Evolutionary psychology the new science of the mind 4th edition david buss test bank

CHAPTER 1: THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENTS LEADING TO EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Chapter Summary Evolution—change over time in organisms—was suspected to occur long before Darwin came on the scene Missing before him however, was a theory about a causal process that explained how organic change could occur His theory of natural selection was Darwin’s crowning contribution to evolutionary biology It has three essential ingredients: variation, inheritance, and selection Natural selection occurs when some inherited variations lead to greater reproductive success than other inherited variations In short, natural selection is defined as changes over time due to the differential reproductive success of inherited variations Natural selection provided a unifying theory for the biological sciences, and solved several important mysteries First, it provided a causal process by which change, the modification of organic structures, takes place over time Second, it proposed a theory to account for the origin of new species Third, it united all living forms into one grand tree of descent, and simultaneously revealed the place of humans in the grand scheme of life In addition to natural selection, Darwin devised a second evolutionary theory: the theory of sexual selection Sexual selection deals with the evolution of characteristics due to the success in mating rather than success in survival Sexual selection operates through two processes: intrasexual competition and intersexual selection In intrasexual competition, victors in same-sex contests are more likely to reproduce owing to increased sexual access to mates In intersexual selection, individuals with qualities that are preferred by the opposite sex are more likely to reproduce Both processes of sexual selection result in evolution A major stumbling block for many biologists was that fact that Darwin lacked a workable theory of inheritance This theory was provided when the work of Gregor Mendel was recognized and synthesized with Darwin’s theory of natural selection in a movement called the Modern Synthesis According to this theory, inheritance does not involve blending of the two parents, but rather is particulate Genes—the fundamental unit of inheritance—come in discrete packets that are not blended, but rather are passed on intact from parent to child The particulate theory of inheritance provided the missing ingredient to Darwin’s theory of natural selection Following the Modern Synthesis, two European biologists, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, started a new movement called ethology, which sought to place animal behavior within an evolutionary context by focusing on both the origins and functions of behavior In 1964, the theory of natural selection itself was reformulated in a revolutionary pair of articles published by William D Hamilton The process by which selection operates, according to Hamilton, involves not just classical fitness (the direct production of offspring), but inclusive fitness, which includes the effects of an individual’s actions on the reproductive success of genetic relatives, weighted by the appropriate degree of genetic relatedness The inclusive fitness reformulation provided a more precise theory of the process of natural selection by promoting a “gene’s eye” view of evolutionary selection pressures In 1966, George Williams published the now classic Adaptation and Natural Selection This book had three effects First, it led to the downfall of group selection Second, it promoted the Hamiltonian revolution And third, it provided rigorous criteria for identifying adaptations In the 1970s, Robert Trivers built upon the work of Hamilton and Williams, offering three seminal theories that remain important today: reciprocal altruism, parental investment, and parent-offspring conflict In 1975, Edward O Wilson published Sociobiology: A New Synthesis, which attempted to synthesize all of the key developments in evolutionary biology Wilson’s book created a storm of controversy, mostly because of its final chapter, which focused on humans, offering a series of hypotheses but little empirical data Much of the resistance to Wilson’s book, as well as to using evolutionary theory to explain human behavior, may be traced to several core misunderstandings Contrary to these misunderstandings, evolutionary theory does not imply that human behavior is genetically determined, nor that human behavior is unchangeable It does not imply improbable feats of computation, such as calculating fractions of genetic relatedness And it does not imply optimal design While all these changes were taking place within evolutionary biology, the field of psychology followed a different course—one that was essential to its eventual integration with evolutionary theory Sigmund Freud drew attention to the importance of survival and sexuality by proposing a theory of life-preserving and sexual instincts, paralleling Darwin’s distinction between natural selection and sexual selection In 1890, William James published Principles of Psychology, which proposed that humans have a number of specific instincts In the 1920s, however, U.S psychology turned away from evolutionary ideas and embraced a version of radical behaviorism: the idea that a few highly general principles of learning could account for the complexity of human behavior In the 1960s, however, empirical findings suggested important violations of the general laws of learning Harry Harlow demonstrated that monkeys not prefer wire-mesh “mothers,” even when they receive their primary food reinforcement from those mothers John Garcia showed that organisms could learn some things readily and rapidly Something was going on inside the heads of organisms that could not be accounted for solely by the external contingencies of reinforcement The accumulation of these findings led to the cognitive revolution, reinstating the importance and respectability of looking “inside the heads” of people The cognitive revolution was based on the information processing metaphor—descriptions of mechanisms inside the head that take in specific forms of information as input, transform that information through decision rules, and generate behavior as output The idea that humans might come predisposed or specially equipped to process some kinds of information and not others set the stage for the emergence of evolutionary psychology, which represents a true synthesis of modern psychology and modern evolutionary biology Suggested Readings Buss, D M (2009) The great struggles of life: Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary psychology American Psychologist, 64, 140–148 Confer, J C., Easton, J E., Fleischman, D S., Goetz, C., Lewis, D M., Perilloux, C., & Buss, D M (2010) Evolutionary psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations American Psychologist, 65, 110–126 Darwin, C (1859) The origin of the species London: Murray Dawkins, R (1989) The selfish gene (new edition) New York: Oxford University Press Klein, R G (2008) Out of Africa and the evolution of human behavior Evolutionary Anthropology, 17, 267–281 Williams, G C (1966) Adaptation and natural selection Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Wilson, D S (2007) Evolution for everyone: How Darwin’s theory can change the way we think about our lives New York: Delacorte Press Multiple Choice Questions Which of the following questions is NOT a focus of evolutionary psychology? (c) (a) Why is the mind designed the way that it is? (b) How the components of the mind interact with the environment? (c) What is the relationship between the human mind and the Big Bang? (d) What are the functions of the components of the human mind? Evolution refers to (a) (a) changes over time in organic structure (b) differences between species (c) changes over time in the shape of the human skull (d) differences between men and women Change in life forms over time was postulated (b) (a) first by Darwin (b) well before Darwin’s time (c) well after Darwin’s time (d) first by George Williams Which of the following arguments did Lamarck present? (d) (a) Species originate from microscopic algae (b) Species progress toward a lower form (c) acquisition of inherited characteristics (d) inheritance of acquired characteristics According to Cuvier’s theory of catastrophism, species are (a) (a) extinguished by sudden catastrophes and replaced by different species (b) irradiated by sudden catastrophes, thereafter replacing other species (c) extinguished by gradual elimination due to disease, leaving room for new species (d) irradiated and extinguished, and replaced by the same species Which of the following clues to change in organic structure over time were not known or noted prior to Darwin? (d) (a) cross-species structural similarities (b) cross-species embryological similarities (c) apparent function of traits (d) mechanism to explain change in organic structure over time Which of the following is NOT an example of genetic drift? (a) (a) natural selection (b) founder effect (c) genetic bottleneck (d) mutation Which of the following is NOT one of the three essential processes identified by Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection? (b) (a) variation (b) particulation (c) selection (d) inheritance _ provides the “raw materials” for evolution (a) (a) Variation (b) Particulation (c) Selection (d) Inheritance 10 For evolution to work, successful variations must be _, or passed down reliably from parent to offspring (d) (a) variated (b) particulated (c) selected (d) inherited 11 The process of _ refers to the component of Darwin’s theory of evolution that states that organisms with some heritable attributes leave more offspring because those attributes help with the tasks of survival and reproduction (c) (a) variation (b) particulation (c) selection (d) inheritance 12 In contrast to the theory of natural selection, which focused on adaptations that have arisen as a consequence of successful survival, the theory of focused on adaptations that have arisen as a consequence of successful mating (a) (a) sexual selection (b) internal selection (c) external selection (d) social selection 13 The work of Gregor Mendel documented that (c) (a) evolution is unlikely to have occurred in pea plants (b) evolution is unlikely to have occurred in pea genes (c) inheritance is particulate, not blended (d) inheritance is blended, not particulate 14 A _ is the smallest discrete unit that is inherited by offspring intact, without being broken up or blended (d) (a) genotype (b) phenotype (c) meme (d) gene 15 Ethologists are interested in four key issues, which became known as the four “whys” of behavior advanced by Niko Tinbergen, a founder of ethology Which of the following is not one of the four “whys” of behavior? (a) (a) imprinted influences of behavior (b) immediate influences of behavior (c) developmental influences of behavior (d) function of behavior 16 According to Hamilton (1954), _ is the sum of classical fitness plus the effects the individual’s actions have on the reproductive success of his or her genetic relatives, weighted by the degree of genetic relatedness (c) (a) direct fitness (b) indirect fitness (c) inclusive fitness (d) exclusive fitness 17 Which of the following relatives is least related to you, genetically? (d) (a) grandmother (b) niece (c) half-brother (d) first cousin 18 Williams’s (1966) book clarified the concept of _, an evolved solution to a specific problem that contributes directly or indirectly to successful reproduction (c) (a) genetic drift (b) byproduct (c) adaptation (d) exaptation 19 Which of the following theories was not presented by Trivers in the early 1970s? (b) (a) theory of parental investment (b) theory of gene selection (c) theory of reciprocal altruism (d) theory of parent-offspring conflict 20 Edward O Wilson’s 1975 book ignited controversy for the assertion that much of human behavior could be explained by _ (b) (a) socialization (b) evolutionary biology (c) inclusive fitness theory (d) ethology 21 The last chapter on humans in Edward O Wilson’s 1975 book was (b) (a) based on research documenting the importance of cognition in human behavior (b) based on little empirical work (c) controversial because it portrayed humans as being subject to different evolutionary forces than other animals (d) controversial because it did not account for the role of culture in shaping behavior 22 Which of the following is NOT a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory? (d) (a) genetic determinism (b) Behavior is impervious to change (c) Adaptations are optimally designed (d) Adaptations are designed to confront environmental problems 23 Genetic determinism implies that (a) (a) genes determine behavior (b) behavior is caused by the interaction of genes and environment (c) culture determines all behavior (d) if a trait is natural, it is “good” 24 Human behavior cannot occur without which of the following sets of two ingredients? (c) (a) culture and socialization (b) psychological machinery and natural selection (c) adaptations and environmental input (d) environmental input and developmental activation 25 Knowledge about evolved social psychological adaptations (d) (a) provides evidence that genes play the most important role in shaping behavior (b) suggests that humans are different from all other animals (c) suggests that behavior is not modifiable (d) gives us power to change targeted behaviors 26 Which of the following does not describe evolved psychological mechanisms? (a) (a) Evolved psychological mechanisms are optimally designed (b) Evolved psychological mechanisms are not optimally designed because of evolutionary time lags (c) Evolved psychological mechanisms are associated with costs (d) Adaptations work reasonably well at solving adaptive problems 27 Which of the following is not a critical development in the evolutionary history of humans? (a) (a) descent from mammals (b) bipedal locomotion (c) development of agriculture (d) brain expansion 28 The common ancestor of all modern humans can be traced back to years ago (b) (a) 35–40 thousand (b) 120–150 thousand (c) 27 million (d) 30 million 29 William James was one of the first to posit that humans have _ instincts than/from other animals (c) (a) fewer (b) equal but different (c) more (d) different 30 Behaviorism was a direct reaction to (d) (a) Darwin’s theory of natural selection (b) the cognitive revolution (c) classical conditioning (d) James’s psychology of instincts 31 Classical conditioning differed from operant conditioning in the role given to _ in human behavior (a) (a) reinforcement (b) radical behaviorism (c) culture (d) instincts 32 Behaviorists believed that _ (c) (a) all behavior is instinctual, but can be modified by learning (b) reflexes are the only instincts (c) a general ability to learn is the only instinct (d) there are no instincts 33 Margaret Mead was famous for (b) (a) her fieldwork studying Antarctic cultures (b) claiming to have found cultures with reversed sex roles, and with no fighting, murder, or sexual jealousy (c) debunking findings of cultures with reversed sex roles (d) her writings on the thoughts, behaviors, and rituals on which learning could operate 34 Harry Harlow used the theory behind operant conditioning to predict incorrectly that (a) (a) monkeys would prefer a wire mesh mother that dispensed food (b) monkeys would prefer a wire mesh mother with a soft cloth cover that did not dispense food (c) monkeys would withdraw from, and be frightened by, both wire mesh mothers (d) monkeys would prefer both wire mesh mothers equally 35 The Garcia effect refers to (d) (a) the ability to condition humans to fear things such as snakes and electrical outlets (b) taking into account the role of learning in conditioning fears (c) the fact that humans are wired to learn all things equally well (d) the ability to learn some things more easily than others 36 Which of the following did not coalesce into the cognitive revolution? (c) (a) violations of the fundamental laws of learning (b) underlying structures for language that are invariable across cultures (c) technology such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that allowed psychologists to “peer” into the minds of humans (d) the rise of computers 37 The cognitive revolution is synonymous with (b) (a) neurobiology (b) information processing (c) computers (d) domain-general learning 38 Combinatorial explosion refers to (a) (a) the number of behaviors possible in any one situation caused by combining two or more sequential possibilities (b) the explosion of life on the planet about billion years ago (c) the problem of not having enough domain-specific programming to account for the entire range of possible human behavior (d) general-purpose learning mechanisms capable of an infinite range of behaviors 39 Scientists have brought three fundamental sources of evidence to bear on testing theories about origins of modern humans out of Africa Which of the following is not one of these sources? (c) (a) anatomical evidence (b) archeological evidence (c) anthropological evidence (d) genetic evidence 40 Which of the following is the theory of human origins which has received much support from archeological evidence, though recent genetic evidence has refuted its exclusivity as a full explanation? (a) (a) out of Africa (b) multiregional continuity (c) North American bottleneck (d) creative explosion 41 All adaptations are selected for, and evolve, because they (d) (a) result in more muscular animals (b) promote the good of the species (c) increase the intelligence of the species (d) promote inclusive fitness CHAPTER 2: THE NEW SCIENCE OF EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Chapter Summary This chapter covers four topics: (1) the logic of generating hypotheses about our evolved psychological mechanisms, (2) the products of the evolutionary process, (3) the nature of evolved psychological mechanisms, and (4) the scientific procedures by which we test these hypotheses The logic of evolutionary hypotheses starts with an examination of the four levels of analysis, going from most general to most specific—general evolutionary theory, middle-level evolutionary theories, specific evolutionary hypotheses, and specific predictions about empirical phenomena derived from these hypotheses One method of hypothesis generation is to start at the higher levels and move down A middle-level theory can produce several hypotheses, each of which in turn yields several testable predictions This can be described as the “top-down” strategy of hypothesis and prediction formation A second method is to start with a phenomenon known or observed to exist, such as the importance men attach to a woman’s physical appearance From this phenomenon one can generate hypotheses about the possible function for which it was designed This “bottom-up” method is called reverse engineering, and is a useful supplement to the top-down method, especially because we know about the existence of many human phenomena long before we have solid scientific explanations for them The evolutionary process produces three products—adaptations, byproducts of adaptations, and random effects or noise Evolutionary psychologists tend to focus on adaptations More specifically, they focus on one special subclass of adaptations that comprises human nature: psychological mechanisms Psychological mechanisms are information-processing devices that exist in the form they because they solved specific problems of survival or reproduction recurrently over human evolutionary history They are designed to take in only a narrow slice of information, transform that information through decision rules, and produce output in the form of physiological activity, information to other psychological mechanisms, or manifest behavior The output of an evolved psychological mechanism is directed toward the solution to a specific adaptive problem Evolved psychological mechanisms provide non-arbitrary criteria for “carving the mind at its joints,” tend to be problem-specific, and are large in number and functional in nature Once a hypothesis about an evolved psychological mechanism is formulated, the next step in the scientific endeavor is testing it Testing evolutionary hypotheses relies on comparisons—finding out whether groups that are predicted to differ in a particular way actually This method can be used to test hypotheses by comparing different species, comparing people’s physiological reactions and brain images, comparing people with different genes, comparing males and females within a species, comparing different individuals of each sex, and comparing the same individuals in different contexts Evolutionary psychology has a wealth of additional sources to draw on, including the archeological record, contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, self-report, observer-report, data evoked from subjects in laboratory experiments, life-history data from public records, and products made by people Every source of data has strengths, but each also has limitations Each provides information that typically cannot be obtained in the same form through other data sources And each has flaws and weaknesses not shared by others Studies that test evolutionary hypotheses using two or more data sources are better than studies that rely on a single data source The final section of this chapter outlines major classes of adaptive problems Four classes of adaptive problems follow from modern evolutionary theory: problems of survival and growth, problems of mating, problems of parenting, and problems of genetic relatives Additional insights into identifying adaptive problems come from knowledge of universal human structures, traditional tribal societies, paleoarcheology, task analysis, and current psychological mechanisms Current mechanisms such as a fear of heights, a taste for fatty foods, and a preference for savanna-like landscapes provide windows for viewing the nature of past adaptive problems Suggested Readings Barrett, H C., & Kurzban, R (2006) Modularity in cognition: Framing the debate Psychological Review, 113, 628–647 Buss, D M (Ed.) (2005) The handbook of evolutionary psychology New York: Wiley Crawford, C., & Krebs, D (Eds.) (2008) Foundations of evolutionary psychology New York: Erlbaum Kennair, L E O (2002) Evolutionary psychology: An emerging integrative perspective within the science and practice of psychology Human Nature Review, 2, 17–61 Pinker, S (1997) How the mind works New York: Norton Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L (2005) Conceptual foundations of evolutionary psychology In D M Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp 5–67) New York: Wiley Multiple Choice Questions Which of the following theories is the only known scientific theory that can explain adaptations? (b) (a) seeding theory (b) evolution by natural selection (c) inclusive fitness theory (d) creationism Which of the following is not a product of evolution by natural selection? (b) (a) adaptations (b) sexual selection (c) byproducts (d) random effects Adaptations must have which of the following characteristics? (c) (a) must be present at birth (b) must be associated with one particular gene (c) must develop reliably (d) must be easily identifiable Five characteristics of an adaptation include (a) (a) function, efficiency, economy, precision, and reliability (b) mutation, byproducts, economy, genetic drift, and function (c) mutation, efficiency, reliability, function, and economy (d) function, efficiency, economy, inclusive fitness, and optimality The environment of evolutionary adaptedness refers to (c) (a) a time when humans evolved toward a common ancestor with chimpanzees (b) a specific period of human evolution when all adaptations emerged (c) the statistical composite of selection pressures that occurred during an adaptation’s period of evolution responsible for producing the adaptation (d) the environment that is necessary for an adaptation to emerge Adaptations initially start as (b) (a) other adaptations (b) genetic mutations (c) byproducts (d) noise Time periods associated with environments of evolutionary adaptedness are (d) (a) invariable (b) specific to a time and place (c) not unique to each adaptation (d) unique to each adaptation Byproducts (a) (a) not solve adaptive problems and have no functional design (b) not solve adaptive problems but have functional design (c) solve adaptive problems and have no functional design (d) solve adaptive problems and have functional design Which of the following is an example of a byproduct? (c) (a) light produced by a light bulb (b) yawning produced by being tired (c) bellybutton produced by umbilical cord (d) calluses produced by friction 10 What is the first level of analysis in evolutionary psychology and evolutionary biology? (c) (a) theory of parental investment (b) theory of reciprocal altruism (c) inclusive fitness theory (d) theory of parent-offspring conflict 11 General evolutionary theory would be proven false if which of the following facts were uncovered? (b) (a) Men and women not differ in the affection they report towards their partners (b) Adaptations emerged in time periods too short for natural selection to have operated (c) Lamarck’s theory about acquired characteristics was found to be true (d) Humans had group-level adaptations 12 Which of the following theories predicts psychological differences between men and women? (c) (a) theory of reciprocal altruism (b) theory of parent-offspring conflict (c) theory of parental investment (d) inclusive fitness theory 13 The an organism invests in parenting, the it has to lose by making a bad mate choice (a) (a) more; more (b) less; more (c) first time; less (d) more; less 14 In which of following species males make greater investments in their offspring than females? (d) (a) poison dart frog (b) kangaroo (c) zebra finch (d) pipefish seahorse 15 All of the following hypotheses can be generated based on women’s preference for men with high status except (d) (a) women will value qualities known to be linked with the acquisition of resources (b) women will gaze more at higher-status males (c) women will be interested in sexual intercourse earlier in the relationship when the male is of higher status (d) women will be less likely to divorce husbands who fail to provide resources 16 The first step in the top-down strategy of testing hypotheses is (c) (a) test predictions based on the hypothesis (b) develop a hypothesis about adaptive function based on a known observation (c) derive a hypothesis from existing theory (d) evaluate whether empirical results confirm predictions 17 The first step in the bottom-up strategy of testing hypotheses is (b) (a) test predictions based on the hypothesis (b) develop a hypothesis about adaptive function based on a known observation (c) derive a hypothesis from existing theory (d) evaluate whether empirical results confirm predictions 18 Men prefer a(n) waist-to-hip ratio than women (b) (a) equal (b) smaller (c) larger (d) more masculine 19 An evolved psychological mechanism that led to a successful solution in the evolutionary past _ lead to a successful solution now (c) (a) must (b) will always (c) may or may not (d) cannot 20 Identifying an evolved psychological mechanism requires an identification of its (a) (a) function (b) physiological characteristics (c) component parts (d) current utility 21 Problem specificity of adaptive mechanisms tends to be favored over generality for the following reasons except (c) (a) general solutions fail to guide the organism to the correct adaptive solutions (b) general solutions lead to too many errors and are costly to the organism (c) general solutions are always anatomically more complex (d) a successful solution differs from problem to problem 22 The mechanisms we have, the _ the range of behaviors we can perform (d) (a) more, smaller (b) fewer, greater (c) fewer, larger (d) more, greater 23 Domain-general mechanisms can be characterized by all of the following statements except (c) (a) they are difficult to identify because there are no domain-general problems (b) the study of domain-generality has not been as fruitful an avenue of scientific pursuit as domainspecificity (c) they not exist (d) several domain-specific mechanisms working together may appear to be domain-general 24 Are learning and evolved psychological mechanisms mutually exclusive explanations of human behavior, and why or why not? (d) (a) Yes, because evolved psychological mechanisms are reflexes and not require input from the environment, unlike learning (b) Yes, because learning overrides our evolved psychological mechanisms (c) No, because evolved psychological mechanisms are learned during development (d) No, because learning requires the presence of evolved psychological mechanisms to occur 25 Which of the following cues was shown to have the most influence on incest avoidance behaviors? (b) (a) degree of genetic relatedness (b) duration of co-residence with a member of the opposite sex during childhood (c) parents passing on knowledge of which individuals are unsuitable for mating (d) amount of time spent playing together during adolescence 26 Psychological mechanisms are theorized to have access only to the information stored within them, and cannot access information contained in other psychological mechanisms except via informationsharing mechanisms This phenomenon is referred to as (d) (a) compartmentalization (b) repression (c) subconscious (d) encapsulation 27 Male chimpanzees have relatively _ testes than human males because of the greater selection pressure of female promiscuity in chimpanzees (a) (a) larger (b) smaller (c) equal (d) fewer 28 Sperm competition is generally present in all of the following species except (a) (a) exclusively monogamous species (b) moderately monogamous species (c) polygamous species (d) promiscuous species 29 Which data source for testing evolutionary hypotheses can be clouded by social desirability motives? (c) (a) human products (b) archeological evidence (c) self-report data (d) public records 30 Which of the following is not a class of adaptive problems? (a) (a) problems of life (b) problems of mating (c) problems of parental investment (d) problems of survival and growth 31 Adaptive problems are challenges that must be overcome for (c) (a) survival of the fittest (b) continuation of the species (c) reproduction or aid in reproduction (d) self-actualization 32 Which of the following is not an adaptive problem caused by an evolutionary history of social hierarchies? (d) (a) protection of one’s resources (b) preventing upstarts from usurping one’s status (c) preventing defection from reciprocally altruistic relationships (d) attracting a mate 33 A task analysis posits which of the following questions: (a) (a) For this structure to occur, what cognitive and behavioral tasks must be solved? (b) What tasks must be present for an adaptation to operate? (c) Why certain tasks elicit vastly different behaviors? (d) What is the general task that all psychological mechanisms serve? 34 The input to an evolved psychological mechanism (d) (a) can be cues in the external environment or output from other psychological mechanisms (b) is transformed through decision rules (c) is extremely narrow and limited in scope (d) all of the above 35 Which type of cross-cultural study comparison was necessary to distinguish between the social roles hypothesis and the hunting hypothesis explanations of the function of mental rotation skills? (b) (a) comparing cultures that vary in average happiness (b) comparing cultures that vary in gender equality (c) comparing cultures that vary in parasite load (d) comparing cultures that vary in reproductive rate 36 Cross-cultural studies can be used to test evolutionary hypotheses in each of the following ways EXCEPT (a) (a) to determine whether a trait was created by culture or evolution (b) to test whether ecologically dependent adaptations produce predicted differences across cultures (c) to compare the explanatory efficacy of competing evolutionary theories for a given phenomenon (d) to determine whether an adaptation hypothesized to be universal is present in all humans 37 Using physiological measurement techniques, such as hormonal assays, evolutionary psychologists can (b) (a) determine whether a trait or behavior is evolved or not (b) measure proximal influences on an evolved trait or behavior (c) see ultimate causation in action (d) illustrate the phylogeny of a trait under investigation 38 As predicted from an evolutionary perspective, a study by Flinn and colleagues documented that children living with a stepparent have _ levels of _ than children living with biological parents (d) (a) lower; testosterone (b) higher; testosterone (c) lower; cortisol (d) higher; cortisol 39 Which of the following is a limitation of brain imaging techniques for measuring psychological variables? (c) (a) They currently cannot be used to test predictions from an evolutionary perspective (b) They cannot measure differences within participants, only between groups (c) Participants must remain immobile when they are exposed to stimuli (d) all of the above 40 Behavioral genetics methods can test the evolutionary hypothesis that girls growing up without an investing father shift to earlier onset of menarche and sexual behavior Which of the following behavioral genetics findings would refute this hypothesis? (c) (a) Identical twin sisters raised together enter menarche at the same age, but identical twin sisters raised apart show less similar onset ages for menarche (b) The environmental component of menarche onset is larger than the genetic component (c) The genetic component of menarche onset is larger than the environmental component (d) Age of onset of menarche is not correlated between girls and their biological mothers 41 Recent studies in molecular genetics have revealed that the 7R allele of the DRD4 gene has been linked to extraversion and novelty-seeking Evolutionary psychologists hypothesized that such traits would have been adaptive in exploiting novel environments Which of the following results was documented that supported this prediction? (a) (a) The 7R allele is more common among nomadic populations than sedentary populations (b) Easterners are more likely to possess the 7R allele than Westerners (c) Women are more likely to possess the 7R allele than men (d) The 7R allele is only expressed in childhood but not adulthood 42 Modern molecular genetics methods have been used to increase our knowledge of recent human evolution in which of the following ways? (d) (a) to show that selection in humans has been accelerating over the past 10,000 years (b) to identify the genes responsible for lactose intolerance (c) to compare competing theories for the timeline of human origins out of Africa (d) all of the above ... is the mind designed the way that it is? (b) How the components of the mind interact with the environment? (c) What is the relationship between the human mind and the Big Bang? (d) What are the. .. Which of the following theories was not presented by Trivers in the early 1970s? (b) (a) theory of parental investment (b) theory of gene selection (c) theory of reciprocal altruism (d) theory of. .. muscular animals (b) promote the good of the species (c) increase the intelligence of the species (d) promote inclusive fitness CHAPTER 2: THE NEW SCIENCE OF EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Chapter Summary