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[...]... the same as, scaling These terms are associated with three basic scaling operations: changing extent, changing grain size, and changing coverage Extrapolation is transferring information from smaller to larger extents, coarse-graining transferring information with increasing grain size, and fine-graining transferring information with decreasing grain size Sometimes, upscaling and downscaling refer specifically... various concepts of scale and scaling, in this chapter we focus on the major characteristics of the two scaling approaches and several more specific upscaling and downscaling methods 17 J Wu, K.B Jones, H Li, and O.L Loucks (eds.), Scaling and Uncertainty Analysis in Ecology: Methods and Applications, 17–44 © 2006 Springer Printed in the Netherlands 18 J WU AND H LI within each approach The purpose... special case of scaling Based on the directionality of the scaling operation, two kinds of scaling can be further distinguished: (1) scaling up or upscaling which is translating information from finer scales (smaller grain sizes or extents) to broader scales (large grain sizes and extents), and (2) scaling down or downscaling which is translating information from broader scales to finer scales Several... identifying characteristic scales provides a key to profound understanding and enlightened scaling Scale effects usually refer to the changes in the result of a study due to a change in the scale at which the study is conducted Effects of changing scale on sampling 3 J Wu, K.B Jones, H Li, and O.L Loucks (eds.), Scaling and Uncertainty Analysis in Ecology: Methods and Applications, 3–15 © 2006 Springer Printed... Multidimensional Scaling Eribaum Associates., Hillsdale, New Jersey CHAPTER 2 PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS OF SCALING JIANGUO WU AND HARBIN LI 2.1 INTRODUCTION Transferring information between scales or organizational levels is generally referred to as scaling (Wu and Li, Chapter 1), and is inevitable in both basic research and its applications Scaling is the essence of prediction and understanding both of which... disciplines ranging from physics, engineering, biology, to social sciences Two general scaling approaches can be distinguished: similarity-based scaling and dynamic model-based scaling methods (Blöschl and Sivapalan 1995) Similarity-based scaling methods are rooted in the concepts and principles of similarity and self-similarity and often characterized by relatively simple mathematical or statistical scaling. .. OF SCALE AND SCALING 11 methods for interpolation, sampling, coarse-graining, fine-graining, and extrapolation may be used together to achieve the overall goal of scaling In general, to make the concept of scale operational, one needs to be specific about the scale components (e.g., grain, extent, coverage, spacing) To put the concept of scaling into action, one has to invoke specific scaling operations... with scaling? This is the focus of our next chapter, where we will discuss two general scaling approaches: similarity-based and dynamic model-based scaling A dozen specific scaling methods will also be examined in terms of their assumptions, ways of dealing with spatial heterogeneity and nonlinear interactions, and accuracy of scaling gatekeeper Media perceptions and portrayals of pastoralists in Kenya, India and China Mike Shanahan 154: April 2013 Acknowledgements This report benefits from discussions between the author and the following participants in a workshop in Kenya in 2012: Jeremy Swift, Saverio Krätli, Ced Hesse, Gongbuzeren, Hu Jingping, Li Wenjun, Srijit Mishra, Ravindra Adusumilli Wassan, Kamal Kishore, Ilse Koehler Rollefson, Lila Buckley, Victor Orindi, Izzy Birch and Michael O Odhiambo Ria Sen assisted with the initial testing of coding system used in the article content analysis The research presented here, and the writing that explains it, were funded by the Ford Foundation within the context of the oneyear IIED project New perspectives on climate resilient drylands development (see www.iied.org/new-perspectives-climate-resilient-drylands-development) The editing, production and printing of this publication were funded by UK Aid from the UK Government, however the views expressed not necessarily reflect the views of the UK Government, nor the Ford Foundation The Gatekeeper series of the Natural Resources Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) is produced by the Agroecology Team The series aims to highlight key topics in the field of sustainable natural resource management Each paper reviews a selected issue of contemporary importance and draws preliminary conclusions for development that are particularly relevant for policymakers, researchers and planners References are provided to important sources and background material Dr Mike Shanahan is the Press Officer at IIED and the former News Editor of the SciDev Net news agency He is a co-founder of the Climate Change Media Partnership and of the Biodiversity Media Alliance, which both aim to improve media coverage of these issues in developing countries Mike is a member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Commission on Education and Communication He has written as a freelance science journalist for The Economist and Nature and blogs on environment topics at Under the Banyan Mike previously worked on research and communications for environmental and human rights projects in Asia and Latin America and has a doctorate in tropical rainforest ecology from the University of Leeds (UK) Media perceptions and portrayals of pastoralists in Kenya, India and China Executive Summary Resilient food systems depend on appropriate policies that enable people to take advantage of their own adaptive capacity Pastoralists use their mobility to take advantage of resources – pasture and water – that are patchily distributed in space and time Pastoralism can make major contributions to food security, livelihoods and economic prosperity However, these benefits often go unacknowledged – by policy makers, donors and the public at large This is in part because of development and media narratives that paint pastoralism as something bad that needs to change This paper explores how the media portrays pastoralism To so, we analysed the content of newspaper articles about pastoralists in Kenya, China and India, and also invited journalists in these countries to complete an online survey and telephone interview We identified significant gaps – and inter-country differences – in the media’s portrayal of pastoralists In Kenya, pastoralists feature mostly in ‘bad news’ stories of conflict and drought They appear vulnerable and lacking in agency Stories make almost no mention of the benefits that pastoralists bring In China, the media presented pastoralists as the cause of environmental degradation and as (generally happy) beneficiaries of government investment and settlement projects In India, newspapers tended to portray pastoralists with more pity, as people whose rights to grazing land had been taken away and whose livelihoods were at risk as pastures dwindle and locally resilient livestock breeds disappear Overall coverage of pastoralism in India was rare however, and journalists there stated that pastoralists are ‘invisible’ to editors of national newspapers In all three countries, important topics such as climate change, the economic importance of pastoralism and the links between mobility and resilience, were under-reported The majority of articles about pastoralists failed to include their voices, and stories that focused on women and children were uncommon We discuss these patterns and suggest ways to ensure more accurate media coverage of pastoralism and its potential to contribute to sustainable development in a changing climate We show that improved media coverage of pastoralism is part of the institutional capacity that is needed to ensure resilient food systems can be made real Improved ecoliteracy among journalists and editors can help strengthen the resilience of vulnerable communities and national food systems alike, and will become more important as climate change takes hold 2 gatekeeper 154: April 2013 Media perceptions and ...ADVANCES IN ROBOT KINEMATICS Advances in Robot Kinematics Edited by I Jo ef Stefan Institute Ljubljana, Slovenia and B. ROTH Stanford University California, U.S.A. Mechanisms and Motion ý ý ž JADRAN LENAR A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 1-4020-4940-4 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4940-8 (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-4941-2 (e-book) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4941-5 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands. Preface This is the tenth book in the series of Advances in Robot Kinematics. Two were produced as workshop proceedings, Springer published one book in 1991 and since 1994 Kluwer published a book every two years without interruptions. These books deal with the theory and practice of robot kinematics and treat the motion of robots, in particular robot manipulators, without regard to how this motion is produced or con- trolled. Each book of Advances in Robot Kinematics reports the most recent research projects and presents many new discoveries. The issues addressed in this book are fundamentally kinematic in nature, including synthesis, calibration, redundancy, force control, dex- terity, inverse and forward kinematics, kinematic singularities, as well as over-constrained systems. Methods used include line geometry, quater- nion algebra, screw algebra, and linear algebra. These methods are ap- plied to both parallel and serial multi-degree-of-freedom systems. The en application. All the contributions had been rigorously reviewed by independent reviewers and fifty three articles had been recommended for publica- tion. They were introduced in seven chapters. The authors discussed their results at the tenth international symposium on Advances in Robot Kinematics which was held in June 2006 in Ljubljana, Slovenia. The symposium was organized by Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, under the patronage of IFToMM - International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science. We are grateful to the authors for their contributions and for their efficiency in preparing the manuscripts, and to the reviewers for their timely reviews and recommendations. We are also indebted to the per- sonnel at Springer for their excellent technical and editorial support. Jadran Lenarˇciˇc and Bernard Roth, editors results should interest researchers, teachers and students, in fields of gineering and mathematics related to robot theory, design, control and Contents Methods in Kinematics J. Andrade-Cetto, F. Thomas Wire-based tracking using mutual information 3 G. Nawratil The control number as index for Stewart Gough platforms 15 C. Innocenti, D. Paganelli Determining the 3×3 rotation matrices that satisfy three linear equations in the direction cosines 23 P.M. Larochelle A polar decomposition based displacement metric for a finite region of SE(n)33 J P. Merlet, P. Donelan On the regularity of the inverse Jacobian of parallel robots 41 P. Fanghella, C. Galletti, E. Giannotti Parallel robots that change their group of motion 49 A.P. Murray, B.M. Korte, J.P. Schmiedeler Approximating planar, morphing curves with rigid-body linkages Annals of Mathematics On De Giorgi’s conjecture in dimensions 4 and 5 By Nassif Ghoussoub and Changfeng Gui* Annals of Mathematics, 157 (2003), 313–334 On De Giorgi’s conjecture in dimensions 4 and 5 By Nassif Ghoussoub and Changfeng Gui* 1. Introduction In this paper, we develop an approach for establishing in some important cases, a conjecture made by De Giorgi more than 20 years ago. The problem originates in the theory of phase transition and is so closely connected to the theory of minimal hypersurfaces that it is sometimes referred to as “the - version of Bernstein’s problem for minimal graphs”. The conjecture has been completely settled in dimension 2 by the authors [15] and in dimension 3 in [2], yet the approach in this paper seems to be the first to use, in an essential way, the solution of the Bernstein problem stating that minimal graphs in Euclidean space are necessarily hyperplanes provided the dimension of the ambient space is not greater than 8. We note that the solution of Bernstein’s problem was also used in [18] to simplify an argument in [9]. Here is the conjecture as stated by De Giorgi [12]. Conjecture 1.1. Suppose that u is an entire solution of the equation (1.1) ∆u + u −u 3 =0, |u|≤1,x=(x  ,x n ) ∈ R n satisfying (1.2) ∂u ∂x n > 0,x∈ R n . Then, at least for n ≤ 8, the level sets of u must be hyperplanes. The conjecture may be considered together with the following natural, but not always essential condition: (1.3) lim x n →±∞ u(x  ,x n )=±1. The nonlinear term in the equation is a typical example of a two well potential and the PDE describes the shape of a transitional layer from one ∗ N. Ghoussoub was partially supported by a grant from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. C. Gui was partially supported by NSF grant DMS-0140604 and a grant from the Research Foundation of the University of Connecticut. 314 NASSIF GHOUSSOUB AND CHANGFENG GUI phase to another of a fluid or a mixture. The conjecture essentially states that the basic configuration near the interface should be unique and should depend solely on the distance to that interface. One could consider the same problem with a more general nonlinearity (1.4) ∆u − F  (u)=0, |u|≤1,x∈ R n where F ∈ C 2 [−1, 1] is a double well potential, i.e. (1.5)  F (u) > 0,u∈ (−1, 1),F(−1) = F (1) = 0 F  (−1) = F  (1) = 0,F  (−1) > 0,F  (1) > 0. Most of the discussion in this paper only needs the above conditions on F . However, Theorem 1.2 below requires the following additional symmetry con- dition: (1.6) F (−u)=F (u),u∈ (−1, 1). Note that equation (1.4) with F (u)= 1 4 (1 − u 2 ) 2 , reduces to (1.1). Recent developments on the conjecture can be found in [15], [4], [7], [14], [2], [1]. Some earlier works on this subject can be found in [12], [20]–[24]. Modica was first to obtain (partial) results for n =2.Astrong form of the De Giorgi Conjecture was proved for n =2by the authors [15], and later for n =3by Ambrosio-Cabre [2]. If one replaces (1.2) and (1.3) by the following uniform convergence assumption: (1.3)  u(x  ,x n ) →±1asx n →±∞ uniformly in x  ∈ R n , one may then ask whether u(x)=g(x n + T ) for some T ∈ R, where g is the solution of the corresponding one-dimensional ODE. This is referred to as the Gibbons conjecture, which was first established by the authors in [15] for n =3,and later proved for all dimensions in [4], [7] and [14] independently. The ideas used in [15] for the proof of the Gibbons conjecture in dimension 3, were refined and used in two separate directions: First in [4] where a RESEARCH Open Access Trends in the clinical characteristics of HIV- infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania between 2002 and 2009 Elvin H Geng 1* , Peter W Hunt 1 , Lameck O Diero 6 , Sylvester Kimaiyo 6 , Geofrey R Somi 4 , Pius Okong 8 , David R Bangsberg 3,7 , Mwebesa B Bwana 3 , Craig R Cohen 1 , Juliana A Otieno 10 , Deo Wabwire 9 , Batya Elul 11 , Denis Nash 11 , Philippa J Easterbrook 5 , Paula Braitstein 2 , Beverly S Musick 2 , Jeffrey N Martin 1 , Constantin T Yiannoutsos 2 and Kara Wools-Kaloustian 2 Abstract Background: East Africa has experienced a rapid expansion in access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV- infected patients. Regionally representative soci o-demographic, laboratory and clinical characteristics of patients accessing ART over time and across sites have not been well described. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of characteristics of HIV-infected adults initiating ART between 2002 and 2009 in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania and in the International Epidemiologic Databases to Evaluate AIDS Consortium. Characteristics associated with advanced disease (defined as either a CD4 cell count level of less than 50 cells/mm 3 or a WHO Stage 4 condition) at the time of ART initiation and use of stavudine (D4T) or nevirapine (NVP) wer e identified using a log-link Poisson model with robust standard errors. Results: Among 48, 658 patients (6 9% from Kenya, 22% from Uganda and 9% from Tanzania) accessing ART at 30 clinic sites, the median age at the time of ART initiation was 37 years (IQR: 31-43) and 65% were women. Pre- therapy CD4 counts rose from 87 cells/mm 3 (IQR: 26-161) in 2002-03 to 154 cells/mm 3 (IQR: 71-233) in 2008-09 (p < 0.001). Accessing ART at advanced disea se peaked at 35% in 2005-06 and fell to 27% in 2008-09. D4T use in the initial regimen fell from a peak of 88% in 2004-05 to 59% in 2008-09, and a greater extent of decline was observed in Uganda than in Kenya and Tanzania. Self-pay for ART peaked at 18% in 2003, but fell to less than 1% by 2005. In multivariable analyses, accessing ART at advanced immunosuppression was associated with male sex, women without a history of treatment for prevention of mother to child transmission (both as compared with women with such a history) and younger age after adjusting for year of ART initiation and country of residence. Receipt of D4T in the initial regimen was associated with female sex, earlier year of ART initiation, higher WHO stage, and lower CD4 levels at ART initiation and the absence of co-prevalent tuberculosis. Conclusions: Public health ART services in east Africa have improved over time, but the fraction of patients accessing ART with advanced immunosuppression is still high, men consistently access ART with more advanced disease, and D4T continues to be common in most settings. Strategies to facilitate access to ART, overcome barriers among men and reduce D4T use are needed. * Correspondence: genge@php.ucsf.edu 1 Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California at San Francisco, 995 Potrero Avenue, San Francisco, USA Full list of author information is available at the end of the article Geng et al. Journal of the International Fudan J Hum Soc Sci DOI 10.1007/s40647-016-0136-9 ORIGINAL PAPER A Comparative Analysis of Environmental Courts in Sweden and China Cuimin Wang1,2 Received: January 2015 / Accepted: 30 May 2016 Ó Fudan University 2016 Abstract The numbers of environmental courts and tribunals have been increasing tremendously in the twenty-first century in various countries Facing with the challenges of environmental disputes explosion, China has to keep up with the trend A system of environmental courts from institution to procedure rules has been established according to the Swedish Environmental Code of 1999 In contrast, the environmental courts in China are far from perfect, and the reforms of the environmental courts lack unified legal grounds, specific structural design, and clear procedure rules An analysis concerning the origin and development, standing, the composition of judges, the litigation costs of the Sweden environmental courts will be revealing and beneficial for the bettering of the Chinese environmental courts system Keywords Environmental courts Á Comparative analysis Á Environmental dispute resolution system Á Reform proposal Introduction The numbers of environmental courts and tribunals (ECTs) have been increasing tremendously in the twenty-first century in various countries More than three hundred and fifty ECTs have been established in 41 countries by 2009 (Pring and Pring 2009: xi) Facing with the challenges of environmental dispute explosion, & Cuimin Wang 11110270009@fudan.edu.cn KoGuan Law School, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China 123 C Wang China has to keep up with the trend (Yang and Huang 2012: 66).1 Up to the year of 2014, three hundred and seventy-one environmental courts have been established in China However, environmental courts need reform due to the lack of basic legal grounds, specific institutions, and procedural rules Many environmental disputes especially those of group lawsuit and public interest litigation failed to be remedied or failed to be remedied timely (Xiao 2010: 32).2 Therefore, it is of vital importance to examine the judicial system concerning environmental litigation and to learn the successful experiences outside The reasons for choosing Swedish environmental court system as the object of comparative study are threefold Firstly, Sweden and China both emphasize public enforcement rather than private enforcement in the field of environment protection Secondly, ECTs are a species of specialized courts and tribunals Types of ECTs vary depending on the legal culture and political situation of each country In essence, types of ECTs are similar in Sweden and China They all chose to set up a specialized chamber, bench, or panel of judges within the selected general court to hear environmental cases Finally, the environmental judicial system in Sweden is relatively mature after a long time development, with specialized environmental courts being established in the judicial system according to the Swedish Environmental Code (EC) of 1999 With a sound institutional and procedural basis, the system in Sweden has been very successful in preventing the environmental tort disputes Previous literature chiefly examines single ECT in depth or reports on multiple ECTs without evaluating and comparing their specific features until appearance of Green Justice: creating and improving ECTs written by George Pring and Catherine Pring It identified 12 critical characteristics and presented us with examples of successes and failures from around the world It provided a framework against which to assess existing or proposed institutions It is beneficial for overall construction of environment courts in China when we select two countries that are similar on the law enforcement model and the type of ECTs to compare on the basis of former studies This thesis compares the setting structure of environmental courts and environmental dispute litigation resolution ... pastoralists in Kenya, India and China 20 Credit: Victor Orindi What’s the story in Kenya? Pastoralists and their livestock at a watering point in Kinna, Isiolo county in 2010 In Kenya, pastoralists... pastoralists China India Pastoralists need to settle and farm Kenya land instead of herding livestock China India Kenya Pastoralism helps to maintain a healthy environment China India Kenya Pastoralists... pastoralists in Kenya, China and India, and also invited journalists in these countries to complete an online survey and telephone interview We identified significant gaps – and inter-country