The Sociological Approach to Religion

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Project Management 2.0 – The Ultimate Benets of the New Approach to Project Management The most practical project management software Project Management 2.0 – The Ultimate Benets of the New Approach to Project Management Introduction The old models of how people interact and collaborate have been radically transformed in recent times. People are using blogs, wikis and collaborative planning tools to work together. All these ap- plications represent a signicant opportunity for organizations to create new social and Web-based collaboration and increase productivity. Project management is undergoing signicant changes due to the introduction of the new technologies for managing project teams. Traditional project management implies a project manager acting as a proxy in all project-related communications, thus reducing his productivity and therefore curtailing the eciency of the rest of the project team. The new wave of project management tools puts an emphasis on collabora- tion and makes teams much more productive. These applications go hand-in-hand with modern practices like collective intelligence and emerging structures that empower agile project manage- ment. These practices and tools are now used by successful teams ranging from two individuals to thousands of people. They are not only incredibly helpful in managing distributed teams in today’s global environment, but also able to take care of a lot of routine operations for you. Wikis, blogs, collaboration tools, Web 2.0 technologies… How do these tools inuence contempo- rary project management? How do they help you manage your projects? What makes them so eec- tive? How can you get the most out of them? This article will help you to learn how companies and teams can benet from the new technologies and practices, and how these technologies can make your job easier and more pleasant. New Opportunities for Businesses Brought by Enterprise 2.0 The social network phenomenon has already transformed the consumer Web into so-called “Web 2.0.” Now Web 2.0 is aecting business processes in thousands of organizations by oering incredible com- munication and collaboration opportunities known as “Enterprise 2.0.” “All these things that are thought to be consumer services are coming into the enterprise,” says former Oracle Corp. President Ray Lane, now a general partner at the venture capital rm Kleiner Perkins Caueld & Byers. Major corporations all over the world, such as IBM, Procter & Gamble and Walt Disney, embrace Enterprise 2.0 technologies. We are witnessing the transformation of traditional ways of doing business, and this transformation is caused by the new-generation applications. - 2 - Copyright© Wrike, Inc. www.wrike.com Project Management 2.0 – The Ultimate Benets of the New Approach to Project Management The term Enterprise 2.0 was coined by Andrew McAee, an associate professor at Harvard Business School, in spring 2006. Professor McAee introduced this term to describe the use of emergent social software platforms within companies, or between companies and their peers (partners or customers). Through the adoption of wikis, blogs, collaboration planning tools, social networks and other “weapons of mass collaboration,” as Don Trapscott calls them in his book “Wikinomics,” collaboration patterns are changed in today’s The Sociological Approach to Religion The Sociological Approach to Religion Bởi: OpenStaxCollege From the Latin religio (respect for what is sacred) and religare (to bind, in the sense of an obligation), the term religion describes various systems of belief and practice concerning what people determine to be sacred or spiritual (Fasching and deChant 2001; Durkheim 1915) Throughout history, and in societies across the world, leaders have used religious narratives, symbols, and traditions in an attempt to give more meaning to life and understand the universe Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is usually practiced in a public way by a group The practice of religion can include feasts and festivals, God or gods, marriage and funeral services, music and art, meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of culture While some people think of religion as something individual because religious beliefs can be highly personal, religion is also a social institution Social scientists recognize that religion exists as an organized and integrated set of beliefs, behaviors, and norms centered on basic social needs and values Moreover, religion is a cultural universal found in all social groups For instance, in every culture, funeral rites are practiced in some way, although these customs vary between cultures and within religious affiliations Despite differences, there are common elements in a ceremony marking a person’s death, such as announcement of the death, care of the deceased, disposition, and ceremony or ritual These universals, and the differences in how societies and individuals experience religion, provide rich material for sociological study In studying religion, sociologists distinguish between what they term the experience, beliefs, and rituals of a religion Religious experience refers to the conviction or sensation that one is connected to “the divine.” This type of communion might be experienced when people are praying or meditating Religious beliefs are specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or believing in reincarnation Another illustration of religious beliefs is that different religions adhere to certain stories of world creation Religious rituals are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as bar mitzvah or confession (Barkan and Greenwood 2003) 1/10 The Sociological Approach to Religion The History of Religion as a Sociological Concept In the wake of 19th century European industrialization and secularization, three social theorists attempted to examine the relationship between religion and society: Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx They are among the founding thinkers of modern sociology As stated earlier, French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things” (1915) To him, sacred meant extraordinary—something that inspired wonder and which seemed connected to the concept of “the divine.” Durkheim argued that “religion happens” in society when there is a separation between the profane (ordinary life) and the sacred (1915) A rock, for example, isn’t sacred or profane as it exists But if someone makes it into a headstone, or another person uses it for landscaping, it takes on different meanings—one sacred, one profane Durkheim is generally considered the first sociologist who analyzed religion in terms of its societal impact Above all, Durkheim believed that religion is about community: It binds people together (social cohesion), promotes behavior consistency (social control), and offers strength for people during life’s transitions and tragedies (meaning and purpose) By applying the methods of natural science to the study of society, he held that the source of religion and morality is the collective mind-set of society and that the cohesive bonds of social order result from common values in a society He contended that these values need to be maintained to maintain social stability But what would happen if religion were to decline? This question led Durkheim to posit that religion is not just a social creation but something that represents the power of society: When people celebrate sacred things, they celebrate the power of their society By this reasoning, even if traditional religion disappeared, society wouldn’t necessarily dissolve Whereas Durkheim saw religion as a source of social stability, German sociologist and political economist Max Weber (1864–1920) believed it was a precipitator of social change He examined the effects of religion on economic activities and noticed that heavily Protestant societies—such as those in the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Germany—were the most highly developed capitalist societies and that their most successful business leaders were Protestant In his writing The Protestant Work Ethic and ...PUBLISHING, New York to Project Management Working from your Center to Balance Expectations and Performance George Pitagorsky, PMP The ZEN Approach ™ Copyright © 2007 by International Institute for Learning, Inc. All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form, except for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles, without the prior written permission of the publisher. For information, contact the publisher. e information in this book is distributed without warranty. Although every pre- caution has been taken in the preparation of this book, neither the author nor the publisher shall have any liability with respect to any loss or damage caused in any manner by the information contained in this book. IIL Publishing, New York titles may be purchased in bulk at a discount for edu- cational, business, fund-raising, or sales promotional use. For information, please e-mail michelle. blackley@iil.com or call 212-515-5144. Published by IIL Publishing, New York a division of International Institute for Learning, Inc., 110 East 59 th Street, 31 st Floor, New York, NY 10022 www.iil.com Publisher: Judith W. Umlas Design: Tony Meisel Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available. ISBN 0-9708276-9-5 Printed in the United States of America Acknowledgments T his book is an expression of gratitude for my incredible good for- tune to be immersed in the world of projects while meeting the teachings of the wisdom traditions of Yoga, Taoism, Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism. From these teachings and their application in complex organizations performing complex projects, I am better able to under- stand the essence of the many attempts to express the nature of our shared experience. I wish to thank first my wife Linda, a fellow traveler and the loving mirror who helps me to see myself as I am and as I can be. anks to my colleagues at IIL and to E. LaVerne Johnson for pub - lishing this book and for the opportunity to be in the thick of project and quality management with some of the world’s great organizations and people. Special thanks to my editors, Judy Umlas and Ed Levy for their contribution to making this expression clear and useful. anks and homage to my teachers from several traditions: Ram Dass and Neem Karoli Baba who taught the essence of loving, serving and remembering and the critical importance of dwelling in the heart; Namkhai Norbu Rimpoche and Tsoknye Rimpoche my teachers in the Tibetan Dzogchen tradition, Chogyam Trungpa Rimpoche who initi- ated me into the Vajrayana teachings of Tibetan Buddhism with his crystal clarity and crazy wisdom; Jean Klein and J. Krishnamurti with their direct and unrelenting direction to explore the question “who am I?” and cut to the core of self. anks also to Gabriel Halpern who in- troduced me to Yoga and to the joy of chanting and song as a means for going beyond the intellect. anks to N.Y. Insight Meditation Center for the opportunity to serve the community as a teacher of meditation and how to apply it in daily life. anks also to my children and many friends on the path, too numerous to name but who are a constant sup- port in my inner work This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law as indicated in a notice appearing later in this work. This electronic representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for non- commercial use only. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of our research documents. 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No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from RAND. Published 2007 by the RAND Corporation 1776 Main Street, P.O. Box 2138, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138 1200 South Hayes Street, Arlington, VA 22202-5050 4570 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2665 RAND URL: http://www.rand.org/ To order RAND documents or to obtain additional information, contact Distribution Services: Telephone: (310) 451-7002; Fax: (310) 451-6915; Email: order@rand.org Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available for this publication. ISBN 978-0-8330-4156-2 Cover Design by Peter Soriano (Left) Photo by Lauren Skrabala. (Right) U.S. Army photo by PFC James Wilt. The research described in this report was prepared for the United States Joint Forces Command. The research was conducted in the RAND National Defense Research Institute, a federally funded research and development center sponsored by the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the Unified Combatant Commands, the Department of the Navy, the Marine Corps, the defense agencies, and the defense Intelligence Community under Contract W74V8H-06-C-0002. iii Preface Counterinsurgency (COIN) and other stability operations are promi- nent in the contemporary operating environment and are likely to remain so in the future. Multilingual Computational Semantic Lexicons in Action: The WYSINNWYG Approach to NLP Evelyne Viegas New Mexico State University Computing Research Laboratory Las Cruces, NM 88003 USA viegas¢crl, nmsu. edu Abstract Much effort has been put into computational lex- icons over the years, and most systems give much room to (lexical) semantic data. However, in these systems, the effort put on the study and representa- tion of lexical items to express the underlying contin- uum existing in 1) language vagueness and polysemy, and 2) language gaps and mismatches, has remained embryonic. A sense enumeration approach fails from a theoretical point of view to capture the core mean- ing of words, let alone relate word meanings to one another, and complicates the task of NLP by multi- plying ambiguities in analysis and choices in genera- tion. In this paper, I study computational semantic lexicon representation from a multilingual point of view, reconciling different approaches to lexicon rep- resentation: i) vagueness for lexemes which have a more or less finer grained semantics with respect to other languages; ii) underspecification for lexemes which have multiple related facets; and, iii) lexi- cal rules to relate systematic polysemy to systematic ambiguity. I build on a What You See Is Not Neces- sarily What You Get (WYSINNWYG) approach to provide the NLP system with the "right" lexical data already tuned towards a particular task. In order to do so, I argue for a lexical semantic approach to lex- icon representation. I exemplify my study through a cross-linguistic investigation on spatially-based ex- pressions. 1 A Cross-linguistic Investigation on Spatially-based Expressions In this paper, I argue for computational seman- tic lexicons as active knowledge sources in or- der to provide Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems with the "right" lexical semantic represen- tation to accomplish a particular task. In other words, lexicon entries are "pre-digested', via a lex- ical processor, to best fit an NLP task. This What You See (in your lexicon) Is Not Necessarily What You Get (as input to your program) (WYSIN- NWYG) approach requires the adoption of a sym- bolic paradigm. Formally, I use a combination of three different approaches to lexicon represen- tations: (1) lexico-semantic vagueness, for lexemes which have a more or less finer grained semantics with respect to other languages (for instance en in Spanish is vague between the Contact and Container senses of the Location, whereas in English it is finer grained, with on for the former and in for the lat- ter); (2) lexico-semantic underspecification, for lex- emes which have multiple related facets (such as for instance, door which is underspecified with respect to its Aperture or PhysicalObject meanings); and, (3) lexical rules, to relate systematic polysemy to systematic ambiguity (such as the Food Or Animal rule for lamb). I illustrate the WYSINNWYG approach via a cross-linguistic investigation (English, French, Span- ish) on spatially-based expressions, as lexicalised, for instance, in the prepositions in, above, on, , verbs traverser, ("go" across) in French, predicative nouns montde, (going up) in French, or in adjec- tives upright. Processing spatially-based expressions in a multilingual environment is a difficult problem as these lexemes exhibit a high degree FISHERIES MANAGEMENT 2. The ecosystem approach to fisheries FISHERIES MANAGEMENT 2. The ecosystem approach to fisheries FAO TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES 4 ISSN 1020-5292 Suppl. 2 FISHERIES MANAGEMENT FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2003 FAO TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSIBLE FISHERIES 4 FISHERIES MANAGEMENT 2. The ecosystem approach to fisheries 2. The ecosystem approach to fisheries Suppl. 2 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Chief, Publishing Management Service, Information Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to copyright@fao.org © FAO 2003 ISBN 92-5-104897-5 Preparation of this document T hese guidelines have been finalized by the FAO Fishery Resources Division (FIR) based on the draft developed during the Expert Consultation on Ecosystem-based Fisheries Management, Reykjavik, Iceland, 16–19 September 2002. Experts contributing to the original draft included Johann Bell, Doug Butterworth, Kevern Cochrane, Robin Cook, Philippe Cury, Serge Garcia, Henrik Gislason, Sebastian Mathew, Carlos Moreno, Hiroshi Okamura, Jake Rice, Keith Sainsbury (Chair), Birane Samb, Jóhann Sigurjónsson, Michael Sissenwine, Derek Staples, Gunnar Stefánsson, Keven Stokes, Sergi Tudela, John Willy Valdemarsen and Rolf Willman. Final editing and compilation were undertaken by Derek Staples with assistance from Kevern Cochrane and Serge Garcia. It must be stressed that these Guidelines have no formal legal status. They are intended to provide support for the implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Furthermore, in order to present the management process in all its complexity and diversity, the wording and structure of these Guidelines do not strictly follow the language and the structure of the Code. Therefore, any eventual differences in the terminology employed should not be understood as an intention to reinterpret the Code. At the time of writing, there was little practical experience in implementing EAF anywhere in the world. These guidelines, therefore, should be considered as preliminary, to be revised regularly in the light of practical experience as it becomes available. Distribution All FAO Members and Associate Members Interested Nations and International Organizations FAO Fisheries Department FAO Fisheries Officers in FAO Regional Offices Interested Non-governmental Organizations Abstract T hese guidelines have been produced to supplement the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. The Code and many international agreements and conferences highlight the many benefits that can be achieved by adopting an ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) and elaborate a number of agreed principles and concepts relating to EAF. These guidelines attempt .. .The Sociological Approach to Religion The History of Religion as a Sociological Concept In the wake of 19th century European industrialization and secularization, three social theorists... that religion is “is the opium of the people” (1844) 3/10 The Sociological Approach to Religion For Durkheim, Weber, and Marx, who were reacting to the great social and economic upheaval of the. .. access to the most recent information on any given topic The information age has increased the rapid pace of production expected in many jobs On the other hand, the “McDonaldization” of the United