Structural Organization of the Human Body

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NguyÔn §×nh Lu. 40A2 - English Acknowledgements The thesis could not have been completed without the devoted help of many people during the time of my doing it. Firstly, I would like to express my deep thank to my supervisor Lª §×nh Th¶o (M.A) who helped me devotedly and thoughtfully to finish this thesis. Secondly, I am grateful to my teachers from the Department of Foreign Languages, especially the former Dean NguyÔn Xu©n B×nh (M.A) who gave us chance to do the work. Thirdly, I am also indebted to my dear teacher Chrisstaples and my dear friends who helped me a lot. Student: NguyÔn §×nh Lu Class: 40A2 - English Index Graduation thesis - A contrastive analysis on English and Vietnamese proverbs referring to parts of the human body 1 NguyÔn §×nh Lu. 40A2 - English Pages Acknowledgments 1 Index 2 Part A. Introduction 1. Rationale for choosing the subject . 4 2. Aims of the study . .…… . 5 3. Objects of the study 5 4. Methods of the study . 6 5. Scope of the study 6 6. Design of the study 6 Part B. Content Chapter 1. Background 7 1. Where do proverbs come from? . 7 1.1.Where do English proverbs come from? 7 1.2. Where do Vietnamese proverbs come from? 8 2. The position of proverbs in lexicology 10 2.1. Word structure and formation 10 2.2. Semantics Structural Organization of the Human Body Structural Organization of the Human Body Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Before you begin to study the different structures and functions of the human body, it is helpful to consider its basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts are assembled into larger structures It is convenient to consider the structures of the body in terms of six fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism ([link]) 1/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body The organization of the body often is discussed in terms of six distinct levels of increasing complexity, from the smallest chemical building blocks to a unique human organism The Six Levels of Organization To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of matter: atoms and molecules All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron The smallest unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an atom Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such 2/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body as the water molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living things Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body structures A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism Even bacteria, which are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure Each bacterium is a single cell All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a waterbased cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles In humans, as in all organisms, cells perform all functions of life A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a few related types) that work together to perform a specific function An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types Each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body This book covers eleven distinct organ systems in the human body ([link] and [link]) Assigning organs to organ systems can be imprecise since organs that “belong” to one system can also have functions integral to another system In fact, most organs contribute to more than one system 3/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body Organ Systems of the Human Body Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems 4/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued) Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems 5/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body The organism level is the highest level of organization An organism is a living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life In multicellular organisms, including humans, all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body work together to maintain the life and health of the organism Chapter Review Life processes of the human body are maintained at several levels of structural organization These include the chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and the organism level Higher levels of organization are built from lower levels Therefore, molecules combine to form cells, cells combine to form tissues, tissues combine to form organs, organs combine to form organ systems, and organ systems combine to form organisms Review Questions The smallest independently functioning unit of an organism is a(n) cell molecule organ tissue A A collection of similar tissues that performs a specific function is an organ organelle organism organ system A The body system responsible for structural support and movement is the cardiovascular system endocrine system muscular system skeletal system D 6/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS Name the six levels of organization of the human body Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism The female ovaries and the male testes are a part of which body system? Can these organs be members of more than one organ system? Why or why not? The female ovaries and the male testes are parts of the reproductive system But they also secrete hormones, as does the endocrine system, therefore ovaries and testes function within both the endocrine and reproductive systems 7/7 Acknowledgements The thesis could not have been completed without the help of my teachers and friends during the time of my doing it . Firstly, I would like to express my deep thank to my supervisor - the Dean of the Department of Foreign Languages - Master of Arts Ng« §×nh Ph- ¬ng for his great support and constant and helpful advices on my study. Secondly, I am grateful to Master of Arts TrÇn Ngäc Tëng and Mr chrisstaples for their useful advices from the early stages of the study. Thirdly, I would also like to thank my teachers in the Department of Foreign Languages and friends who helped me a lot throughout my study. Vinh, May 2004 1 Table of contents Page Acknowledgements 1 Table of contents 2 Part A. Introduction 4 1. Reasons for choosing the subject 4 2. Aims of the study 5 3. Objectives of the study 5 4. Methods of the study 6 5. Design of the study 6 Part B. contents 7 Chapter 1. Theoretical preLiminaries 7 1.1. Contrastive analysis on languages 7 1.2. The rule of semantic transference 8 1.3. Names of part of the human body with the transference of meaning and cultural symbolism. 12 Chapter 2. The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese on semantic transference. 14 2.1. The origin of names referring to parts of the human body. 14 2.2. The features of semantic transference 16 2.2.1 Quantitative features 16 2.2.2 Qualitative features 28 2 Chapter 3. Suggested exercises 35 3.1 The basic of exercises 35 3.2 The user of exercises 36 3.3 Suggested exercises 36 Part C. Conclusion 42 References 43 Appendix 44 3 Part A. Introduction 1. Reasons for choosing the subject Polysemantic words are a general and specific phenomenon of many languages in the world. In both daily spoken language and literary language in English and Vietnamese, we often meet the use of polysemy. For example: "Use your head ! "; " Report to the Head immediately "; " The arm of my jacket", " The arm of a chair ", etc. We are really interested in studying them, specially the meanings of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese. Choosing two languages, English and Vietnamese to make a contrastive analysis has scientific base on linguistics and culture. England and Vietnam have their own culture, human race, geography and history. We can also see that, the class of words denoting parts of the human body is very familiar to us and has rich development of meaning in each language. These words are realized early by the native speakers. They belong to the original stock of the lexical system in each language. Studying the transference of meaning through this class of words attracts us much. Furthermore, because of the importance and necessity of substratum knowledge in teaching and learning English and Vietnamese, we would like to examine and find out some relationships between two languages. When Structural characterization of the human Nogo-A functional domains Solution structure of Nogo-40, a Nogo-66 receptor antagonist enhancing injured spinal cord regeneration Minfen Li 1 , Jiahai Shi 1 , Zheng Wei 1 , Felicia Y. H. Teng 2 , Bor Luen Tang 2 and Jianxing Song 1,2 1 Department of Biological Sciences and 2 Department of Biochemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore The recent discovery of the Nogo family of myelin inhibitors and the Nogo-66 receptor opens up a very promising avenue for the development of therapeutic agents for treating spinal cord injury. Nogo-A, the largest member of the Nogo fam- ily, is a multido main protein containing at le ast two regions responsible for inhibiting central ner vous system (CNS) regeneration. So far, no structural information is available for Nogo-A or any of its structural domains. We have sub- cloned and expressed two Nogo-A fragments, namely the 182 residue Nogo-A(567–748) and the 66 residue Nogo-66 in Escherichia coli. CD and NMR characterization indicated that Nogo-A(567–748) was only partially structured while Nogo-66 was highly insoluble. Nogo-40, a truncated form of Nogo-66, has been previously shown to be a Nogo-66 receptor antagonist that is able to enhance CNS neuronal regeneration. Detailed NMR examinations revealed that a Nogo-40 peptide had intrinsic helix-forming propensity, even in an aqueous environment. The NMR structure of Nogo-40 was therefore d etermine d in the presenc e of the helix-stabilizing solvent trifluoroethanol. The solution structure of Nogo-40 revealed two well-defined helices linked by an unstructured loop, representing the first structure of Nogo-66 receptor binding ligands. Our results provide the first structural insights into Nogo-A functional domains and may have implications in further d esigns of peptide mimetics that would enhance CNS neuronal regeneration. Keywords: CNS neuronal regeneration; NMR spectroscopy; Nogo-40; NogoA; spinal cord injury. Survivors of severe central nervous system (CNS) i njury often suffer f rom permanent disability. Previously, it was thought that the inability of CNS neurons to regenerate was due to the absence of growth-promoting factors in CNS neurons. However, recent discoveries c hallenge this dogma. It has been shown that the failure of CNS neuronal regeneration re sults to a large extent from the existence of inhibitory molecules of axon outgrowth in adult CNS myelin [1]. So far, three proteins have been identified that cause inhibitory effects on CNS neuronal r egeneration, namely Nogo [2–4], myelin-associated glycoprotein [5] and oligodendrocyte myelin glycoprotein [6]. All three molecules appear to exert t heir inhibitory action through t he initial binding of the Nogo-66 receptor (NgR) [3], first identified as a high affinity neuronal r eceptor for Nogo-A [7]. NgR binding leads to subsequent activation of signaling path- ways that possibly involve Rho activation, and the induc- tion of growth cone collapse [8]. These discoveries raise a promising possibility to enhance axonal growth by disrupt- ing the interaction between NgR and its ligands. Of the three myelin-associated molecules above, the CNS-enriched Nogo belonging to t he reticulon protein family has received intense attention recently. Nogo has several splicing variants, among which N ogo-A is the largest, composed of 1192 a mino acids (Fig. 1). Recent studies have demonstr Role of the N- and C-terminal regions of the PufX protein in the structural organization of the photosynthetic core complex of Rhodobacter sphaeroides Francesco Francia 1,2 , Jun Wang 1, *, Hans Zischka 1, †, Giovanni Venturoli 2 and Dieter Oesterhelt 1 1 Department of Membrane Biochemistry Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany; 2 Department of Biology, Laboratory of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Bologna, Italy The core complex of Rhod obacter sphaeroides is formed by the a ssociation o f the light-harvesting antenna 1 (LH1) and the reaction center (RC). The P ufX protein is essential for photosynthetic gr owth; i t i s located within the core in a 1 : 1 stoichiometry with the RC. PufX is required for a fast ubiquinol exchange between the Q B site of the RC and the Qo site of the cytochrome bc 1 complex. In vivo the LH1– PufX–RC complex is assembled in a dimeric form, where PufX is involved as a structural organizer. We have modified the PufX protein at the N and the C-terminus with pro- gressive deletions. T he nine mutants obtained have b een characterized for th eir ability f or photosynthetic growth, the insertion of PufX in the core LH1–RC complex, the stability of the dimers and the kinetics of flash-induced reduction of cytochrome b 561 of the cytochrome bc 1 complex. Deletion of 18 residues a t t he N-terminus destabilizes the dimer in vitro without preventing photo synthetic growth. The dimer (or a stable dimer) does not seem to be a necessary requisite for the photosynthetic phenotype. Partial C-terminal d eletions impede the insertion of PufX, while the complete absence of the C -terminus leads to t he insertion of a PufX protein composed of only its first 53 residues and does not affect the photosynthetic growth of the bacterium. Overall, the results point to a complex role of the N and C domains in the structural organization of the core complex; the N-terminus is suggested to be responsible mainly for d imerization, while the C-terminus is thought to be involved mainly in PufX assembly. Keywords: LH1-RC; photosynthesis; PufX; Rhodobacter sphaeroides. The purple b acterium Rhodobacter (Rb.) sphaeroides can grow photosynthetically or heterotrophically via aerobic or anaerobic respiration. When growing photosynthetically, it uses light energy as a driving force to form ATP via a cyclic electron transfer. Photons are captured from the light- harvesting (LH) complex(es) and the excitation energy funnelled towards a bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) special pair (P), located in the reaction centre (RC). The excited P delivers an electron via an accessory BChl and a bacterio- pheophytin molec ule to a primary ubiquinone acceptor (Q A ). In a m uch slower reaction the electron is transferred to a second ubiquinone acceptor (Q B ). The full reduction of the quinone m olecule at Q B to quinol requires a second photoexcitation of the RC and is coupled to the uptake of two protons from the cytoplasmic space. The formed ubiquinol dissociates from the RC and is released into the membrane lipid phase [1]. Ubiquinol molecules are oxidized at the Qo site of the cytochrome bc 1 complex (cyt bc 1 ). Here the electron pathway branches into a high Anatomy of the Human Body Henry Gray CONTENTS I. Embryology 1. The Animal Cell 2. The Ovum 3. The Spermatozoön 4. Fertilization of the Ovum 5. Segmentation of the Fertilized Ovum 6. The Neural Groove and Tube 7. The Notochord 8. The Primitive Segments 9. Separation of the Embryo 10. The Yolk-sac 11. Development of the Fetal Membranes and Placenta 12. The Branchial Region 13. Development of the Body Cavities 14. The Form of the Embryo at Different Stages of Its Growth Bibliography II. Osteology 1. Introduction 2. Bone 3. The Vertebral Column a. General Characteristics of a Vertebra 1. The Cervical Vertebræ 2. The Thoracic Vertebræ 3. The Lumbar Vertebræ 4. The Sacral and Coccygeal Vertebræ b. The Vertebral Column as a Whole 4. The Thorax a. The Sternum b. The Ribs c. The Costal Cartilages 5. The Skull a. The Cranial Bones 1. The Occipital Bone 2. The Parietal Bone 3. The Frontal Bone 4. The Temporal Bone 5. The Sphenoid Bone 6. Ethmoid bone b. The Facial Bones 1. The Nasal Bones 2. The Maxillæ (Upper Jaw) 3. The Lacrimal Bone 4. The Zygomatic Bone 5. The Palatine Bone 6. The Inferior Nasal Concha 7. The Vomer 8. The Mandible (Lower Jaw) 9. The Hyoid Bone c. The Exterior of the Skull d. The Interior of the Skull 6. The Extremities a. The Bones of the Upper Extremity 1. The Clavicle 2. The Scapula 3. The Humerus 4. The Ulna 5. The Radius b. The Hand 1. The Carpus 2. The Metacarpus 3. The Phalanges of the Hand c. The Bones of the Lower Extremity 1. The Hip Bone 2. The Pelvis 3. The Femur 4. The Patella 5. The Tibia 6. The Fibula d. The Foot 1. The Tarsus 2. The Metatarsus 3. The Phalanges of the Foot 4. Comparison of the Bones of the Hand and Foot 5. The Sesamoid Bones III. Syndesmology 1. Introduction 2. Development of the Joints 3. Classification of Joints 4. The Kind of Movement Admitted in Joints 1. Introduction 2. Development of the Joints 3. Classification of Joints 4. The Kind of Movement Admitted in Joints 5. Articulations of the Trunk a. Articulations of the Vertebral Column b. Articulation of the Atlas with the Epistropheus or Axis c. Articulations of the Vertebral Column with the Cranium d. Articulation of the Mandible e. Costovertebral Articulations f. Sternocostal Articulations g. Articulation of the Manubrium and Body of the Sternum h. Articulation of the Vertebral Column with the Pelvis i. Articulations of the Pelvis 6. Articulations of the Upper Extremity a. Sternoclavicular Articulation b. Acromioclavicular Articulation c. Humeral Articulation or Shoulder-joint d. Elbow-joint e. Radioulnar Articulation f. Radiocarpal Articulation or Wrist-joint g. Intercarpal Articulations h. Carpometacarpal Articulations i. Intermetacarpal Articulations j. Metacarpophalangeal Articulations k. Articulations of the Digits 7. Articulations of the Lower Extremity a. Coxal Articulation or Hip-joint b. The Knee-joint c. Articulations between the Tibia and Fibula d. Talocrural Articulation or Ankle-joint e. Intertarsal Articulations .. .Structural Organization of the Human Body Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body The organization of the body often is discussed in terms of six distinct levels of increasing... 4/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued) Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems 5/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body The. .. integral to another system In fact, most organs contribute to more than one system 3/7 Structural Organization of the Human Body Organ Systems of the Human Body Organs that work together are grouped