Discourse analysis

CONTENTS PREFACE UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION I DEFINITION OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS II SOME USES OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS .3 III THE SCOPE OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS .6 UNIT 2: SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE .8 I MANNER OF PRODUCTION II SPOKEN TEXTS III WRITTEN TEXTS .10 IV DIFFERENCES IN FORM BETWEEN WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE 10 V PRACTICE IDENTIFYING TEXT TYPES .14 UNIT 3: PARTICIPANTS IN DISCOURSE: RELATIONSHIPS, ROLES, AND IDENTITIES 19 I POWER AND COMMUNITY 19 II STANCE AND STYLE 21 III SOCIAL ROLES AND PARTICIPANT STRUCTURE 21 IV PRACTICE .24 UNIT 4: THE ROLE OF CONTEXT IN INTERPRETATION 25 I THE CONTEXT OF SITUATION 25 II THE PRINCIPLES OF LOCAL INTERPRETATION OF ANALOGY 33 UNIT 5: PRIOR TEXTS, PRIOR DISCOURSE 35 I REGISTER: REPEATED STYLES FOR REPEATED SITUATIONS 35 II GENRE : RECURRENT FORMS, RECURRENT ACTIONS 36 III COHESION 37 V COHERENCE 47 V PRACTICE 48 REFERENCES 52 PREFACE This packet, Discourse Analysis, was designed and compiled for English majors at Quang Bing University It contains Units with knowledge accommodating students basically understand about the concept of discourse analysis, some applications in daily life as well as academic settings In Unit 2, students will be learnt different types of discourses and manner of language production; from Unit to Unit 4, the issues relating to language use in communication - participants, roles, situations, contexts, co-text, and interpretations will be presented Unit will discuss on register, genres, cohesion and coherence in discourse Beside theoretical issues, practical exercises will be given to students so that they can analyze and learn discourse elements based on authentic texts In order to obtain good results in Discourse Analysis, before coming to a class, students should study and review vocabulary relating to the lessons It would also be very helpful if students found real texts on the internet or from other materials to analyze and interpret their discourse elements, then get thorough knowledge about them Although I have tried to compile this material as accurately as possible, it is difficult to avoid making some mistakes I welcome any further comments and criticisms that may assist in improving this Discourse Analysis Thank you UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION I Definition of discourse analysis - Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used in texts and contexts, it is also referred as discourse studies Developed in the 1970s, discourse analysis is concerned with "the use of language in a running discourse, continued over a number of sentences, and involving the interaction of speaker (or writer) and auditor (or reader) in a specific situational context, and within a framework of social and cultural conventions" (Abrams and Harpham, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 2005) - Discourse analysis has been described as an interdisciplinary study of discourse within linguistics, though it has also been adopted (and adapted) by researchers in numerous other fields in the social sciences Theoretical perspectives and approaches used in discourse analysis include the following: applied linguistics, conversation analysis, pragmatics, rhetoric, stylistics, and text linguistics, among many others - To sum up, discourse is a vast subject area within linguistics, encompassing as it does the analysis of spoken and written language over or above concerns such as the structure of clause or sentence (Michael McCathy, 1991) Linguisic funcions of discourse analysis is centrally occupied with two main linguistics functions: interpersonal and textual Because it focuses on both the way in which people use language as a means of interacting with others and their ability to construct coherent/cohesive texts II Some uses of discourse analysis Discourse analysis can be used to answer many different kinds of questions Some of these questions have to with language - What is involved in ‘knowing a language’? - How words, sentences, and utterances get associated with meanings? - How does language change? - How children learn to talk and how people learn new languages? - Linguists have long been interested in the structure of words (morphology) and sentences (syntax) Discourse analysts have moved the description of structure up a level, looking at actual stretches of connected text or transcript of talk and providing descriptions of structure of paragraphs, stories, and conversations - Language scholars also ask questions about meaning (semantics), and in a natural progression from work in semantics and syntax, discourse analysts have asked about what goes where in stretches of talk longer than words and phrases Discourse analysis has shed light on how meaning can be created via the arrangement of chunks of information across a series of sentences or via the details of how a conversationalist takes up and responds to what has just been said Discourse analysis has shed light on how speakers indicate heir semantics intentions and how hearers interpret what they hear, and on the cognitive abilities that underlie human symbol use In the field of pragmatics, discourse analysts looking at corpora of actual talk have helped to describe the culturally-shaped interpretive principles on which understanding is based and how people (and sometimes other entities) are thought to perform actions by means of utterances Work on cohesion examines the meanings of utterances in their linguistic contexts Thanks to discourse analysis, we could more thoroughly understand about linguistic variation and language change from both perspectives: internal causes (such as speakers’ tendency to treat new words as analogous to old ones, adapting foreign sounds and words to the phonological and morphological patterns of the borrowing language) and external causes (such as geographical or social isolation of one group from another, which often leads to divergence in the ways they pronounce words and construct phrases and sentences) Discourse analysts have contributed to research on language acquisition They have helped describe how speakers acquire new competence and what it is they are acquiring They have shown that knowing a language means not just knowing its grammar and vocabulary but also knowing how o structure paragraphs and arguments and participate in conversations the way speakers of the language do, and it means understanding which sentence types can accomplish with purposes in social interaction: what might work as an apology, for example, or how o decline an invitation Discourse analysts also help answer questions about the roles of language in human cognition, art, and social life which have been asked for centuries: why people tell stories?, what are the functions of “small talk”? how people adapt language to specialized situations like teaching? what is persuasion and how does it work? how people negotiate the multiple roles and identities they may be called on to adopt? Discourse analysis continues to be useful in: - human life, social relations, and communication such as anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, human-computer interaction - the study of personal identity and social identification Therefore, we have to study discourse analysis because of a number of reasons as follows: - as linguists, to find out how language works, to improve our undertanding of an important kind of human activity - as educators, to find out how good texts work, so that we can focus on teaching our students these writing/speaking strategies - as critical analists, to discover meanings in the text which are not obvious on the surface (e.g., analysing a politician’s speech to see their preconceptions) III The scope of discourse analysis IV Data for discourse analysis The material with which discourse analysts work consists of actual instances of discourse, which are sometimes referred to as “texts” However, there some differences between a text and a discourse Text is a message coded in auditory or visual medium, for example, notices, road signs, etc Discourse is an interpersonal activity/transaction between speaker and hearer- written as well as spoken such as interviews, commentaries, etc Discourse is linguistic communication seen as transaction between a speaker and a hearer, as in an interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its social purpose  Discourse analysis focuses on the structure of naturally occurring spoken language, as found such ‘discourses’ as conversations  Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found such ‘texts’ as essays Discourse analysis is divided into spoken discourse analysis which refers to study of conversations, dialogues, spoken monologues, etc and written discourse analysis which refers to study of written texts, such as essays, news political speeches, etc Discourse analysts use a collection of techniques, rather than a single technique to analyse and interpret a discourse UNIT 2: Spoken and written language I Manner of production From the point of view of production, it is clear that spoken and written language make somewhat different demands on language-producers The speaker has available to him the full range of 'voice quality' effects (as well as facial expression, postural and gestural systems) Armed with these he can always override the effect of the words he speaks Thus the speaker who says 'I'd really like to', leaning forward, smiling, with a 'warm, breathy' voice quality, is much more likely to be interpreted as meaning what he says, than another speaker uttering the same words, leaning away, brow puckered, with a 'sneering, nasal' voice quality These paralinguistic cues are denied to the writer We shall generally ignore paralinguistic features in spoken language in this book since the data we shall quote from is spoken by co-operative adults who are not exploiting paralinguistic resources against the verbal meanings of their utterances but are, rather, using them to reinforce the meaning Not only is the speaker controlling the production of communicative systems which are different from those controlled by the writer, he is also processing that production under circumstances which are considerably more demanding The speak & must monitor what it is that he has just said, and determine whether it matches his intentions, while he is uttering his current phrase and) monitoring that, and simultaneously planning his next utterance and fitting that into the overall pattern of what he wants to say and monitoring, moreover, not only his own performance but its reception by his hearer He has no permanent record of what he has & said earlier, and only under unusual circumstances does he have notes which remind him what he wants to say next The writer, on the contrary, may look over what he has already written, pause between each word with no fear of his interlocutor interrupting him, take his time in choosing a particular word, even looking it up in the dictionary if necessary, check his progress with his notes, reorder what he has written, and even change his mind about what he wants to say Whereas the speaker is under considerable pressure to on talking during the period allotted to him, the writer is characteristically under no such pressure Whereas the speaker knows that any words which pass his lips will be heard by his interlocutor and, if they are not what he intends, he will have to undertake active, public 'repair', the writer can cross out and rewrite in the privacy of his study There are, of course, advantages for the speaker He can observe his interlocutor and, if he wishes to, modify what is he saying to make it more accessible to his hearer The writer has no access to immediate feedback and simply has to imagine the reader's reaction It is interesting to observe the behaviour of individuals when given a choice of conducting a piece of business inperson or in writing Under some circumstances a face-to-face interaction is preferred but, in others, for a varietv of different reasons, the individual may prefer to conduct his transaction in writing Whereas in a spoken interaction the speaker has the advantage of being able to monitor his listener's minute-by-minute reaction to what he says, he also suffers from the disadvantage of exposing his own feelings ('leaking'; Ekman & Friesen, 1969) and of having to speak clearly and concisely and make immediate response to whichever way his interlocutor reacts Good language teaching goes beyond words Language teachers should expose their students to spoken and written texts right from the start of their learning II Spoken texts The problems encountered with the notion of 'text' as the verbal record of a communicative act become a good deal more complex when we consider what is meant by spoken 'text' The simplest view to assume is that a tape-recording of a communicative act will preserve the 'text' The tape-recording may also preserve a good deal that may be extraneous to the text - coughing, chairs creaking, buses going past, the scratch of a match lighting a cigarette We shall insist-that these events not constitute part of the text III Written texts The notion of 'text' as a printed record is familiar in the study of literature A 'text' may be differently presented in different editions, with different type-face, on different sizes of paper, in one or two columns, and we still assume, from one edition to the next, that the different presentations all represent the same 'text' Written texts include stories, comic strips, instructions, recipes, powerpoint presentations, emails, text messages on mobile phones, notices, letters, billboard, newsletters, posters, scripts for plays and performances, factual texts and explanations, or any other piece of written language IV Differences in form between written and spoken language It is not our intention here to discuss the many different forms of spoken language which can be identified even within one geographical area like Britain Clearly there are dialectal differences, accent differences, as well as register differences depending on variables like the topic of discussion and the roles of the participants (see e.g Trudgill, 1974 and Hudson, 1980 for discussion of these sorts of differences) There is however, one further distinction which is rarely noted, but which it is important to draw attention to here That is the distinction between the speech of those whose language highly influenced by long and constant immersion in written language forms, and the speech of those whose language is relatively uninfluenced by written forms of language It is of course the case that it is the speech of the first set whose language tends to be described in descriptions of the language (grammars), since descriptions are typically written by middle-aged people who have spent long years reading written language In particular situations the speech of, say, an academic, particularly if he is saying something he has said or thought about before, may have a great deal in common with written 10 38 39 + Ellipsis is the emission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised This is not to say that every utterance which is not fully explicit is explicit is elliptical; most messages require some input from the context o make sense of them + Substitution is the replacement of a word or phrase with a "filler" word (such as one, so, or do) to avoid repetition Also called ellipsis-substitution Halliday and Hasan divide the three types of substitution namely nominal, verbal, and clausal (1976: 90) The table below is summary of substitution forms Table 2.7 Substitution Forms Thing (count noun) Nominal Process One(s) The same So Do the same (Nominalized) Be Attribute Say Fact Verbal Clausal report, condition, Process(+…) (): Positive Negative Do Do so So So Not Not 40 modality (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 141) 1) Nominal Substitution One/ Ones The elements of nominal substitution are one, ones and same The substitution one/ ones always function as head of a nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which is itself head of nominal group Look at the example below: a) My pen is too blunt I must get a sharper one (1) The word one is the substitution for pen b) I shoot the hippopotamus with bullets made of platinum because, if I use leaden ones, his hide is sure to flatten ‘em (2) (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 91) In sentence (1) one is the substitution for pen Hence the full form of the sentence is my pen is too blunt I must get a sharperpen Whereas in example (2) bullets is the head of nominal group leaden ones The full form of the nominal group is leaden bullets 2) Verbal Substitution The verbal substitution in English is This operates as the head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and it is always in the final position in the group Here are the examples: a) Does Jean sing? – No, but Mary does (Halliday and Hasan, 1979: 118) b)‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more, I don’t believe you either!’ (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 112) In the example a) does substitues sing; in b) subtitues know the meaning of half those long words The substitution is almost always anaphoric; it may presuppose an element within the same sentence as itself, so that there is already a structural relation linking the presupposed to the presupposing clause; but it frequently substitutes an element in a preceding sentence, and therefore it is a primary source of cohesion within a text Only occasionally, it is cathaporic, which is within the sentence and does not make contribution to cohesion 41 3) Clausal Substitution The words used as substitution are so and not There are three environtments in which clausal substitution take place: report, condition and modality In each of these environments it may take either of two forms, positive or negative; the positive is expressed by so, the negative by not a) Substitution of Reported Clauses Look at the example below: ‘ if you’ve seen them so often, of course you know what they’re like’ ‘I believe so,’ Alice replied throughtfully (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 131) Here, so substitutes I know what they’re like The reported clause that is substituted by so or not is always declarative, whatever the mood of the presupposed clauses There is no substitution for interogative or imperative indirect questions or commands), and therefore the clauses substitution not following verbs such as wonder, order or ask b) Substitution of Conditional Clauses A second context for clausal substitution os that of conditional structure Conditional clauses are frequently substituted by soand not, especially following if but also in other forms such as assuming so, suppose not: (1) Everyone seems to think he’s guilty If so, noo doubt he’ll offer to resign (2) We should recgnize the place when we come to it Yes, but supposing not: thenn what we do? (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134) In sentence (1) so substitutes he is guilty, whereas not in the sentence (2) substitues we don’t recognize the place when we come to it c) Substitution of Modalized Clauses Finally, so and not occur as substitution for clauses expressing modality Look at the example below: ‘Oh, I beg your pardon!’ cried Alice hastily, afraid that she had hurt the poor animal’s feelings ‘I quite forgot you didn’t like cats’ Not like cats!’ cried the mouse, in a shrill, passionate voice, 42 ‘Would you like cats if you were me?’ ‘Well, perhaps not, said Alice in a shooting tone: … (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134) Modality is the speaker’s assessment of the probabilities inherent in the situation, as in the example above These may be expressed either by modal forms of the verb (will, would, can, could, may, must, should, is, to and ought to), or by modal adverbs such as perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly, surely; the latter are frequently followed by a clausal substitute, with the proviso already noted, that those expressing certainly not accept substitution in the positive, though they in the negative + Conjunctions: A conjunction is a word which connects two words or clauses or sentences and shows the relation between them They are used to avoid making the text seem like bullet points and to make the text flow Three basic types of conjunctions: the coordinating conjunctions, the subordinating conjunctions, and the correlative conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common one The main function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words, phrases, and clauses together, which are usually grammatically equal Aside from that, this type of conjunctions is placed in between the words or groups of words that it links together, and not at the beginning or at the end For you to easily recall the different coordinating conjunctions that you can use, you can just remember the word “FANBOYS,” which stands for: 43 Subordinating Conjunctions This type of conjunctions is used in linking two clauses together Aside from the fact that they introduce a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions also describe the relationship between the dependent clause and the independent clause in the sentence List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions: while, as soon as, although, before, even, if, because, no matter how, whether, wherever, when, until, after, as if, how, if, provided, in that, once, supposing, while, unless, in case, as far as, now that, as, so that, though, since Sample Sentence: Because it is so cold outside, I brought you a jacket By looking at the sentences above, you will easily notice that a subordinating conjunction can be found either at the beginning of the sentence or between the clauses that it links together Aside from that, a comma should also be placed in between the two clauses (independent clause and dependent clause) of the sentence Correlative Conjunctions The correlative conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions which are used to join equal sentence elements together List of Common Correlative Conjunctions: either… or, neither… nor, not only… but also, both… and, whether… or, so… as Examples Neither John nor Marry passed the exam Give me either a cup or a glass Both red and yellow are attractive colours I like neither tea nor coffee He will be either in the room or in the hall John can speak not only English but also French Conjunctive Adverbs 44 Although a conjunctive adverb is not a real conjunction, it functions as conjunction to ease the transition between ideas in a sentence or between sentences Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are: in addition, for example, however, therefore, on the contrary, hence, in fact, otherwise, as a result, indeed, still, thus, on the other hand, furthermore, instead, incidentally, after all, finally, likewise, meanwhile, consequently Conjunctive adverbs can be placed at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the sentence Lexical cohesion comes about through the selection of items that are related insome way to those that have gone before (Halliday, 1985: 310) Types of lexicalcohesion are repetition, synonymy and collocation Furthermore, Halliday and Hasan (1976: 288) divide types of lexical cohesion into reiteration (repetition, synonymy or nearsynonym, superordinate and general word) and collocation a Reiteration Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lexical item, at one end of the scale 1) Repetition The most direct form of lexical cohesion is repetition of a lexical item; e.g bear in sentence Algy met a bear The bear was bulgy(Halliday, 1985: 310) Here the second occurrence of bear harks back to the first 2) Synonym or Near – synonym Synonym is used to mean ‘sameness of meaning’ (Palmer, 1981: 88) Lexical cohesion results from the choice of a lexical item that is in some sense synonymous with a preceding one; for example sound with noise, cavalary with horses in He was just wondering which road to take when he was started by a noise from behind him It was the noise of trotting horses He dismounted and led his horse as quickly as he could along the right-hand road The sound of the cavalarly grew rapidly nearer …(Halliday, 1985: 310) 3) Superordinate 45 Superordinate is term for words that refer to the upper class itself (Palmer, 1981: 85) In contrary, term for words that refer to the lower class itself is hyponym For example: Henry’s bought himself a new Jaguar He practically lives in the car (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 278) Here, car refers back to Jaguar; and the car is a superordinate of Jaguar 4) General Word The general words, which correspond to major classes of lexical items, are very commonly used with cohesive force They are on the borderline between lexical items and substitutes Not all general words are used cohesively; in fact, only the nouns are when it has the same referent as whatever it is presupposing, and when it is accompanied by a reference item (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 280-1) For example: There’s a boy climbing the old elm That old thing isn’t very safe (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 280) Here, the reiteration takes the form of a general word thing b Collocation Collocation is lexical cohesion which depends upon their tendency to co-occur in texts (Firth, 1957 in Lyons, 1977: 612) For example: A little fat man of Bombay Was smoking one very hot day But a bird called a snipe(chim dẽ giun) Flew away with his pipe, Which vexed the fat man of Bombay (Halliday, 1985: 312) (/vekst/: annoy or worry somebody) There is a strong collocational bond between smoke and pipe, which makes the occurrence of pipe in line cohesive Palmer assumes that collocation is very largely determined by meaning and it is sometimes fairly idiosyncratic ([idiəsiη'krætik]: phong cách riêng tác giả) and cannot easily be predicated in terms of the meaning of the associated words (1981: 76) To easier restriction of collocation, he also divides three kinds of collocational restriction First, some 46 are based wholly on the meaning or the item Secondly, some are based on range Thirdly, some restrictions are collocational in the strictest sense (1981: 78) V Coherence Coherence A term of text linguistics used to refer to sense relations between single units (sentences or propositions) of a text Due to these relations, the text appears to be logically and semantically consistent for the reader-hearer Text analysis focusing on coherence is primarily concerned with the construction and configuration of sense in the text i.e how its single constituents are connected so that the text becomes meaningful for the addressee rather than being a random sequence of unrelated sentences and clauses In short, it means the degree to which a piece of discourse makes sense Cohesion and coherence Cohesion is the use of language forms to indicate semantic relations between elements in a discourse It is grammatical and lexical relationship within a text or sentence It can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give it meaning There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical, referring to the structural content, a lexical, referring to the language content of the piece Coherence is grammatical and semantic interconnectedness between sentences that form a text It is the semantic structure, not its formal meaning, which create coherence Coherency is a condition where sentences in a text hang together It can occur in relation of sentences that immediately follow each other Coherency grammatically arises when a text contains transition signals or when it possesses consistent pronoun Semantically, a text is said coherence when there is unity of meaning among elements of the texts Frames, Plots and Coherence Discourse is about the world as we experience it, and discourse helps us to create our experiential world This can be seen not only on the level of choices 47 of words and structures that make some worlds easier to imagine than others, but also on the level of the “frame” and “plots” that structure our sense of what is going on now or what happened in the past A frame is a complex cognitive structure that links together the attributes of a concept in a web of relationships Activating one node in this web might activate others, so that DRIVER might evoke the frame for CAR, or vice versa According to frame semantics, every word and grammatical structure is associated which “relates the elements and entities associated with a particular cultural embedded scene from human experience”, and words and structures can only be interpreted in the context of the frame they evoke Differences among words hat refer to the same thing, like coast and shore, may have to with the fact that they are associated with different semantic frames: at least for some speakers of English, coast is connected to the LAND DWELLING frame while shore is connected to the seafaring frame The need for framing shapes discourse in both small- and large-scale ways Like frames, plots are semantic scaffolds are creating worlds in discourse They are prior texts for histories, lives, and personal identities, and other narratives We use plots to fit experience (which is necessarily chaotic) into coherent ways of understanding the world, so how the plots work comes to seem natural, as if it were how the world works There are conventional ways of showing where one is in a plot The organizing principles provided by plot are far broader than just constraints on a single genre, however Because are constraints on the way the world is made to seem meaningful and coherent, they are reflected in linguistic preferences, in music and visual art, and in other symbol systems V Practice Read the following kinds of text types and their core structural features, what is each genre’s plot? 48 Analyse cohesive devices of the following spoken discourses, referring to parts of conversations A: I'm in a big trouble! B: Why is that? A: I saw a mouse in my house! B: Oh, well, all you need to is use a trap 49 A: I don't have one B: Well then, buy one A: Can't afford one B: I can give you mine if you want A: That sounds good B: All you need to is just use some cheese in order to make the mouse come to the trap A: I don't have any cheese B: Okay then, take a piece of bread and put a bit of oil in it and put it in the trap A: I don't have oil B: Well, then put only a small piece of bread A: I don't have bread B: Then what is the mouse doing at your house?! A: I have a perfect son B: Does he smoke? A: No, he doesn't B: Does he drink whiskey? A: No, he doesn't B: Does he ever come home late? A: No, he doesn't B: I guess you really have the perfect son How old is he? A: He will be six months old next Wednesday Analyse and interpret two discourses below The first is a spoken genre to which you have already listened in the classroom and the second is a written genre You need to analyse:  Genre and purpose  Register (key linguistic features)  Cohesion and coherence  Other analyses from class, those most appropriate for each discourse 50  Refer to parts of conversation and readings  Interpret your analysis a) b) The three little pigs 51 REFERENCES Brown Gillian Yule George (1983), Discourse Analysis, Nxb Oxford university press Diệp Quang Ban, Giao tiếp, diễn ngôn cấu tạo văn bản, Nxb Giáo dục, 2009 Gee James Paul (1999), An Introduction to Discourse Analysis-Theory and Method, Nxb Routledge-London Johnstone Barbara (2008), Discourse Analysis, Nxb Blackwell publishing Ltd Nguyễn Hòa, Phân tích diễn ngôn: Một số vấn đề lý luận phương pháp Nxb ĐHQGHN, 2003 Salkie Raphael (1995), Text Discourse Analysis, Nxb Routledge-London http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/discourse-analysis-what-speakersdo-conversation https://www.amazon.com/Discourse-Analysis-BarbaraJohnstone/dp/1405144270 http://www.slideshare.net/cupidlucid/discourse-analysis-presentation-710333 10 http://www.slideshare.net/cupidlucid/discourse-analysis-presentation 52 ... and criticisms that may assist in improving this Discourse Analysis Thank you UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION I Definition of discourse analysis - Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways... preconceptions) III The scope of discourse analysis IV Data for discourse analysis The material with which discourse analysts work consists of actual instances of discourse, which are sometimes... found such ‘discourses’ as conversations  Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found such ‘texts’ as essays Discourse analysis is divided into spoken discourse analysis