Sponges and Cnidarians

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Au0586 half title page 11/17/05 2:05 PM Page 1 EMBEDDEDLINUX SYSTEMDESIGN ANDDEVELOPMENT TEAM FLYAu0586 title page 11/17/05 2:04 PM Page 1 Boca Raton New YorkEMBEDDEDLINUX SYSTEMDESIGN ANDDEVELOPMENTP. Raghavan • Amol Lad • Sriram Neelakandan Published in 2006 byAuerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCAuerbach is an imprint of Taylor & Francis GroupNo claim to original U.S. Government worksPrinted in the United States of America on acid-free paper10987654321International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-4058-6 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-4058-1 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005048179This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted withpermission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. 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Ⅲ Solaris and Java are registered trademarks and Sponges and Cnidarians Sponges and Cnidarians Bởi: OpenStaxCollege The kingdom of animals is informally divided into invertebrate animals, those without a backbone, and vertebrate animals, those with a backbone Although in general we are most familiar with vertebrate animals, the vast majority of animal species, about 95 percent, are invertebrates Invertebrates include a huge diversity of animals, millions of species in about 32 phyla, which we can just begin to touch on here The sponges and the cnidarians represent the simplest of animals Sponges appear to represent an early stage of multicellularity in the animal clade Although they have specialized cells for particular functions, they lack true tissues in which specialized cells are organized into functional groups Sponges are similar to what might have been the ancestor of animals: colonial, flagellated protists The cnidarians, or the jellyfish and their kin, are the simplest animal group that displays true tissues, although they possess only two tissue layers Sponges Animals in subkingdom Parazoa represent the simplest animals and include the sponges, or phylum Porifera ([link]) All sponges are aquatic and the majority of species are marine Sponges live in intimate contact with water, which plays a role in their feeding, gas exchange, and excretion Much of the body structure of the sponge is dedicated to moving water through the body so it can filter out food, absorb dissolved oxygen, and eliminate wastes 1/10 Sponges and Cnidarians Sponges are members of the phylum Porifera, which contains the simplest animals (credit: Andrew Turner) The body of the simplest sponges takes the shape of a cylinder with a large central cavity, the spongocoel Water enters the spongocoel from numerous pores in the body wall Water flows out through a large opening called the osculum ([link]) However, sponges exhibit a diversity of body forms, which vary in the size and branching of the spongocoel, the number of osculi, and where the cells that filter food from the water are located Sponges consist of an outer layer of flattened cells and an inner layer of cells called choanocytes separated by a jelly-like substance called mesohyl The mesohyl contains embedded amoeboid cells that secrete tiny needles called spicules or protein fibers that help give the sponge its structural strength The cell body of the choanocyte is embedded in mesohyl but protruding into the spongocoel is a mesh-like collar surrounding a single flagellum The beating of flagella from all choanocytes moves water through the sponge Food particles are trapped in mucus produced by the sievelike collar of the choanocytes and are ingested by phagocytosis This process is called intracellular digestion Amoebocytes take up nutrients repackaged in food vacuoles of the choanocytes and deliver them to other cells within the sponge 2/10 Sponges and Cnidarians The sponge’s basic body plan is shown Physiological Processes in Sponges Despite their lack of complexity, sponges are clearly successful organisms, having persisted on Earth for more than half a billion years Lacking a true digestive system, sponges depend on the intracellular digestive processes of their choanocytes for their energy intake The limit of this type of digestion is that food particles must be smaller than individual cells Gas exchange, circulation, and excretion occur by diffusion between cells and the water Sponges reproduce both sexually and asexually Asexual reproduction is either by fragmentation (in which a piece of the sponge breaks off and develops into a new individual), or budding (an outgrowth from the parent that eventually detaches) A type of asexual reproduction found only in freshwater sponges occurs through the formation of gemmules, clusters of cells surrounded by a tough outer layer Gemmules survive hostile environments and can attach to a substrate and grow into a new sponge Sponges are monoecious (or hermaphroditic), meaning one individual can produce both eggs and sperm Sponges may be sequentially hermaphroditic, producing eggs first and sperm later Eggs arise from amoebocytes and are retained within the spongocoel, whereas sperm arise from choanocytes and are ejected through the osculum Sperm carried by water currents fertilize the eggs of other sponges Early larval development occurs within the sponge, and free-swimming larvae are then released through the osculum This is the only time that sponges exhibit mobility Sponges are sessile as adults and spend their lives attached to a fixed substrate 3/10 Sponges and Cnidarians Concept in Action Watch this video that demonstrates the feeding of sponges Cnidarians The phylum Cnidaria includes animals that show radial or biradial symmetry and are diploblastic Nearly all (about 99 percent) cnidarians are marine species Cnidarians have specialized cells known as cnidocytes (“stinging cells”) containing organelles called nematocysts These cells are concentrated around the mouth and ...User HandbookPhysical & ChemicalCharacteristics of DDGSPhysical & ChemicalCharacteristics of DDGS 08 - Physical & Chemical Characteristics of DDGS 1Physical & Chemical Characteristics of U.S. DDGS Physical and chemical characteristics of distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) vary among sources and can influence its feeding value and handling characteristics. These characteristics include color, smell, particle size, bulk density, pH, flowability, shelf life stability and hygroscopicity. Color Color of DDGS can vary from being very light yellow in color to being very dark brown in color. Differences in color among DDGS sources are influenced by; • the natural color of the feedstock grain being used, • the amount of solubles added to grains before drying, • drying time, and drying temperature. The color of corn kernels can vary among varieties and has some influence on final DDGS color. Corn-sorghum blends of DDGS are also somewhat darker in color than corn DDGS because of the bronze color of many sorghum varieties. When a relatively high proportion of solubles are added to the mash (grains fraction) to make DDGS, the color becomes darker. Noll et al. (2006) conducted a study where they evaluated color in batches of DDGS where approximately 0, 30, 60 and 100% of the maximum possible of syrup was added to the mash before drying. Actual rates of solubles addition to the mash were 0, 12, 25 and 42 gallons/minute. As shown in Table 1, increasing solubles addition rate to the mash resulted in a decrease in L* (lightness of color) and b* (yellowness of color), with an increase in a* (redness of color). Similar results were also reported by Ganesan et al. (2005). Table 1. The Effect of the Rate of Solubles Addition to Mash on Color Characteristics of DDGS 0 gal/min 12 gal/min 25 gal/min 42 gal/min Pearson Correlation P Value Color (CIE Scale) L* 59.4 56.8 52.5 46.1 - 0.98 0.0001 a* 8.0 8.4 9.3 8.8 0.62 0.03 b* 43.3 42.1 40.4 35.6 - 0.92 0.0001 Adapted from Noll et al. (2006). Dryer temperatures in dry-grind ethanol plants can range from 127 to 621º C. The amount of time DDGS spends in the dryer also influences the color. In general, the higher the dryer temperature and the longer DDGS remains in the dryer, the darker the resulting DDGS will be. Smell High quality DDGS has a sweet, fermented smell. DDGS that has a burned or smoky smell has been overheated. 08 - Physical & Chemical Characteristics of DDGS 2 Particle Size, Bulk Density and pH Particle size and particle size uniformity of feed ingredients are important considerations of livestock and poultry nutritionists when selecting sources and determining the need for further processing when manufacturing complete feeds or feed supplements. Particle size affects: 1. Nutrient digestibility – as particle size is reduced, nutrient digestibility and feed conversion is improved. This is due to the increasing amount of surface area of an ingredient that is exposed and available for digestive enzymes to act upon. 2. Mixing efficiency – a more uniform particle size in a mixture of ingredients will reduce mixing time in order to achieve a uniformly distributed mix of ingredients in a complete feed. 3. Amount of ingredient segregation during transport and handling – particle and ingredient segregation (separation) occurs when particles of different sizes and bulk densities are blended CHECK YOUR ENGLISH VOCABULARY FORBUSINESSADMINISTRATIONRawdon WyattANDA & C Black Ⴇ London4th edition www.acblack.comFirst published as Check Your Vocabulary for Business in 1996 by Peter Collin PublishingSecond edition published 1999Third edition published 2003by Bloomsbury Publishing PlcThis fourth edition published 2007 byA & C Black Publishers Ltd38 Soho Square, London W1D 3HB© Rawdon Wyatt 2007All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced inany form without the permission of the publishers.A CIP entry for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN-10: 0-7136-7916-6ISBN-13: 978-0-7136-7916-8 eISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0251-0Text typeset by A & C BlackPrinted in Great Britain at Caligraving Ltd, Thetford, NorfolkThis book is produced using paper that is made from wood grown in managed, sustainable forests. It is natural, renewable andrecyclable. The logging and manufacturing processes conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. If you want to practise and develop your knowledge of English vocabulary for Business andAdministration, you will find that the exercises in this book will help you. They areparticularly useful if:If you want to make the most of the exercises in the book, you should note the following:We hope that you enjoy doing the exercises in this book, and that they help you to practiseand develop the Business and Administration vocabulary that you need.Introduction¼You work, or are planning to work, in or around an English-speaking business environment.¼Your work brings you into regular contact with English-speaking business people.¼You are planning to take a Business English examination such as BEC Vantage /Higher, TOEIC, or one of the LCCI (London Chamber of Commerce and Industry) International Qualifications, especially 2nd, 3rdor 4thlevel Business.¼You do not work directly in Business and Administration, but your job requires you to have a working knowledge of common business words and expressions.¼This is not a course book, and you do not need to work through it 'mechanically' from beginning to end. It is better to choose areas that you are unfamiliar with, or areas that you feel are of specific interest or importance to you.¼Write down new words and expressions that you learn. Develop your own personal vocabulary 'bank' in a notebook or file. Review these words and expressions on a regular basis so that they become a part of your 'productive' vocabulary.¼Use a good general-English dictionary and a good business-English dictionary to check the meanings of new words and expressions (but try to do the exercises first before looking in the dictionary). Many of the examples in this book have been taken from the Macmillan English Dictionary (ISBN 978-0-333-96847-5) and the A&C Black Dictionary of Business 4thedition (ISBN 978-0-713-67918-2).¼The exercises in this book either focus on general business vocabulary (for example, phrasal verbs, formal words, words with similar meanings, etc) or topic-specific business vocabulary (for example, sales Induction of (2¢)5¢)oligoadenylate synthetase in the marine sponges Suberites domuncula and Geodia cydonium by the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide Vladislav A. Grebenjuk 1 , Anne Kuusksalu 2 , Merike Kelve 2 , Joachim Schu¨ tze 1 , Heinz C. Schro¨ der 1 and Werner E. G. Mu¨ ller 1 1 Institut fu ¨ r Physiologische Chemie, Abteilung fu ¨ r Angewandte Molekularbiologie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universita ¨ t, Mainz, Germany; 2 Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Tallinn, Estonia Recent studies have shown that the Porifera, with the examples of the d emosponges Suberites domuncula and Geodia cydonium, comprise a series of pathways found also in the immune system of D euterostomia, such as vertebrates, but are a bsent in Protostomia, with i nsects or nematodes a s examples. One pathway is the (2¢)5¢)oligoadenylate syn- thetase [(2–5)A synthetase] system. In the present study we show that crude extracts from tissue of S. dom uncula col- lected from the sea display a considerable amount of (2–5)A synthetase activity; 16% of the ATP substrate is converted to the (2–5)A product, while tissue from specimens which w ere kept for 6 months in an aquarium shows only 1% of con- version. As aquarium animals show a lower bacterial load, those specimens w ere treated for the e xperiments with the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS); they respon- ded to L PS with a stimulation of the (2–5)A synthetase activity. To monitor if this effect can b e obtained also on t he in vitro level, primmorphs which comprise p roliferating and differentiating cells, were incubated with LPS. Extracts obtained from LPS-treated primmorphs also convert ATP to the (2–5)A p roducts mediated b y the s ynthetase. In par- allel to this effect on protein level, LPS causes after an incubation period of 12 h also an i ncrease i n the steady-state level of the transcripts encoding the putative (2–5)A syn- thetase. It is postulated t hat in sponges the (2–5)A s ynthetase is involved in antimicrobial defense o f the animals. Keywords: Suberites domuncula; Geodia cydonium (2¢-5¢) oligoadenylate synthetase; s ponges; Porifera. Sponges (phylum Porifera) are with the other metazoan phyla of monophyletic origin [1]. These aquatic sessile filter feeders existed already p rior to the ÔCambrian explosionÕ [2], which has been dated back 550 million years [3]. This implies that they must have developed powerful mech- anisms to protect themselves against unfavorable co nditions, e.g. environmental stress (ultraviolet exposure or xenobiot- ics) [4,5]. Because sponges have the capacity to process their own volume of water every 5 s in order to extract edible material [6] they are exposed to a huge amount of bacteria and also viruses that are present in the seawater [7,8]. To cope with these threats, sponges have developed an efficient chemical defense system [9] as well as humoral and cellular defense mechanisms [10], that provided also t he basis for the evolution to metazoan o rganisms [10]. One efficient protection against invading microorganisms is the (2¢)5¢)oligoadenylate synthetase [(2–5)A synthetase] system [11–13]. The (2–5)A synthetase(s) is activated by certain classes of RNA, mainly double-stranded RNA [14]. In vertebrates the (2–5)A pathway is also induced by interferons [15]. The major enzyme in this pathway, the (2–5)A synthetase catalyzes the synthesis of a series of 2¢)5¢- linked oligoadenylates, termed (2–5)A [ ¼ .. .Sponges and Cnidarians Sponges are members of the phylum Porifera, which contains the simplest animals (credit: Andrew Turner) The body of the simplest sponges takes the shape... sessile as adults and spend their lives attached to a fixed substrate 3/10 Sponges and Cnidarians Concept in Action Watch this video that demonstrates the feeding of sponges Cnidarians The phylum... a coiled thread and barb When hairlike projections on the cell surface are touched, (b) the thread, barb, and a toxin are fired from the organelle 4/10 Sponges and Cnidarians Cnidarians display