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KRONE: 800-775-KRONE www.kroneamericas.com www.truenet-system.com No part of this document may be reproduced without permission ©2001 KRONE, Inc. The Effect of Errors on TCP Application Performance in Ethernet LANs do to application performance? This question has arisen time and time again since the KRONE ® TrueNet TM structured cabling system was launched. The simple answer is that errors can degrade application performance; the com- plicated answer is that the degradation is dependent on how the errors effect TCP. How TCP works, and what can happen to TCP in the face of errors is the subject of this paper. KRONE enlisted the help of an independent consultant, Dr. Phil Hippensteel, to study this topic and provide his evaluation of what Ethernet errors would do to application performance. The following paper presents Dr. Hippensteels findings. --Editor In this paper we will discuss the relationship between errors that occur in networks and their impact on the performance of applications that run over Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). While many individuals in the industry give the impression that they understand network errors and error detection and while much has been published on the performance issues of TCP, few attempts have been made to tie these two topics together. However, this topic is important. A vast number of applications use TCP, including most transac- tion-oriented systems and virtually all webenabled processes. Our purpose will be to provide some insight into how applications are affected by errors, particularly at the physical level, and to illustrate this through case studies. We will begin by developing some background. We will study how a typical TCP message is encapsulated as well as the differences between connection-oriented protocols and connectionless-oriented protocols. We will investigate TCP and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), the two protocols nearly all applications use to communi- cate. Then, well review the three classes of errors and how they are detected. Once this background has been introduced, well study how TCP operates in some detail. Some case studies will be used to illustrate these WHAT CAN ERRORS concepts because they are the most difficult that will be covered. We will conclude the paper with a summary and some observations about how to control errors in your network. Background Information Messages sent from application to application in packet data networks such as LANs and WANs are encapsu- lated. For example, as a server responds to a client request, the message flows down through what is referred to as the protocol stack. This is illustrated in Figure 1. In most implementations, each of the layers shown creates one of the headers in the encapsulated message. As a specific example, suppose a client device such as a PC makes a request of a web server to retrieve a web page. The application program interface (API) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) would formulate the request in this format: HTTP Header HTTP Message (response) Figure 1 This message and header would be given to TCP. TCP would add its header and pass it to the Internet Protocol (IP). IP would add its header and pass it to the network interface card (NIC), for instance an Ethernet card. Finally, the Ethernet card would be responsible for sending the total Ethernet frame onto the network. That frame would The Role of Banks The Role of Banks By: OpenStaxCollege The late bank robber named Willie Sutton was once asked why he robbed banks He answered: “That’s where the money is.” While this may have been true at one time, from the perspective of modern economists, Sutton is both right and wrong He is wrong because the overwhelming majority of money in the economy is not in the form of currency sitting in vaults or drawers at banks, waiting for a robber to appear Most money is in the form of bank accounts, which exist only as electronic records on computers From a broader perspective, however, the bank robber was more right than he may have known Banking is intimately interconnected with money and consequently, with the broader economy Banks make it far easier for a complex economy to carry out the extraordinary range of transactions that occur in goods, labor, and financial capital markets Imagine for a moment what the economy would be like if all payments had to be made in cash When shopping for a large purchase or going on vacation you might need to carry hundreds of dollars in a pocket or purse Even small businesses would need stockpiles of cash to pay workers and to purchase supplies A bank allows people and businesses to store this money in either a checking account or savings account, for example, and then withdraw this money as needed through the use of a direct withdrawal, writing a check, or using a debit card Banks are a critical intermediary in what is called the payment system, which helps an economy exchange goods and services for money or other financial assets Also, those with extra money that they would like to save can store their money in a bank rather than look for an individual that is willing to borrow it from them and then repay them at a later date Those who want to borrow money can go directly to a bank rather than trying to find someone to lend them cash Transaction costs are the costs associated with finding a lender or a borrower for this money Thus, banks lower transactions costs and act as financial intermediaries—they bring savers and borrowers together Along with making transactions much safer and easier, banks also play a key role in the creation of money 1/9 The Role of Banks Banks as Financial Intermediaries An “intermediary” is one who stands between two other parties Banks are a financial intermediary—that is, an institution that operates between a saver who deposits money in a bank and a borrower who receives a loan from that bank Financial intermediaries include other institutions in the financial market such as insurance companies and pension funds, but they will not be included in this discussion because they are not considered to be depository institutions, which are institutions that accept money deposits and then use these to make loans All the funds deposited are mingled in one big pool, which is then loaned out [link] illustrates the position of banks as financial intermediaries, with deposits flowing into a bank and loans flowing out Of course, when banks make loans to firms, the banks will try to funnel financial capital to healthy businesses that have good prospects for repaying the loans, not to firms that are suffering losses and may be unable to repay Banks as Financial Intermediaries Banks act as financial intermediaries because they stand between savers and borrowers Savers place deposits with banks, and then receive interest payments and withdraw money Borrowers receive loans from banks and repay the loans with interest In turn, banks return money to savers in the form of withdrawals, which also include interest payments from banks to savers How are banks, savings and loans, and credit unions related? Banks have a couple of close cousins: savings institutions and credit unions Banks, as explained, receive deposits from individuals and businesses and make loans with the money Savings institutions are also sometimes called “savings and loans” or “thrifts.” They also take loans and make deposits However, from the 1930s until the 1980s, federal law limited how much interest savings institutions were allowed to pay to depositors They were also required to make most of their loans in the form of housingrelated loans, either to homebuyers or to real-estate developers and builders 2/9 The Role of Banks A credit union is a nonprofit financial institution that its members own and run Members of each credit union decide who is eligible to be a member Usually, potential members would be everyone in a certain community, or groups of employees, or members of a certain organization The credit union accepts deposits from members and focuses on making loans back to its members While there are more credit unions than banks and more banks than savings and loans, the total assets of credit unions are growing In 2008, there were 7,085 banks Due to the bank failures of 2007–2009 and bank mergers, there were 5,844 banks in the United States at the end of the third quarter in 2013 ...Global Financial Development RepoRt Rethinking the Role of the State in Finance 2013 Rethinking the Role of the State in Finance Global Financial Development RepoRt 2013 Global Financial Development Report 2013 is the first in a new World Bank series. It provides a unique contribution to financial sector policy debates, building on novel data, surveys, research, and wide-ranging country experience, with emphasis on emerging-market and developing economies. The global financial crisis has challenged conventional thinking on financial sector policies. Launched on the fourth anniversary of the Lehman Brothers collapse—a turning point in the crisis—this volume re-examines a basic question: what is the proper role of the state in financial development? To address the question, this report synthesizes new and existing evidence on the state’s performance as financial sector regulator, overseer, promoter, and owner. It calls on state agencies to provide strong regulation and supervision and ensure healthy competition in the sector, and to support financial infrastructure, such as the quality and availability of credit information. It warns that direct interventions—such as lending by state-owned banks, used in many countries to counteract the crisis—may end up being harmful. The report also tracks financial systems in more than 200 economies before and during the global financial crisis. Accompany- ing the publication is a website (http://www.worldbank.org/financialdevelopment) that contains extensive datasets, research papers, and other background materials, as well as interactive features. The report’s findings and policy recommendations are relevant for policy makers; staff of central banks, ministries of finance, and financial regulation agencies; nongovernmental organizations and donors; academics and other researchers and analysts; and members of the development community. ISBN 978-0-8213-9503-5 SKU 19503 Rethinking the Role of the State in Finance GLOBAL FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2013 Rethinking the Role of the State in Finance Washington, D.C. © 2012 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 15 14 13 12 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. Note that The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content included in the work. The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of the content contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all IFPRI Discussion Paper 01011 July 2010 Investigating the Role of Poultry in Livelihoods and the Impact of Avian Flu on Livelihoods Outcomes in Africa Evidence from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, and Nigeria Ekin Birol Dorene Asare-Marfo Gezahegn Ayele Akwasi Mensa-Bonsu Lydia Ndirangu Benjamin Okpukpara Devesh Roy Yorbol Yakhshilikov Markets, Trade and Institutions Division INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) was established in 1975. IFPRI is one of 15 agricultural research centers that receive principal funding from governments, private foundations, and international and regional organizations, most of which are members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). PARTNERS AND CONTRIBUTORS IFPRI gratefully acknowledges the generous unrestricted funding from Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the World Bank. AUTHORS Ekin Birol, International Food Policy Research Institute Research Fellow, Markets, Trade and Institutions Division e.birol@cgiar.org Dorene Asare-Marfo, International Food Policy Research Institute Senior Research Assistant, Markets, Trade and Institutions Division Gezahegn Ayele, Ethiopian Development Research Institute Research Fellow Akwasi Mensa-Bonsu, University of Ghana Legon Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Lydia Ndirangu, Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis Policy Analyst, Productive Sector Division Benjamin Okpukpara, University of Nigeria Researcher and Lecturer Devesh Roy, International Food Policy Research Institute Research Fellow, Markets, Trade and Institutions Division Yorbol Yakhshilikov, International Food Policy Research Institute Research Analyst, Markets, Trade and Institutions Division Notices 1 Effective January 2007, the Discussion Paper series within each division and the Director General’s Office of IFPRI were merged into one IFPRI–wide Discussion Paper series. The new series begins with number 00689, reflecting the prior publication of 688 discussion papers within the dispersed series. The earlier series are available on IFPRI’s website at http://www.ifpri.org/publications/results/taxonomy%3A468. 2 IFPRI Discussion Papers contain preliminary material and research results. They have been peer reviewed, but have not been subject to a formal external review via IFPRI’s Publications Review Committee. They are circulated in order to stimulate discussion and critical comment; any opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of IFPRI. Copyright 2010 International Food Policy Research Institute. All rights reserved. Sections of this material may be reproduced for personal and not-for-profit use without the express written permission of but with acknowledgment to IFPRI. To reproduce the material contained herein for profit or commercial use requires express written permission. To obtain permission, contact the Communications Division at ifpri-copyright@cgiar.org iii Contents Acknowledgment vi Abstract v 1. Introduction 1 2. Background: HPAI Status and Economic Impacts 4 3. Methodology 6 4. Data Sources and Descriptive Statistics 13 5. Results 16 6. Conclusions ... low, then a financial institution will pay more to acquire the loan For the Safe and Secure Bank in this example, the total value of 4/9 The Role of Banks its loans if they were sold to other... diversifying their loans, banks have several other strategies to reduce the risk of an unexpectedly large number of loan defaults For example, banks can sell some of the loans they make in the secondary... purchased by the bank Liabilities are what the bank owes to others Specifically, the bank owes any deposits made in the bank to those who have made them The net worth of the bank is the total assets