Reproductive Development and Structure

15 2 This chapter presents an overview of quantitative indicators of financial structure, devel- opment, and soundness. It provides guidance on key system-wide and sectoral indicators, including definitions, measurement, and usage. Key data sources for these indicators are explained in appendix C (Data Sources for Financial Sector Assessments). Detailed analysis and benchmarking of these indicators are discussed in chapters 3 and 4. More detailed data requirements are presented in appendix B (Illustrative Data Questionnaires for Comprehensive Financial Sector Assessments). 2.1 Financial Structure and Development Indicators of financial structure include system-wide indicators of size, breadth, and composition of the financial system; indicators of key attributes such as competition, concentration, efficiency, and access; and measures of the scope, coverage, and outreach of financial services. 2.1.1 System-wide Indicators Financial structure is defined in terms of the aggregate size of the financial sector, its sectoral composition, and a range of attributes of individual sectors that determine their effectiveness in meeting users’ requirements. The evaluation of financial structure should cover the roles of the key institutional players, including the central bank, commercial and merchant banks, savings institutions, development finance institutions, insurance compa- nies, mortgage entities, pension funds, and financial market institutions. The functioning of financial markets, including money, foreign exchange, and capital markets (including Chapter 2 Indicators of Financial Structure, Development, and Soundness 16 Financial Sector Assessment: A Handbook 1 I H G F E D C B A 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 bonds, equities, and derivative and structured finance products) should also be covered. For financial institutions, the structural overview should focus on identifying the number and types of institutions, as well as growth trends of major balance sheet aggregates; for financial markets, a description of the size and growth trends in various financial market instruments (volume and value) would be appropriate. The overview should also reflect new linkages among financial markets and institutions that may be forged from a variety of sources, including innovations in financial instruments, new entrants into financial markets (e.g., hedge funds), and changing practices among financial market participants (e.g., energy trading and investments by financial institutions). The overall size of the system could be ascertained by the value of financial assets, both in absolute dollar terms and as a ratio of gross domestic product (GDP). 1 Although identifying the absolute dollar amount of financial assets is informative, normalizing financial assets on GDP facilitates benchmarking of the state of financial development and allows comparison across countries at different stages of development. Other indica- tors of financial size and depth that could be usefully examined include ratios of broad money to GDP (M2 to GDP), 2 private sector credit to GDP (DCP to GDP), 3 and ratio of bank deposits to GDP (deposits/GDP). However, one should be careful in interpret- ing observed ratios because they are substantially influenced by the state of financial Reproductive Development and Structure Reproductive Development and Structure Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Sexual reproduction takes place with slight variations in different groups of plants Plants have two distinct stages in their lifecycle: the gametophyte stage and the sporophyte stage The haploid gametophyte produces the male and female gametes by mitosis in distinct multicellular structures Fusion of the male and females gametes forms the diploid zygote, which develops into the sporophyte After reaching maturity, the diploid sporophyte produces spores by meiosis, which in turn divide by mitosis to produce the haploid gametophyte The new gametophyte produces gametes, and the cycle continues This is the alternation of generations, and is typical of plant reproduction ([link]) The alternation of generations in angiosperms is depicted in this diagram (credit: modification of work by Peter Coxhead) The life cycle of higher plants is dominated by the sporophyte stage, with the gametophyte borne on the sporophyte In ferns, the gametophyte is free-living and very distinct in structure from the diploid sporophyte In bryophytes, such as mosses, the haploid gametophyte is more developed than the sporophyte During the vegetative phase of growth, plants increase in size and produce a shoot system and a root system As they enter the reproductive phase, some of the branches start to bear flowers Many flowers are borne singly, whereas some are borne in clusters The flower is borne on a stalk known as a receptacle Flower shape, color, and size are unique to each species, and are often used by taxonomists to classify plants 1/15 Reproductive Development and Structure Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms The lifecycle of angiosperms follows the alternation of generations explained previously The haploid gametophyte alternates with the diploid sporophyte during the sexual reproduction process of angiosperms Flowers contain the plant’s reproductive structures Flower Structure A typical flower has four main parts—or whorls—known as the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium ([link]) The outermost whorl of the flower has green, leafy structures known as sepals The sepals, collectively called the calyx, help to protect the unopened bud The second whorl is comprised of petals—usually, brightly colored—collectively called the corolla The number of sepals and petals varies depending on whether the plant is a monocot or dicot In monocots, petals usually number three or multiples of three; in dicots, the number of petals is four or five, or multiples of four and five Together, the calyx and corolla are known as the perianth The third whorl contains the male reproductive structures and is known as the androecium The androecium has stamens with anthers that contain the microsporangia The innermost group of structures in the flower is the gynoecium, or the female reproductive component(s) The carpel is the individual unit of the gynoecium and has a stigma, style, and ovary A flower may have one or multiple carpels Art Connection 2/15 Reproductive Development and Structure The four main parts of the flower are the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium The androecium is the sum of all the male reproductive organs, and the gynoecium is the sum of the female reproductive organs (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal) If the anther is missing, what type of reproductive structure will the flower be unable to produce? What term is used to describe an incomplete flower lacking the androecium? What term describes an incomplete flower lacking a gynoecium? If all four whorls (the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium) are present, the flower is described as complete If any of the four parts is missing, the flower is known as incomplete Flowers that contain both an androecium and a gynoecium are called perfect, androgynous or hermaphrodites There are two types of incomplete flowers: staminate flowers contain only an androecium, and carpellate flowers have only a gynoecium ([link]) 3/15 Reproductive Development and Structure The corn plant has both staminate (male) and carpellate (female) flowers Staminate flowers, which are clustered in the tassel at the tip of the stem, produce pollen grains Carpellate flower are clustered in the immature ears Each strand of silk is a stigma The corn kernels are seeds that develop on the ear after fertilization Also shown is the lower stem and root If both male and female flowers are borne on the same plant, the species is called monoecious (meaning “one home”): examples are corn and pea Species with male and female flowers borne on separate plants are termed dioecious, or “two homes,” examples of which are C papaya and Cannabis The ovary, which may contain one or multiple ovules, may be placed above other flower parts, which is referred to as superior; or, it may be placed below the other flower parts, referred to as inferior ([link]) 4/15 Reproductive Development and Structure The (a) lily ...Transcript profiling reveals diverse roles of auxin-responsive genes during reproductive development and abiotic stress in rice Mukesh Jain 1 and Jitendra P. Khurana 2 1 National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, India 2 Interdisciplinary Centre for Plant Genomics and Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India The phytohormone auxin plays a central role in almost every aspect of growth and development in plants. Sev- eral recent discoveries in auxin biology, including the identification of F-box proteins as auxin receptors, have contributed to our understanding of the molecu- lar mechanisms underlying auxin-regulated processes [1–4]. Auxin induces the very rapid accumulation of transcripts of a large number of genes, termed as primary auxin response genes, which are categorized in three major classes: auxin ⁄ indole-3-acetic acid (Aux ⁄ IAA), GH3, and small auxin-up RNA (SAUR) [5]. Auxin-responsive elements (AuxREs) have been identi- fied in the promoters of several auxin-responsive genes [5–7]. The DNA-binding domains of auxin response factors (ARFs) bind to AuxREs of auxin-responsive genes and regulate their expression [8–10]. Keywords abiotic stress; auxin; microarray analysis; reproductive development; rice (Oryza sativa) Correspondence M. Jain, National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi-110067, India Fax: +91 11 26741658 Tel: +91 11 26735182 E-mail: mjain@nipgr.res.in, mjainanid@gmail.com (Received 1 January 2009, revised 2 March 2009, accepted 31 March 2009) doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07033.x Auxin influences growth and development in plants by altering gene expression. Many auxin-responsive genes have been characterized in Ara- bidopsis in detail, but not in crop plants. Earlier, we reported the identifi- cation and characterization of the members of the GH3, Aux ⁄ IAA and SAUR gene families in rice. In this study, whole genome microarray analysis of auxin-responsive genes in rice was performed, with the aim of gaining some insight into the mechanism of auxin action. A comparison of expression profiles of untreated and auxin-treated rice seedlings identified 315 probe sets representing 298 (225 upregulated and 73 downregulated) unique genes as auxin-responsive. Functional categorization revealed that genes involved in various biological processes, including metabolism, tran- scription, signal transduction, and transport, are regulated by auxin. The expression profiles of auxin-responsive genes identified in this study and those of the members of the GH3, Aux ⁄ IAA, SAUR and ARF gene fami- lies were analyzed during various stages of vegetative and reproductive (panicle and seed) development by employing microarray analysis. Many of these genes are, indeed, expressed in a tissue-specific or developmental stage-specific manner, and the expression profiles of some of the represen- tative genes were confirmed by real-time PCR. The differential expression of auxin-responsive genes during various stages of panicle and seed devel- opment implies their involvement in diverse developmental processes. Moreover, several auxin-responsive genes were differentially expressed under various abiotic stress conditions, indicating crosstalk between auxin and abiotic stress signaling. Abbreviations J. Northw. Atl. Fish. Sci., Vol. 12: 63-74 Reproductive System Structure, Development and Function in Cephalopods with a New General Scale for Maturity Stages A. I. Arkhipkin Atlantic Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (AtlantNIRO) 5 Dmitry Donskoy Street, Kaliningrad, 236000, USSR Abstract The main types of reproductive system structure, development and functions in cephalopods are described from personal observations and use of the literature. There is one type in males and three in females which are order specific. These have provided a basis for examining possible evolutionary trends in reproductive system development and in reproductive strategies within coleoid cephalopods and for developing a general scale for maturity staging for males and females. Development of the cephalopod reproductive system consists of two main phases. The first includes sexual cell differentiation, growth and maturation (i.e. juvenile phase and physiologi- cal maturation). The second begins after maturation of sexual cells. It includestheirtransportand accumulation in different parts of the reproductive system and their conversion into spermato- phores in males and eggs with protective coverings in females (i.e. physiological maturity, func- tional maturation and maturity). It was found that species with different life styles within each order have similar reproductive systems. This may be attributable to the relative youth in an evolutionary sense of the main groups of living cephalopods. A general scale of seven maturity stages for cephalopods was developed. Distinct characteristics of each stage are described and supple- mented with a generalized drawing of gonad structure. In the first phase of reproductive system development, maturity stages are distinguished by the degree of development of the gonad and accessory glands. In the second phase maturity stages are distinguished by the fate of the mature sexual cells, particularly by their transport and location in different parts of the reproductive system up to the time of spawning. Introduction A structure of the reproductive system in cepha- lopod males and females usually has been included in descriptions of new species. There are several tho- rough reviews on reproductive system structure forthe main cephalopod orders (Arnold and Williams-Arnold, 1977; Wells and Wells, 1977; Nesis, 1982). Thedevelop- ment and function of the reproductive system have been studied to a much lesser extent. Detailed descrip- tions are available only for a dozen of the most impor- tant commercial species, particularly the Ommastrephidae and Loliginidae such as IIlex illece- brosus (Durward et al., 1979; Burukovsky et al., MS 1984) and Loligo opalescens (Fields, 1965; Grieb and Beeman, 1978). Evolution of the reproductive system in cephalop- ods as well as cephalopod reproductive strategies have received little attention. Reproductive strategies of cephalopods were studied by von Boletzky (1981, 1986) but even in the most recent edition of "Paleontol- ogy and Neonatology of Cephalopods" (The Molluscs, 1988) there is no consideration of the evolution of the cephalopod reproductive system. Various scales have been developed for cepha- lopod maturity stage determination (Juanico, 1983). Traditionally authors developed and used their own scales. Criteria for dividing the process of sexual devel- opment into maturity scale usually involve complex sexual characters. Common terminology for cepha- lopod maturity stages include juvenile, immature, mat- uring, mature and spent. However, authors often apply different meaning to these Rice cytosine DNA methyltransferases – gene expression profiling during reproductive development and abiotic stress Rita Sharma 1, *, R. K. Mohan Singh 1, *, Garima Malik 2 , Priyanka Deveshwar 1 , Akhilesh K. Tyagi 1 , Sanjay Kapoor 1 and Meenu Kapoor 2 1 Interdisciplinary Centre for Plant Genomics and Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India 2 University School of Biotechnology, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Kashmere Gate, Delhi, India Introduction DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that regulates key developmental processes, e.g. X chromo- some inactivation, genomic imprinting, gene expression and protection of genomes from invading transposons, retrotransposons and viruses [1]. The methylation of cytosine residues is catalysed by a class of proteins Keywords DNA methyltransferase; epigenetics; methylation; microarray; rice (Oryza sativa) Correspondence S. Kapoor, Interdisciplinary Centre for Plant Genomics and Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India Fax: +91 11 24115095 Tel: +91 9811644436 E-mail: kapoors@south.du.ac.in M. Kapoor, University School of Biotechnology, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Kashmere Gate, Delhi 110006, India Fax: +91 11 23900111 Tel: +91 11 23900237 E-mail: kapoorsk@genomeindia.org *These authors contributed equally to this work (Received 21 June 2009, revised 21 August 2009, accepted 1 September 2009) doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07338.x DNA methylation affects important developmental processes in both plants and animals. The process of methylation of cytosines at C-5 is catalysed by DNA methyltransferases (MTases), which are highly conserved, both struc- turally and functionally, in eukaryotes. In this study, we identified and characterized cytosine DNA MTase genes that are activated with the onset of reproductive development in rice. The rice genome (Oryza sativa L. subsp. japonica) encodes a total of 10 genes that contain the highly con- served MTase catalytic domain. These genes have been categorized into subfamilies on the basis of phylogenetic relationships. A microarray-based gene expression profile of all 10 MTases during 22 stages ⁄ tissues that included 14 stages of reproductive development and five vegetative tissues together with three stresses, cold, salt and dehydration stress, revealed spe- cific windows of MTase activity during panicle and seed development. The expression of six methylases was specifically ⁄ preferentially upregulated with the initiation of floral organs. Significantly, one of the MTases was also activated in young seedlings in response to cold and salt stress. The molecular studies presented here suggest a greater role for these proteins and the epigenetic process in affecting genome activity during reproductive development and stress than was previously anticipated. Abbreviations BAH, bromo-adjacent homology; CMT, chromomethyltransferase; Dnmt2, DNA methyltransferase 2; DRM, domains rearranged methyltransferase; HMM, hidden Markov model; GCRMA, GC robust multi-array average; MTase, methyltransferase; MET1, DNA methyltransferase 1; NCBI, National Center for Biotechnology Information; SAM, shoot apical meristem; TIGR, The Institute of Genomic Research; QPCR, quantitative PCR. FEBS Journal 276 (2009) 6301–6311 ª 2009 The Authors Journal compilation ª 2009 FEBS 6301 known as DNA methyltransferases (MTases). These proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes possess a catalytic domain with conserved motifs that are arranged in a specific order, thus reflecting their origin from a common ancestor. In eukaryotes, this domain is associated with N-terminal extensions A New Database on Financial Development and Structure Thorsten Beck, Asli Demirgüç-Kunt, and Ross Levine June 1999 Abstract: This paper introduces a new database of indicators of financial development and structure across countries and over time This database is unique in that it unites a wide variety of indicators that measure the size, activity and efficiency of financial intermediaries and markets It improves on previous efforts by presenting data on the public share of commercial banks, by introducing indicators of the size and activity of nonbank financial institutions and by presenting measures of the size of bond and primary equity markets This paper describes the sources, the construction and the intuition for the different indicators and presents descriptive statistics Beck: The World Bank; Demirgüç-Kunt: The World Bank; Levine: Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota We are grateful to Joe Attia and Ian Webb for technical assistance and to Gerard Caprio for comments This paper’s findings, interpretations, and conclusions are entirely those of the authors and not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent I Introduction A recent and expanding literature establishes the importance of financial development for economic growth.1 Measures of the size of the banking sector and the size and liquidity of the stock market are highly correlated with subsequent GDP per capita growth Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that both the level of banking sector development and stock market development exert a causal impact on economic growth.2 Recent financial crises in South East Asia and Latin America further underline the importance of a well-functioning financial sector for the whole economy This paper introduces a new database that for the first time allows financial analysts and researchers a comprehensive assessment of the development, structure and performance of the financial sector This database provides statistics on the size, activity and efficiency of various financial intermediaries and markets across a broad spectrum of countries and through time The database will thus enable financial analysts and researchers to compare the level of financial development and the structure of the financial sector of a specific country with that of other countries in the region or countries with a similar GDP per capita level It allows comparisons of financial systems for a given year and over time Previously, financial analysts and researchers have relied on a few indicators of the banking sector and the stock market, using data from the IMF’s International Financial Statistics and the IFC’s Emerging Market Database This new database draws on a wider array of sources For an overview over this literature see Levine (1997) See King and Levine (1993a,b) and Levine and Zervos (1998) for correlation and Levine, Loayza and Beck (1999), Beck, Levine and Loayza (1999), Neusser and Kugler (1998) and Rousseau and Wachtel (1998) for evidence on causality Also, Demirgüç-Kunt and Maksimovic (1998) show that firms in countries with an active stock market and large banking sector grow faster than predicted by individual firm characteristics Rajan and Zingales (1998) show that industries that rely more heavily on external finance grow faster in countries with better-developed financial systems 2 and constructs indicators of the size, activity and efficiency of a much broader set of financial institutions and markets Specifically, this database uses bank-specific data to construct indicators of the market structure and efficiency of commercial banks Furthermore, this is the first systematic compilation of data on the split of public vs private ownership in the banking sector This database is the first attempt to define and construct indicators of the size and activity of nonbank financial intermediaries, such as insurance companies, pension funds, and nondeposit money banks ... 2/15 Reproductive Development and Structure The four main parts of the flower are the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium The androecium is the sum of all the male reproductive organs, and. .. multiples of four and five Together, the calyx and corolla are known as the perianth The third whorl contains the male reproductive structures and is known as the androecium The androecium has stamens... 9/15 Reproductive Development and Structure generative nucleus, and the tube nucleus Upon maturity, the male gametophyte (pollen) is released from the male cones and is carried by the wind to land