwards, 2010), VAC with forestry is RVAC, and VACB includes biogas (Ueda, 1996; Zhu, 2006) 3.2 Ecosystem services provided from homegarden systems The homegarden system provides key ecosystem services that may be conceptualized as provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services In addition, homegardens serve as habitat for a large range of flora and fauna and thus help in biodiversity conservation 3.2.1 Provisioning services Provisioning services are those resources supplied by homegardens to human communities, which include food products, timber for construction, fuel in the form of wood and charcoal, and natural medicines Table summarizes the various provisioning services offered by homegarden systems 3.2.1.1 Food Homegardens provide nutrition in various forms such as food crops, fruits, vegetables, livestock, aquaculture, wild e130 H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 plants and animal products Each subcategory is explained in detail below Crops The diversity in homegardens is reflected in species composition of various plant categories: food crops, fruits, vegetables, or medicinal and spice trees Table lists the major species found under different plant categories in the study areas In Javanese homegardens, the major food crops are maize, coconut, taro, and cassava Kandyan homegardens are similar to Javanese ones with coconut, cassava and jackfruits as the major food crops On the other hand, VAC farmers tend to grow sweet potato, corn, or banana, which provide higher market prices As mentioned above, the species composition varies in different homegardens and Table summarizes the most commonly planted species under different plant categories Livestock Animal husbandry is an integral part of homegardens The choice of animal species is determined by various factors such as sociocultural, environmental, financial, and religious concerns (Soemarwoto, 1987) Milk and egg production provide nutritional security to rural households and a source of additional income Animal waste provides manure required to maintain soil fertility and production sustainability However, in Kandyan gardens, the livestock component is relatively less important (McConnell, 2003) A variety of livestock can be found in different VAC households Pigs, cows, ducks and chickens are common in most places Table Provisioning services provided from homegarden systems Provisioning services Food Fiber Crops Javanese homegardens Kandyan homegardens VAC system Major food crops Rice, maize, coconuts, taro, sweet potato, cassava, yam, ganyong, spinach, wing bean, eggplant, leafy vegetables, etc Rice, maize, green gram, cowpeas, cassava, coconut, jackfruit, sweet potato, taro, yam, juggary and treacle from fish tail palm Major cash crops Coconut, banana, orange, mango, jackfruit, papaya, guava, coffee, clove, etc Cacao, cloves, cocoa, coconut, banana, coffee, jackfruit, mahogany, nutmeg, pepper and other spices, teak, jak and other timber trees, etc Poultry and cattlee: 15% of householders rear livestocka NA Rice, corn, sweet potato, citrus, black bean, cassava, yam, banana, coconut, jackfruit, banana, luffa, orange pomelo, longan, kumquat, spinach Bamboo, pineapple, jackfruit, guava, papaya, banana, lime, orange, pomelo, lychee, pear chilies, kangkon (in the fishpond), etch Buffalo, cow, pig, chicken, duckj Livestock Chickens, cows, goats and sheepg Aquaculture Fishpond as a part of system Wild plant and animal food products Weed species used for herbal medicine, roofing, vegetables, and fodderg Important source of building material e.g., Sandoricum koetjape, crescentia cujete, jack fruit Supplies 40–80% of the rural fuel wood f e.g., Laban, bamboo, muntingia calabura Timber Fuel wood Genetic resources Provides habitat for small wild animals such as birds, reptiles, and amphibians Natural medicines Extracts from medicinal plant provides treatment against various diseases and is consumed as a way of healthy life style Nutrition Supplies 18% calories and 14% proteinsb, and provides vegetable proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals a Pushpakumara et al (2010) Ochse and Terra (1937) c Gunathilake (1994) d Pushpakumara (2000) e Perera and Perera (1997b) f Wiersum (1977) g Soemarwoto et al (1985) h Vien (2003) i Trinh et al (2003) j Luu (2001) b Local breeds of chicken, eggs, goat and cow milkd Supplies 48% of the total sawlog demand of the countryc Supplies 38% of the total biomass fuel demand of the countryc Provides habitat for a wide range of species, from soil micro life to insects, including pollinators, and from crops, trees to mammals, birds, and other wildlifed Most herbs and trees are used medicinallya e.g., Turmeric, ginger, vanilla, areca palm, clove, nutmeg, etc NA Carps, robu, mrigal, mud carp, tilapia (Limited number of case), soft shell turtle, frogs, snakehead fish, and catfishh Guava, vegetables, longan, lychee, chilies, cassava, bamboo i Importance source of building materials and sawlog Block wattle, litchi, guava, Melia azendarach, Casuarina equistifolia, Mangifera, and bambooh Provides habitat for small wild animals such as birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects and plants crops Plenty herbs and medicinal plants used medicinally such as ginger, clove, artemisia, etc NA H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 Such livestock is raised not only to sell or consume but also to use in ceremonies such as weddings or funerals (Trinh et al., 2003) Livestock excretions are also fully utilized to fertilize gardens and fishponds (Luu, 2001) 3.2.1.2 Aquaculture Aquaculture has been considered a main source of food security in terms of consumption and income generation Increasing global and local demand for aquaculture is greater than ever (Ahmed et al., 2002; Muir, 2005) Aquaculture is one of the three functions of the traditional homegarden in Vietnam Total production has been dramatically increased over recent years; as of 2002, its amount was almost triple what it was in 1990 (Vinh, 2005) Although the diversity of species in the pond is quite rich, intensification can be seen especially close to big cities such as Hanoi (Edwards, 2010) Wild plant and animal food products Various weed species have been used as fodder, compost, medicine, and roofing material; a few species are also used as food Considering that 10 very commonly found weed species are known to have medicinal values (Sangat, 1988), weeds may be grown intentionally as useful plant species in Javanese homegardens 3.2.1.3 Fiber Although little research has quantified the importance of fiber produced by Javanese homegardens, this is an important source of fuel and timber for rural households Wiersum′s, 1977 study reflects the importance of homegardens in fulfilling the energy demands of rural households and after years, Simon (1981) reported that Javanese homegardens supply 51–90% of wood fuel to the rural population In Sri Lanka, Kandyan homegardens are considered the single most important source of fiber in non-forested land (Gunathilake, 1994) The Kandyan homegardens also help in preventing deforestation by providing forest products (Pushpakumara, 2000) In Vietnam, the northern mountainous areas mainly have a VAC system combined with forestry Timber products are the primary goods sold, but the region also has a small (and diminishing) lacquer industry 3.2.1.4 Genetic resource The high species diversity of the homegardens is a potential genetic resource for a variety of plants and for future breeding programs to increase the quality and quantity of agricultural production (Soemarwoto, 1980; Karyono, 1981) However, very little inventory work has been done to determine the importance of homegardens as a genetic resource; these studies are limited to a few from West Java In Sri Lanka, many of the endemic species found in these gardens are generic to the nontimber forests For example, Caryota urens (kithul as it is known in the local Sinhala language) is used to make alcoholic beverages, jaggery, and a myriad other products with reasonably established markets (Gunatilleke et al., 1993) In Vietnam, homegardens play a significant role in conserving indigenous species and rare plants that are often dismissed as a result of development-induced changes in land use (Trinh et al 2003) 3.2.1.5 Natural Medicine Homegardens are an important source of production and in situ conservation of medicinal plants (Rao and Rao, 2006) but relatively little data is available on the extent of medicinal products used, extracted, and sold from homegardens Some of the deliberately planted species have exclusively medicinal values, while other multipurpose species combine medicinal values with food or spice value Although the economic values of the medicinal plants in homegardens are not exploited, they are widely used within the family and community for medicinal purposes (Rao and Rao, 2006) For example, Kubota et al., 1992 reported 26 medicinal species in homegardens of Java and in Kandyan homegardens, medicinal plants are recognized as the second most important resource (Perera and e131 Perera, 1997a) For example, the bark of cinnamon is used medicinally for treating diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting in Sri Lanka and Indonesia (Rao and Rao, 2006) Medicinal plants are also important and widely used in Vietnam According to Trinh et al (2003), diversity of medicinal plants in a garden is higher than others, including vegetables and fruits 3.2.1.6 Nutrition Homegardens play a key role in providing nutritional and food security to households by ensuring a steady supply of necessary vegetable proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals (Abdoellah, 1985), particularly during lean periods when other food supplies are inadequate In Indonesia, studies have shown that rice fields provide higher yields of protein and calories, while homegardens provide more calcium and vitamins and a portion of the of calories and proteins consumed by an entire village (Ochse and Terra, 1937) Kandyan homegardens play a pivotal role in providing low-cost food and ensuring nutritional intake, with direct access and a steady supply owing to the mix of crops they contain, including vegetables, fruits, and others (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) Although yields fluctuate throughout the year, there is usually something to harvest in a Kandyan homegarden (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) The VAC system also plays a significant role in providing nutrients With higher productivity of the VAC products, many families now have incomes almost 15 times higher than they would from rice farming, simply because the increased protein and vitamins make meals more versatile and nourishing (Nguyen, 1997) 3.2.2 Regulating services Recent studies on ecosystem services and environmental benefits of the agroforestry system highlighted various regulating services that it offers (Jose, 2009; Rao et al., 2007) Regulating services include functions such as sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere, soil erosion regulation, waste treatment, water purification, pest regulation and pollination, all of which help in maintaining a sustainable supply of many provisioning services provided by homegardens 3.2.2.1 Climate regulation The multilayered plant canopies in homegarden systems have the potential to regulate the climate on a local and global scale On the local level, the dense vertical structure of trees helps in controlling microclimatic conditions by influencing the air temperature, radiation flux, soil moisture, or wind speed and maintaining an ambient temperature (Rao et al., 2007) Apart from the beneficial effects of homegardens in moderating and ameliorating the microclimatic conditions, homegardens play an important role in macroclimate regulation through carbon sequestration The woody biomass of this speciesrich and highly diverse land use system provides products for subsistence and commercial purposes and offers potential for carbon storage In regard to climate change, the important regulating service offered by homegardens on a global scale is the mitigation of CO2 emission by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere A study by Roshetko et al., 2002 reported that carbon stock stored by Javanese homegardens in their above-ground biomass is equivalent to secondary forests of similar age in the same area The author also suggests that the homegarden system has a substantially higher aboveground carbon stock than that of vastly degraded and underutilized land such as Imperata cassava systems in Indonesia (Roshetko et al., 2002) Thus, homegardens have the potential to allow a trade-off between carbon stored and profitability that benefits the small farmer through Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects e132 H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 Tropical forest homegarden like Kandyan homegarden has a great potential of carbon storage as it makes a mosaic with natural forest and having multi-layered trees (Kumar, 2005; Pushpakumara et al., 2012) Mattsson et al (2009) suggested that Sri Lankan homegardens have high potential for small-scale afforestation or reforestation (A/R) projects under the CDM that allow bundling of individual small plots Of the Kandyan homegardens, 85% use no inorganic fertilizers, potentially serving as a model for successful production without harming nature (Szott and Kass, 1993) Kandyan homegardens provide 31% of the vegetation cover of the entire district, complementing the 17% provided by natural forests, which is below the national average of 21% (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) For the Vietnamese case, very little studies have investigated on the relationship between VAC system and climate regulation (Leisz et al., 2007; To et al., 2012) Leisz et al (2007) report that VAC system especially with forestry has greater potential for the carbon storage The Vietnamese government has established working groups for CDM projects and the CDM National Executive and Consultative Board (CNECB) under the International Cooperation Department of Vietnam Most ongoing CDM projects are related to hydropower, but in 64 of 83 projects, attempts have been made to use the project for forestry and greenhouse gas (GHG) (Department of Meteorology, Hydrology and Climate Change, 2011) A study has been conducted on the effects of land use change on GHG emission in the northern mountainous area of Vietnam Although cultivation is not permitted on sloping forestland, various farming activities shift cultivation to what is often considered forestry Government policy has prohibited swidden and fallow cultivation and has promoted permanent cultivation Many of these projects have been transformed into the VAC system combined with forestry However, according to the study, shifts in land use system such as the swidden farming- to homegardenbased system, have negative effects because livestock activities, rice cultivation, and other agricultural activities requiring the use of fossil fuel actually increase GHG (Leisz et al., 2007) 3.2.2.2 Erosion regulation One of the most important ecological functions provided by homegardens is the regulation of soil erosion The low rate of erosion is achieved because of high species diversity, multilayered canopy structure, and a thick layer of litter with dense root architecture that guards the soil against the erosive force of raindrops (Torquebiau, 1992) Moreover, homegardens are not harvested completely, thus keeping the erosion rate low (Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999) Although soil erosion is widespread in Sri Lanka, especially in the wet zone, homegardens erode only 0.05 t À year À 1, which is comparable to natural forests and usually less than 1% of the annual cultivation systems (Wagachchii and Wiersum (1997); Pushpakumara et al., 2010) 3.2.2.3 Waste treatment and water purification The VAC system is known as a recycling system; home waste, garden, pond, and livestock pens are all well connected and designed to utilize any waste from each homegarden component Besides being sold and consumed, vegetables from the garden are used as feed for fish and livestock Excretory substances from humans and animals are utilized as manure in vegetable and fruit gardens Ponds, gardens, toilets, and livestock pens are usually linked through pipelines (Ueda, 1996) These wastes are also optimized to generate electricity through a biodigester Biogas plants have been promoted by various organizations and initiatives According to Bodganski et al (2010), the gardening association VACVINA has installed 1000 biogas plants and trained technicians in the Thanh Hoa province In the extended territory of the Kandyan gardens, such as in the Badulla district, ponds that regulate water flow and offer various services can be found; these are called buffalo ponds in Sri Lanka (Wagachchii and Wiersum, 1997) 3.2.2.4 Pest regulation and pollination In homegardens, traditional management practices using livestock are used to control pests For example, in Java, peanuts are planted near the house to attract insects so that chickens can find and eat them easily Similarly, birds and ducks are used to control insects (McConnell, 2003) Although many authors have suggested that high species diversity and intimate plant associations also minimize the risk of pests and diseases in homegardens in comparison with monocropping, there is no scientific evidence or research on the pest-regulating services provided by homegardens Although animals often not play an important economic role in homegarden systems, they are essential for various biological processes such as pollination, natural hybridization, and seed dispersal For example, Kandyan homegardens often provide habitats for small mammals, birds, bats, and insects, all of which play an important role in pollination and seed dispersal (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) Mendis et al (1985) investigated the bee pasturage potential in two Kandyan homegardens and found that the number of bee foraging plant species accounted for 37.5% of the total number recorded from the study areas In the two Kandyan homegardens, Cocos nucifera (coconut) and Falcataria moluccana (Albizia moluccana) were identified as the most important sources of pollen and nectar, respectively, while many economically important species such as Swietenia macrophylla (mahogany), Melia dubia (lunumidella), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), Artocarpus spp (jack and breadfruit), Mangifera indica (mango), Persea gratissima (avocado), Coffea arabica (coffee), and Camellia sinensis (tea) were also identified as important bee plants (Mendis et al., 1985) Because of a lack of research focusing on this aspect of homegardens, it is difficult to assess the significance of homegardens in the overall process of pollination in Javanese homegarden and VAC systems 3.2.3 Cultural services Studies have shown that culture strongly influences the selection of plants cultivated in homegardens In Javanese homegardens, medicinal plants, used to treat and protect against diseases for a healthy life, are more than just vegetable plants In contrast, more vegetables and ornamentals are planted in Sudanese homegardens to suit people′s food and visual preferences; the people also prefer neat gardens (Mazumdar and Mazumdar, 2012) Terra (1954) concluded that intensive homegardening is found in matrilineal societies Homegardens also play an important social role in Javanese community life Every homegarden has a clear patch shaded by tall trees so children can play and elders can interact during their free time The gardens are also an important social status symbol (Ahmad et al., 1980) Traditional homegardens are generally bounded by a living fence of shrubs or small trees that allow easy access to fetch water, collect medicinal plants, and pass through There is no concept of trespassing, thus homegardens help enhance the community′s social network In addition, the traditional concept of Rukun Tetangga (neighborhood) allows free sharing of homegarden products among relatives and neighbors, thereby fostering equitability within the community′s social fabric Kandyan gardens serve as a place for intra-family interaction, since outside labor is minimally used They also provide a place for exchanges in rural villages For example, the available garden in the village may serve as a medicinal output to the needy In addition, they offer a place to meet, for children to play, and for other small social gatherings, such as neighbors visiting to check other′s well-being Kandyan homegardens have exploited tourism H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 by introducing tourists to spice gardens having unusual species, local herbs, or medicinal plants However, tourism has not been developed in the homegardens of Java, despite the great potential there for agro-tourism For VAC farming, cultural value is significant for most Vietnamese farmers In general, farmers had little choice in decision making before the Doi Moi renovation, for instance, in selecting which plants to grow On the other hand, a homegarden is primarily the household′s choice, although some communes have a policy to undertake certain farming activities Some fruit species, such as palm fruit, vine, and lime, are culturally important for rural populations These products are often used for festivals and weddings The Vietnamese New Year (Tet), is one of the country′ s biggest festivals and the fruits used for this celebration are determined by the types cultivated by the homegardener (Trinh et al., 2003) 3.2.4 Supporting services 3.2.4.1 Nutrient cycling and soil formation Tropical forests are sustainable because of the dynamics of litter production, decomposition, and the subsequent bioelement release that also occurs in a Javanese homegarden having greater litter fall than a typical forest (Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999) Thus, the homegarden system is a sustainable approach to improve soil fertility by nutrient cycling and maintaining organic matter, carbon content, and soil structure This issue is in need of attention by the scientific community to carry out field studies and coordinated research to highlight the importance of homegarden systems in nutrient cycling and soil formation 3.3 Biodiversity In order to understand the factors contributing to the biodiversity of homegardens, the resilience and evolution of the system itself have to be studied (Galluzzi et al., 2010) However, conservation of biodiversity in tropical landscapes could be accomplished through agroforestry systems, since it has largely ignored homegardens (Webb and Enamul, 2009) A study by Soemarwoto and Conway (1992) reported that 78 bird species were observed in Javanese homegardens, and 13 of them were protected species However, a detailed inventory list and studies focusing on the biodiversity of homegardens are lacking in Indonesia Many endangered species that are diminishing in other areas of Indonesia tend to be protected in homegardens In addition, many seeds and crops imported from other countries have been adapted for cultivation in most areas of the country Apart from providing key ecosystem services, Kandyan homegardens are habitat for a large range of flora and fauna, thereby connecting agriculture with the natural landscape and thus helping conserve biodiversity against the risk of population fragmentation and the need for gene flow, species dispersal, and migration increase (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) They are germplasm repositories of numerous species (Pushpakumara, 2000) and are important for ex situ conservation of germplasm by providing a gene bank The presence of high fruit tree diversity, various niche specialization, feeding materials, nest specialization, and a very low level of disturbances (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) enable high faunal diversity in Kandyan homegardens In these gardens, Hitinayake and Ekanayake (1999) recorded 12 mammal species belonging to five orders and seven families; and a total of 35 birds belonging to five orders and 14 families, including five endemic species In Vietnam, Vlkova et al (2011) surveyed agrodiversity and found out over 70 different plant species in a commune in the central Vietnam, which depends on the size of each unit South Vietnamese e133 homegardeners, well known for traditionally growing a variety of fruits, have tree selection procedures and distinguishable layouts for their homegardens (Nguyen, 1995) According to (Trinh et al., 2003), although some trends of monoculture are seen in VAC farms, their level of biodiversity remains high in most places Discussion 4.1 Drivers of change in homegarden systems Homegardens are dynamic and capable of responding to socioeconomic changes resulting from rural transformation and diversification of the rural livelihood (Peyre et al., 2006) Wiersum (2006) stated that commercialization is leading to a more specialized cultivation system and generating more primary production activities for rural populations, resulting in changes in the farming and homegarden systems In order to adapt to these socioeconomic changes, the subsistence-oriented homegardens are increasingly becoming more commercially oriented Although the impacts of such changes differ by region and depend on the intensity of rural or urban transformation and socioeconomic changes, the homegardens are showing different trends in development According to Wiersum (2006), the main trends are an extension in the overall size of homegardens and changes in their structure and composition because of increasing commercialization The drivers of change are primarily socioeconomic factors, commercialization, population growth, change in the farming system, scientific innovations in the health care sector, introduction of invasive alien plant species, inheritance, urbanization, climate change, over-exploitation, and pollution External market demand has led to cash crop production and monoculture, which affect species diversity Therefore, the structure of homegardens, which plays an important role in various provisioning and regulating features, is being affected Scientific innovation in the healthcare sector strongly impacts the usage and validity of traditional medicinal plants in homegardens (Kumar and Nair, 2004) The outcome of commercialization is increased production, which is obtained by additional inputs in the form of pesticides and fertilizers This consequently changes a system defined as “low yield, low input, and low risk” to a system of “high yield, high input, and high risk” (Soemarwoto and Conway, 1992) Commercialization is also disrupting the social services of homegardens as well as the village′s social fabric by reducing equitability and causing fences to be installed around the homestead to protect cash crops (Abdoellah et al., 2006) Another threat to the traditional homegarden is the intentional and unintentional introduction of invasive plant species such as Acacia spp., Eucalyptus spp., Mimosa invisa, Mikania micrantha, and Calliandra calothyrsus (Richardson et al., 2004; Kumar and Nair, 2006) Exchange of seeds through botanical gardens has been a primary mode of deliberate introduction of alien plant species into a country or ecosystem (Marambe et al., 2003) Similarly, seed exchange among homegardens may be a major source of alien plant species’ expansion Spread of aggressive exotics along with structural changes in rural bioproduction systems could reduce floristic diversity in the homegarden (Kumar and Nair, 2006) Population growth is an indirect driver causing land use changes such as the fragmentation of landholding, which leads to a decline in the average size of homegardens, thereby decreasing income and forcing farmers to seek employment elsewhere (Christanty et al., 1986) In addition, because of urbanization, homegarden areas are reduced to catering to the housing demand In this manner, the stable and sustainable system providing various ecosystem services is now being threatened by various e134 H Mohri et al / Ecosystem Services (2013) e124–e136 human-induced drivers that directly and indirectly affect the services offered by homegardens As Lewis (1954) argued, inequity is often led by a shift from traditional farming activities to modern sectors In Vietnam, rapid economic growth, expansion of markets, population growth and societal changes have created social and economic inequities, especially between urban and rural areas Social and economic inequities in the country have led farmers to choose non-farming activities and abandon their farmlands and homegardens Moreover, recent changes in consumption and the demand-supply relationship as a consequence of industrialization also influence rural farming activities (Mergenthaler et al., 2009; Nguyen and Winters, 2011; Nguyen, 2011) Climate change is also considered a significant and additional threat to homegarden systems (Pushpakumara et al., 2010) Many farmers in the three study countries recognized some recent changes in rainfall pattern, temperature, sea level and extreme events such as floods and drought on a local scale, but scientific assessment of the climate change impact on homegarden systems has not yet been conducted In addition to climate change, other direct drivers such as over exploitation and pollution (MA, 2005) may have a negative impact on ecosystem services from homegarden systems 4.2 Homegarden studies and global initiatives Various publications on homegarden systems have assessed their ecological and economical values These studies can be found throughout different parts of the world, although research on this topic remains insufficient (Kumar and Nair, 2004) Moreover, most of the studies focus on ecological structure or a specific ecosystem service in a particular study area Only a limited number of studies take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by homegardens on a regional scale In recent studies, the importance of traditional knowledge and technology is also recognized by various international initiatives such as Satoyama Initiatives, The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and more The Globally Important Agriculture Heritage System (GIAHS) initiated by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) points out that traditional technology and practice have evolved in many parts of the world and these farming systems have overcome rigorous local environmental and historical climate changes (Koohafkan and Altieri, 2011) An international platform, the Satoyama Initiative officially adopted at the 10th meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP10) in 2010, aims to “promote and support socioecological production landscapes to maintain their contribution to human well-being (Satoyama Initiative, 2010).” The initiative focuses on “integrating traditional ecological knowledge and modern science to promote innovations” (Ministry of Environment, Government of Japan, 2010) as one main approach towards building a sustainable society The diversity and multifunctionality of the homegarden system play an important role in providing general resilience against climate and ecosystem change General resilience is described as a system or function that rises from significant impact, particularly one “coping with uncertainty in all ways” (Folke et al., 2010) This can be distinguished from specific resilience that is more specialized on a specific event or disturbance (Carpenter et al., 2001; Folke et al., 2010) Conclusion This comprehensive study on the traditional homegardens in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam was performed by means of literature review, field observation, and a set of professional workshops along the MA framework Nearly 100 relevant articles were collected and examined for this study, although literature or information on homegardens and their ecosystem services are still considerably inadequate for evaluating the complete picture of efficacy, particularly in regard to global changes Moreover, most studies focus on ecological structure or a specific ecosystem service in a particular study area Only a limited number of studies take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by homegardens on a regional scale According to this review, homegardens have many functions: as a source of income, place for communication, and a means of conserving traditional culture, biodiversity, and agrodiversity On the basis of the review of garden components in the study areas, such as spatial layout, temporal or spatial scales, and diversity or functions, we conclude that characteristics and functions of homegardens differ both on a regional and local level within each system In the study areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam, traditional homegardens still exist even after recent socioeconomic changes and the impact of other types of change These homegardens maintain high ecosystem diversity and provide several ecosystem services One of the main challenges in the future will be to integrate such traditional homegardens with modern technology and the global economy to enhance the system′s resilience Recently there is an attempt to promote products of homegarden farmers in Kandy to the international market by getting international certifications such as EU organic and USDA National Organic Programme Further empirical research is also required for evaluating the contribution of the homegarden system for providing resilience against climate and ecosystem changes Various recent global initiatives, such as the Satoyama Initiative, may become a strong force for encouraging more scientific communities to investigate small and middle scale socioecological production systems such as traditional homegardens in different parts of the world Acknowledgments We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our collaborative institutes, University of Peradeniya, Gadjah Mada University, and Vietnam National University for supporting a project on “Strategy to enhance resilience to climate and ecosystem changes utilizing traditional bio-production systems in rural Asia” The review study was carried out as part of the project and would like to thank the Ministry of the Environment, Japan for financial support References Abdoellah, O S., 1985., Homegardens in Java and their future development Paper Presented in the International Workshop on Tropical Homegardens Held at the Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University, and Bandung, Indonesia December 2–9, 1985 Abdoellah, O.S., Parikesit, G., Gunawan, B., Hadikusumah, H.Y., 2001 Homegardens in the 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