Introduction To Flight (Third Edition) by John D. Anderson, Jr.

INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT McGraw-Hill Series in Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering John D Anderson, Jr., University of Maryland Consulting Editor Fundamentals of Aerodynamics Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics Introduction to Flight Modern Compressible Flow: With Historical Perspective D'Azzo and Houpis: Linear Control System Analysis and Design Kane, Likins and Levinson: Spacecraft Dynamics Nelson: Flight Stability and Automatic Control Peery and Azar: Aircraft Structures Rivello: Theory and Analysis of Flight Structures Schlichting: Boundary Layer Theory White: Viscous Fluid Flow Wiesel: Spaceflight Dynamics Anderson: Anderson: Anderson: Anderson: Also available from McGraw-Hill Schaum's Outline Series in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Each outline includes basic theory, definitions and hundreds of solved problems and supplementary problems with answers Current List Includes: Acoustics Basic Equations of Engineering Continuum Mechanics Engineering Economics Engineering Mechanics, 4th edition Fluid Dynamics Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Heat Trans/er Introduction to Engineering Calculations Lagrangian Dynamics Machine Design Mechanical Vibrations Operations Research Strength of Materials, 2d edition Theoretical Mechanics Thermodynamics Available at Your College Bookstore INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT Third Edition John D Anderson, Jr Professor of Aerospace Engineering University of Maryland McGraw-Hill Book Company New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Colorado Springs Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Oklahoma City Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto This book was set in Times Roman by Science Typographers, Inc The editors were Anne T Brown, Lyn Beamesderfer, and Scott Amerman; the production supervisor was Salvador Gonzales The cover was designed by Nicholas Krenitsky R R Donnelley & Sons Company was printer and binder Cover Photograph Credits The Wright Brothers- The Bettmann Archive The Space Shuttle Columbia-NASA INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT Copyright© 1989, 1985, 1978 by McGraw-Hill, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher 234567890 ISBN DOC DOC 8932109 0-07-001641-0 ISBN 0-07-001641-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Anderson, John David Introduction to flight/ John D Anderson, Jr. 3rd ed p cm. (McGraw-Hill series in aeronautical and aerospace engineering) Includes bibliographies and index ISBN 0-07-001641-0 Aerodynamics Airplanes Design and construction I Title II Series TL570.A68 1989 88-20988 629.l dcl9 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr John D Anderson, Jr was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on October 1, 1937 He attended the University of Florida, graduating in 1959 with high honors and a Bachelor of Aeronautical Engineering Degree From 1959 to 1962, he was a Lieutenant and Task Scientist at the Aerospace Research Laboratory at WrightPatterson Air Force Base From 1962 to 1966, he attended the Ohio State University under the National Science Foundation and NASA Fellowships, graduating with a Ph.D in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering In 1966 he joined the U.S Naval Ordnance Laboratory as Chief of the Hypersonic Group In 1973, he became Chairman of the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Maryland, and since 1980 has been professor of Aerospace Engineering at Maryland In 1982, he was designated a Distinguished Scholar/Teacher by the university During 1986-1987, while on sabbatical from the university, Dr Anderson occupied the Charles Lindbergh chair at the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution Dr Anderson has published five books: Gasdynamic Lasers: An Introduction, Academic Press (1976), and with McGraw-Hill, Introduction to Flight, 2d edition (1985), * Modern Compressible Flow (1982), Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (1984), and Hypersonics and High Temperature Gas Dynamics (1989) He is the author of over 80 papers in radiative gasdynamics, re-entry aerothermodynamics, gasdynamic and chemical lasers, computational fluid dynamics, applied aerodynamics, and hypersonic flow Dr Anderson is in Who's Who in America, and is a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics He is also a Fellow of the Washington Academy of Sciences, and a member of Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Tau, Phi Kappa Phi, Phi Eta Sigma, The American Society for Engineering Education, and the American Physical Society *3d edition (1989) To Sarah-Allen, Katherine, AND Elizabeth Anderson, FOR ALL THEIR LOVE AND UNDERSTANDING CONTENTS Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the First Edition Chapter The First Aeronautical Engineers 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 Introduction Very Early Developments Sir George Cayley (1773-1857)-The True Inventor of the Airplane The Interregnum-From 1853 to 1891 Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896)-The Glider Man Percy Pilcher (1867-1899)-Extending the Glider Tradition Aeronautics Comes to America Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-1948) WrightInventors of the First Practical Airplane The Aeronautical Triangle-Langley, the Wrights, and Glenn Curtiss The Problem of Propulsion Faster and Higher Chapter Summary Chapter Fundamental Thoughts 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas A Pressure B Density c Temperature D Flow Velocity and Streamlines The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces Equation of State for a Perfect Gas Discussion on Units Specific Volume Historical Note: The NACA and NASA Chapter Summary xv xvii 1 12 17 19 20 26 35 44 45 48 50 50 51 52 53 53 56 57 59 63 64 67 ix X CONTENTS Chapter 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Chapter 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 The Standard Atmosphere Definition of Altitude The Hydrostatic Equation Relation between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes Definition of the Standard Atmosphere Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes Historical Note: The Standard Atmosphere Chapter Summary Basic Aerodynamics 4.25 The Continuity Equation Incompressible and Compressible Flow The Momentum Equation A Comment Elementary Thermodynamics Isentropic Flow The Energy Equation Summary of Equations The Speed of Sound Low-Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels Measurement of Airspeed A Incompressible Flow B Subsonic Compressible Flow c Supersonic Flow D Summary Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket Engines Discussion on Compressibility Introduction to Viscous Flow Results for a Laminar Boundary Layer Results for a Tubulent Boundary Layer Transition Flow Separation Summary of Viscous Effects on Drag Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler Historical Note: The Pitot Tube Historical Note: The First Wind Tunnels Historical Note: Osborne Reynolds and His Number Historical Note: Prandtl and the Development of the Boundary Layer Concept Chapter Summary Chapter Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Introduction Airfoil Nomenclature Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients Airfoil Data Infinite versus Finite Wings Pressure Coefficient Obtaining Lift Coefficient from CP 69 70 71 72 74 79 80 82 84 85 86 88 92 93 98 101 103 104 109 112 115 118 122 126 126 132 133 141 144 146 149 154 154 156 159 165 169 172 178 178 179 182 186 192 194 197 602 INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT 3.6 3.2 28 c.4 2.0 1:11'111 ~ikl 1.6 ,., 'i' I I J l J!ll'lf'! J , - I , , i3 y V""' ' -1.2 l \ t l ~ L, -1.6 -.5 -20 -Jt? ·24 -16 -8 Section onqle of' attack, « , de9 NACA 65-006 Wing Section 16 24 AIRFOIL DATA a16 i a au I \ I \ \ -.2 a ,' "' Oltl 1.0 tr/c 024 - c: I 91 u ~.016 ~ \ \ u 8' '' -6 012 c: ~\) I A \ ~Loos ,I.lo "' _) "l\.,r-., r ~ l "'1'< I , =ii - er; D'~ ioJ ~ \ '1:11 - r J 1111:1 standard roughness 0.20c simu/ofed split flap deflected 60" V 6.0 I I I I I I I 6.0 Standard rouqhness R -.5 -us -1.2 -.8 -.4 Section /iff coefficienf, e, N ACA 65-006 Wing Section (Continued) 8' /.2 1.6 603 604 INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT J.6 3.2 28 l'.4 2.0 - "''12 1.6 ~7 '.1 ~ p I I , ,~ ~ ~.}, I I kl I J » tJ A ll y 'I • ,, ) 0 ~ r ,> J ~ :) -" -.I -.4 "" -.8 v' ~ ·\/} 008 'I \ ~ 1.-1 004 ~ I ir 1- ~ "' '"' vr- :i~ ,., ,,, "' ·Ir ) ~ "' ,,-r ~"',, ~lo'-J 1~ J;J ~ ~""" "V - - -.1 a.c position R o 3.0xt(' 6.0 9.0 A 6.0 ~s -1.6 -1.2 -.8 -.018 -.o::: .Standard rouqhnes~ f!ap deflected a20c- simulated s("'.f {j.0 17' 6.0 V z~yk 262 -:004 26 26 I : tor,,, lard I I I -, • ·- w I s -.4 Section lift coefficient, c, NACA 65-009 Wing Section (Continueci) !J 1.2 1.6 605 INDEX 607 INDEX Absolute angle of attack, 367-368 Absolute ceiling, 297-300 Absolute viscosity, 136 Adiabatic process, 98 Advance ratio, 478 Adverse pressure gradient, 150 A.E.A (Aerial Experiment Association), 38-41 AEDC (Arnold Engineering Development Center), 164 Aerial Experiment Association (A.E.A.), 38-41 Aerial steam carriage, 13 Aerodromes, 22-25, 35, 43 Aerodynamic center, 181, 366 Aerodynamic forces: drag: definition of, 180 form, 154 induced, 154, 217-222 pressure, 149, 214 profile, 154, 215 skin friction, 135, 214 total, 220, 260 wave, 209-214 effect of separation on, 153 lift, definition of, 180 source, 56-57 · on spheres and cylinders, 231-235 Aerodynamic heating, 448-455 Aerodynamics, definiton of, 51 Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 14, 16 AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics), 16 Ailerons, 360, 405 Airfoil( s): history of, 238-243 laminar flow, 140 supercritical, 208-209 Airfoil data, 186-192, 577-605 Airfoil nomenclature, 179-182 Airplane axes, 359 Airplane performance, definition of, 259 Airspeed (see Measurement of airspeed) Aldrin, Edwin E., Jr., 471 Altitude: absolute, 70 of airplanes, 47 density, 79 geometric, 70 geopotential, 72 relation between it and geometric, 72-73 pressure, 79 standard (see Standard atmosphere) American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), 16 American Rocket Society, 16 Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, 66, 161, 163 Angle of attack, 180 absolute, 367-368 effective, 218 geometric, 218 induced, 218 trim, 369-3 70 zero lift, 186 Apogee, 433 Apollo spacecraft, 413 ARDC 1959 Standard Atmosphere (see Standard atmosphere) Area-velocity relation, 127 Armstrong, Neil A., 471 Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC), 164 Aspect ratio, 193 Atmosphere: exponential, 439 standard (see Standard atmosphere) Balance for stability, 372 Ballistic parameter, 441 609 610 INDEX Bell, Alexander G., 38, 41 Bernoulli, Daniel, 154-156 Bernoulli, Johann, 154-156 Bernoulli's equation, 91, 104 Boulton, M P W., 405 Boundary layer: definition of, 134 laminar flow results, 141-144 shear stress in, 135, 136, 139, 142 skin friction, 135, 142-145 thickness, 135, 141, 145 transition, 146-149 tripping of, 234 turbulent flow results, 144-146 velocity profile, 136, 138 Breguet, Louis-Charles, 346 Breguet endurance formula, 308 Breguet range formula, 307 Busemannn, A., 163, 249 Camber, 179 Canard configuration, 373-374 Cayley, George, 6-12, 20, 159, 178, 179, 238, 344,403, 347-348, 517 Ceiling: absolute, 297-300 service, 297-300 Center of gravity, 367 Chanute, Octave, 20-21, 25, 27, 345 Chord, 179 Chord line, 179 Circulation, 236 Coefficient( s): critical pressure, 201-205 drag (see Drag coefficient) lift (see Lift coefficient) maximum lift, 187, 230 moment, 185 (see also Moments) pressure (see Pressure coefficient) Collins, Michael, 471 Compressible flow: criteria for, 132-133 definition of, 86-88 Continuity equation, 85-88 for compressible flow, 86 for incompressible flow, 87 Control, definition of, 365 Convective heating, 454 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 460 Comer velocity, 333 Cowling, 341-342 Critical Mach number, 201-205 Critical pressure coefficient, 201-205 Curtiss, Glenn, 34-44 Daedalus, Greek myth of, d'Alembert's paradox, 134, 153, 232 da Vinci, Leonardo, 4, 159 Density, definition of, 52 Density altitude, 79 Diehl, Walter S., 81-82 Dimensional analysis, 142, 182-186 Directional controls, 361 Downwash, 216, 378 Drag (see Aerodynamic forces, drag) Drag coefficient: definition of, 185 induced, 217-222 parasite, 260 skin friction, 142, 145 for supersonic flow, 213 (See also Aerodynamic forces) Drag polar, 220-221, 260, 345, 349 Durand, William F.: propeller research, experimentation with, 516 work with NACA, 65 Du Temple, Felix, 14, 15 Dynamic pressure, 115-116 Dynamic stability, 363-365 Eccentricity (see Orbit equation) Effective angle of attack, 218 Eiffel, Gustave, 161, 239, 345 Elevator, 360 Elevator control effectiveness, 391 Elevator hinge moment, 397-399 Elliptical wing, 219-220 Endurance: jet airplane, 310-315 propeller-driven airplane, 302-310 Energy equation, 102 Bernoulli's equation, 104 general discusson of, 101-103 INDEX Energy height, 335 Energy method, 334-340 Enthalpy, 95 Entropy, 98, 536 Entropy layer, 535 Equation(s): of motion, 261-264 for climb, 288 for static performance, 263 of state, 57-59 Escape (parabolic) velocity, 429 Euler, Leonard, 154-156 Euler's equation, 90 Expansion wave, 212-213 Explorer I, 468-469 Exponential atmosphere, 439 Farman, Henri, 357, 358 Fillet, 342-344 Finite wing, 192-194, 216-225 First law of thermodynamics, 94 Flaps, 229-231 Flow separation (see Separated flow) Freestream conditions, 137 Friction (see Shear stress) Gagarin, Yuri A., 470 Gas constant: specific, 58 universal, 509 Geometric angle of attack, 218 Gibbs-Smith, Charles H., 10, 15, 18 Glenn, John H., 470 Glide, 294-297 Goddard, Robert H., 469 Gravitational constant, 420 Gravity, center of, 367 Ground effect, 320 Ground roll: for landing, 325 for takeoff, 322 Halley, Edmund, 463 Hallion, Richard, 252 Heating: aerodynamic, 448-455 convective, 454 radiative, 454-455 611 Heinke!, Ernst, 520 Henson, William Samuel, 13, 20, 259, 405 High-temperature effects, 537 Hodograph, 290, 291 Hydrostatic equation, 71- 72 Hypersonic airplanes, 548-555 Hypersonic flow, definition of, 108, 533-542 Incompressible flow: definition of, 86-88 measurement of, 115-118 Induced angle of attack, 218 Induced drag, 154, 217-222 Infinite wing, 186, 192-194 Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, 16 Internal combustion engine (see Reciprocating engines) Internal energy, 93 Inviscid flow, definition of, 90 Isentropic flow: equations for: flow, 120 general, 100, 104 general discussion of, 98-101 Isentropic process, 98 Jet engine: altitude effects, 499 combustor, 496, 497 compressors, 496, 497 diffuser, 496, 497 general discussion of, 280 history of, 520-522 nozzle, 496, 497 p-v diagrams, 498 ramjet, 502-506 rotors, 496 SCRAMjet, 505-506 stators, 496 thrust equations, 491-495 turbine, 496, 497 turbofan, 499-501 turbojet, 495-499 turboprop, 500 Joukowski, Nikolai, 159 612 INDEX Kepler, Johann, 432, 459-461 Kepler's laws: derivation of, 432-436 first, 432 second, 433 third, 435 Kilogram, 60 Kutta condition, 237 Kutta-Joukowsky theorem, 237 Lagrange, Joseph L., 464 Lagrange's equations, 416-419 Lagrangian function, 418-419 Laminar flow: boundary layers, 141-144 definition of, 137 velocity profiles, 138 Laminar flow airfoils, 140 Lanchester, Frederick W., 244 Landing performance, 324-326 Langley, Samuel Pierpont, 21-26, 35-36, 42-43 Langley Memorial Aeronautical Research Laboratory, 65-66, 161, 249 Lateral controls, 361 Laval, Carl G P de, 163, 249 Laval nozzles, 163 Leading edge, 179, 181 Lewis Engirie Research Laboratory, 66, 519 Lift, definition of, 180 Lift coefficient: compressibility correction for, 200 definition of, 184 from pressure coefficient, 197-200 for supersonic flow, 213 (See also Aerodynamic forces) Lift distribution, 219 Lift slope, 186-187, 222-226 Lift-to-drag ratio, 265, 266 Lilienthal, Otto, 17-19 Load factor, 328 Longitudinal controls, 361 Longitudinal static stability, 369-374 Mach, Ernst, 159, 245-248 Mach, Ludwig, 159 Mach angle, 211 Mach number: critical, 201-209 definition of, 108 drag-divergence, 205-209 Mach wave, 210-211 Maneuver point, 333 Manly, Charles, 22-24 Manometer, 111-112 Mass flow: definition of, 85 equation for, 86, 510 Maximum lift coefficient, 187, 230 Mean camber line, 179 Measurement of airspeed: calibrated, 121 equivalent, 118 general discussion of, 112-115 incompressible flow, 115-118 subsonic compressible flow, 118-122 supersonic flow, 122-126 true, 117 Mercury spacecraft, 471 Moment coefficient, definition of, 185 (See also Moments) Moments: about aerodynamic center, 181 definition of, 180-182 about leading edge, 181 about quarter-chord point, 181 Momentum equation: general discussion of, 88-91 for inncompressible flow, 91 for inviscid flow, 90 Montgolfier, Etienne, 4, 20 Montgolfier, Joseph, 4, 20 Mozhaiski, Alexander F., 14, 15 Munk, Max, 244 NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics), 64-67 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 64-67 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), 64-67 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 64-67 National Physical Laboratory, 161, 239 Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 163 INDEX Neutral point, 386-387 Newton, Isaac, 169, 461-464 Newton (unit), 60 Newtonian law, 542 Nozzles: jet engine, 497-498 rocket engine, 129 subsonic, 109-110, 127, 128 supersonic, 127-130 throat for, 128 Oberth, Hermann, 469 Orbit, period of, 435 Orbit equation, 419-425 apogee, 433 circular (orbital) velocity, 428 derivation,421-424 eccentricity, 425 equation,424 parabolic (escape) velocity, 429 paths, types of, 426 perigee, 433 trajectories, 426 Orbital (circular) velocity, 428 Ornithopters, 4, 178 Oswald efficiency factor, 261 Otto, Nikolaus A., 44, 518 Otto cycle, 482-485 Parameter, ballistic, 441 Penaud, Alphonse,403-404 Perfect gas, 57-59 Perigee, 433 Period of orbit, 435 Phillips, Horatio F., 159, 238-239 Pilcher, Percy, 19-20 Pitch, 360 Pitch angle, 476 Pitching moment, total, 382-383, 392 Pitot, Henri, 156-157 Pitot tube, 114-125, 156-158 Pound force, 60 Pound mass, 61 Power: altitude effect, 282-286 available, 278-282 excess, 289, 336 613 Power (Cont.): required, 273-278 shaft brake, 279 (See also Jet engines; Reciprocating engines) Prandtl, Ludwig, 135, 161, 163, 169-172, 244 Prandtl-Glauert rule, 196, 200 Pressure: definition of, 51 dynamic, 115-116 static, 113 total, 113, 120 Pressure altitude, 79 Pressure coefficient, 194-197 compressibility correction for, 196 critical, 201-205 definition of, 194 Profile drag, 154, 215 Propeller: advance ratio, 478 airfoil sections, 482 constant-speed, 481 efficiency, 279, 478-479 fixed-pitch, 480 history of, 514-519 losses, 479 physical principles of, 475-482 pitch angle, 476 variable-pitch, 481 Ptolemy, Claudius, 460 Radiative heating, 454-455 RAE (Royal Aircraft Establishment), 64 RAF (Royal Aircraft Factory), 64, 239 Ramjet engine, 502-506 Range: for jet airplane, 310-315 for propeller-driven airplane, 302-310 Rate of climb, 287-294, 334-340 Rayleigh Pitot tube formula, 125 Reciprocating engines: altitude effects, 488 bottom dead center, 483 compression ratio, 489 displacement, 487 general discussion of, 279-280, 482-491 history of, 44, 517-519 614 INDEX Reciprocating engines (Cont.): indicated power, 486 mean effective pressure, 487 mechanical efficiency, 487 Otto cycle, 484-485 p-v diagram, 486 physical principles of, 482-491 top dead center, 483 Reentry, 436-459 Reentry corridor, 438 Relative wind, 180 Reversible process, 98 Reynolds, Osborne, 165-169 Reynolds number, 137, 184 critical, 146 Rocket engines, 506-513 combustion chamber, 507 exit velocity, 507 general flow equations, 508-510 history of, 522-528 nozzle, 507 specific impulse, 508-509 thrust equation, 507 Rocketequation,514 Roll, 359 Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), 64 Royal Aircraft Factory (RAF), 64, 239 Rudder, 360 Satellites, 413 Schlieren system, 123 SCRAMjet, 505-506 Sea level conditions, 77 Selfridge, Thomas E., 38-39, 41 Separated flow, 149-153, 188, 232-235 Service ceiling, 297-300 Shaft brake power, 279 Shear stress: in boundary layers, 135, 136, 139, 142, 145 on fluid element, 89 general discussion of, 57 Shock layers, 534-535 Shock waves, 122-125, 211-212 Skin friction drag, 135, 214 Slug mass, 60-61 Sonic flow: conditions for, 127-128 definition of, 108 Sound, speed of (see Speed of sound) Sound barrier, 215 Space shuttle, 415, 457 Span efficiency factor, 220 Specific excess power, 336 Specific fuel consumption, 302 Specific heat, 96 Specific impulse, 509 Specific volume, 63 Speed of sound: equations for, 106-107 general discussion of, 104-109 Sputnik I, 66, 412-413, 464-465, 467 Stability: balance for, 372 dynamic, 363-365 static: definition of, 362 longitudinal, 369-374 Stagnation point, 114 Stalls, 187-188, 230 (See also Separated flow) Standard atmosphere: definition of, 70, 74- 78 English units, table of, 569-575 gradient equations, 75-77 history of, 80-82 isothermal equations, 75 sea level conditions, 77 SI units, table of, 559-568 Stanton number, 450 Static margin, 387-388 Static performance, definition of, 263 Static pressure, 113 Static stability, definition of, 362 Steady flow, 85 Stream tube, 85 Streamlines, definition of, 53-55 Stringfellow, John, 13, 14, 17 Subsonic flow: area change, 127 definition of, 108 measurement of, 118-222 Supercritical airfoil, 208-209 Supersonic flow: area change, 127 definition of, 108 measurement of, 122-126 Swept wings, 226-229 INDEX Tail-setting angle, 379 Tail volume ratio, 381 Takeoff performance, 318-323 Temperature: definition of, 53 total, 113, 119-120 Temperature altitude (see Altitude) Thermodynamics, 93-98 boundary, 93 enthalpy, 95 first law of, 94 heat, 93 internal energy, 93 process, 96 specific heat, 96 surroundings, 93 system, 93 work, 94 Throat for nozzle, 128 Thrust: available, 271-273 general discussion of, 262 required, 264-268 Thrust equations, 491-495 Thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC), 310 Time to climb, 300-301 Total density, 113, 120 Total drag, 220, 260 Total pressure, 113, 120 Total temperature, 113, 119-120 Toussaint's formula, 80 Trailing edge, 179 Transition, 146-149 critical Reynolds number for, 147 Transonic flow, definition of, 108 Trim, 363 Trim angle of attack, 369-370 Trim velocity, 389 TSFC (thrust-specific fuel consumption), 310 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 469 "Tuck-under" problem, 406-408 Turbofan, 499-501 Turbojet, 495-499 Turboprop, 500 Turbulent flow: boundary layers, 144-146 definition of, 137 615 Turbulent flow (Cont.): velocity profiles, 138 Turning flight, 326-333 Two-dimensional wing, 186, 192-194 U.S Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 163 Units, 59-62 consistent set, 60 English engineering system, 60 nonconsistent set, 61 SI system, 59-60 tabulation, 62 V-n diagram, 333 Vangard rocket, 467 Velocity: airspeed (see Measurement of airspeed) circular, 428 comer, 333 escape (parabolic), 429 flow, 53-54 freestream, 137, 180 parabolic, 424 stalling, 230 trim, 389 Velocity-altitude map, 442 Velocity profile, 135-138 Viscosity, absolute, 136 Viscous interaction, 536 Von Braun, Wernher, 469 von Karman, Theodore, 163, 244, 342, 357 von Ohain, Hans, 520, 522 Vortex, 216-217 Wave drag, 209-214 Wenham, Francis H., 16, 159, 243 Whitcomb, Richard, 208, 242 Whittle, Frank, 520-522 Wind tunnels: history of, 159-164 subsonic, 109-112 supersonic, 126-132 Wing(s): elliptical, 219- 220 finite, 192-194, 216-225 infinite, 186, 192-194 swept, 226-229 two-dimensional, 186, 192-194 616 INDEX Wing loading, 331 Wing warping, 27 Wingspan, 193 Wingtip vortex, 216-217 Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur: airfoil test, 29 engine design, 518-519 European success, 32 Flyer I, 30 Flyer II, 31 Flyer III, 32 Fort Myer demonstration, 34 general discussion of, 1-3, 26-34, 39-44, 239, 515-516 glider no 1, 28 glider no 2, 28 glider no 3, 30 propeller design, 515-516 static instability in airplanes, 34 Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur (Cont.): type A machine, 32-33 wind tunnel, 29 wing warping, 27 X-15, 252-255, 506 XS-1, 250-252, 506 Yaw, 360 Yeager, Chuck, 251-252 Zahm, A Heb, 160 Zero lift angle of attack, 186 Zero-lift line, 368 Zero-lift moment, 366 ... 0-07-001641-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Anderson, John David Introduction to flight/ John D Anderson, Jr. 3rd ed p cm. (McGraw-Hill series in aeronautical and aerospace... Aerospace Engineering John D Anderson, Jr., University of Maryland Consulting Editor Fundamentals of Aerodynamics Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics Introduction to Flight Modern Compressible... edition Theoretical Mechanics Thermodynamics Available at Your College Bookstore INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT Third Edition John D Anderson, Jr Professor of Aerospace Engineering University of Maryland