NCRP report no 121 principles and application of collective dose in radiation protection

NCRP REPORT No 121 PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION OF COLLECTIVE DOSE IN RADIATION PROTECTION Reconimendations of the NATIONAL COUNCIL O N RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS Issued November 30, 1995 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements / Bethesda, MD 20814-3095 791 Woodmont Avenue LEG& NOTICE This report was prepared by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and useful information in its reports However, neither the NCRP, the members of NCRP, other persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this Report, nor any person acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with-resped to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information contained in this Report, or that the use of any information, method or process disclosed i n this Report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this Report, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq, as amended 42 U.S.C Section 2000e et seq (Title VZZ) or any other statutory or common law theory governing liability Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData Principles and application of collective dose in radiation protection p cm.-(NCRP report ; no 121) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-929600-46-0 Radiation-Dosage Radiation-Safety measures I National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 11 Series RA569.P6713 1995 616.9'897-dc20 95-26030 CIP Copyright Q National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 1995 All rights reserved This publication is protected by copyright No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or utilized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner, except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews Preface The Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination asked the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) to provide advice on the use of collective dose in radiation protection, particularly as it should pertain to radiation exposures of the United States public In response to this request, NCRP Scientific Committee 1-3,Collective Dose, was established Serving on Scientific Committee 1-3 were: Ronald L Kathren, Chairman Washington State University Richland, Washington Members John R Johnson Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories Richland, Washington Barbara J McNeil Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts Dade W Moeller Dade Moeller & Associates, Inc New Bern, North Carolina Keith J Schiager University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Roy E Shore New York University Medical Center New York, New York Robert Ullrich University of Texas Galveston, Texas David A Waite Ebasco Environmental Bellevue,Washington Scientific Committee Liaison Eric J Hall Columbia University New York, New York iv PREFACE NCRP Secretariat William M Beckner, Senior Staff Scientist Cindy L O'Brien, Editorial Assistant The Council wishes t o express its appreciation to the Committee members for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of this Report Charles B Meinhold President Contents Preface Introduction Historical Development , 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Applications 2.3 Concept Evaluations Scientific Bases for Collective Dose 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Mutagenesis 3.2.1 Cellular Studies 3.2.1.1 Cytogenetics 3.2.1.2 Somatic Cell Mutations 3.2.2 Animal Studies 3.2.2.1 Chromosome Aberrations 3.2.2.2 Germ Cell Mutations 3.3 Transformation and Carcinogenesis 3.3.1 Tumor Induction 3.3.1.1 Leukemia 3.3.1.2 Solid Tumors 3.3.2 Life Shortening 3.3.3 I n Vitro Transformation 3.4 Human Studies 3.4.1 Human Studies of Cancer Risks from Low Radiation Doses 3.4.1.1 Thyroid Cancer 3.4.1.2 Breast Cancer 3.4.1.3 Leukemia 3.4.1.4 Multiple Myeloma 3.4.1.5 In Utero Irradiation 3.4.1.6 Lung Cancer 3.4.1.7 Other Cancers 3.4.2 Genetic Risks 3.5 Summary Limitations 4.1 Conceptual Limitations 4.2 Practical Limitations vi / CONTENTS 4.2.1 Tissue Weighting Factors 4.2.2 Population Characteristics 4.2.2.1 Uncertainties in Future Population Size and Location 4.2.2.2 Uncertainties in Future Population Fertility 4.2.2.3 Uncertainties in Future Medical Technology 4.2.3 Environmental Exposure Pathways 4.2.3.1 Agriculture 4.2.3.2 Resource Conservation Risk Assessment and Management 5.1 Collective Dose as a Surrogate for Societal Risk 5.2 Collective Dose Distributions 5.3 Risk Assessment in Specific Applications 5.3.1 Medical Procedures 5.3.2 Radiation Workers 5.3.3 Special Occupational Groups 5.3.4 Current Exposures to Members of the Public from Localized Environmental Sources 5.3.5 Indoor Radon 5.3.6 Consumer Products and Other Miscellaneous Sources 5.3.7 Future Exposures from Long-Lived Environmental Contaminants 5.4 Risk Management 5.4.1 Acceptability of Risk 5.4.2 Categorizing Levels of Risk 5.4.3 Optimization of Protection (ALARA) 5.4.4 Valuation of Collective Dose Avoided Conclusions and Recommendations Glossary References The NCRP NCRP Publications Index Introduction Conceptually, collective dose is the summation of all doses received by all members of a population a t risk, and may thus be expressed mathematically as: where S refers to the collective dose to the population a t risk, and Hiis the per capita dose in subgroup i, and Pi is a subgroup i of population P (ICRP, 1977) Any dose quantity can be used, provided usage is consistent Collective dose is expressed in units of persondose, using the appropriate dose units for the quantity selected Typically, collective dose to a population is expressed in units of person-sievert Collective dose is applicable only to stochastic risks Implicit in the concept of collective dose is the assumption that the effect or risk of a given dose is identical whether the collectivedose is administered to a single individual or distributed over a population of individuals Application of collective dose in this manner assumes linearity of dose response, and lack of any dose-rate effect While these assumptions may or may not be valid, they are considered to be conservative and have been generally accepted by the scientific community concerned with radiation protection (ICRP, 1977; 1991; NASI NRC, 1990; NCRP, 1987a; 1993) In recent years, collective dose has been applied ever increasingly to prospective radiation protection problems, particularly relating to long-term effects of environmental radiation Such applications lead to questions regarding the applicability of the collective dose concept to large populations with very small individual doses and to populations that will exist several generations hence This Report seeks to address these and other questions regarding collective dose and its applicability for radiation protection purposes, and to provide practical guidance for the employment of this potentially useful concept in consonance with current National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) philosophy and recommendations on exposure limitation a s described i n NCRP Report No 116 (NCRP, 1993) This Report provides a review of the historical development and current applications of the collective dose concept, and attempts to / INTRODUCTION identify and examine the scientific and other bases that underlie it It examines the meaning and utility of the concept ofcollective dose in radiation protection and risk assessment for workers and members of the general public Finally, it provides recommendations for applying collective dose based on current scientific knowledge of the health effects and potential risks of radiation Underlying the consideration of the collective dose concept and the recorrfmendations provided herein is the continuous evolution of radiation protection standards towards a system based on risk For such a risk based system to be practical, it must take account of the uncertainties in the risk estimates which form its basis Additionally, consideration should be given to societal factors, including the willingness of society to incur certain risks in view of the perceived overall benefit to be derived Historical Development 2.1 Introduction The collective dose concept is widely used within the radiological protection community in the estimation of radiological risk, in the optimization or decision making processes, and in the development of regulations Some authors trace the origin of the concept back to the term "genetically significant dose," or "population dose" which was proposed to limit radiation induced genetic risk of populations as early as the late 1950s and early 1960s [see NCRP (1957); ICRPI ICRU (1957) and ICRPACRU (1961)l An early usage was the 1965 annual collective dose limitation of 100 person-Sv y-' for each nuclear power station imposed by the Canadian Atomic Energy Control Board (Hurst and Boyd, 1972) The concept does appear in the International Commission on Radiological Protection's (ICRP) Publication 22 (ICRP, 1973), where it was first called "population dose," and evolved to "collective dose" by the time of ICRP Publication 26 (ICRP, 1977) Modern usage of the collective dose concept originated in the early 1970s within the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects ofAtomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)and the ICRP The 1969 UNSCEAR report did not mention collective dose, but by 1977, the use of collective dose by UNSCEAR was prevalent (LTNSCEAR, 1977) The transition seems t o have occurred i n the 1972 UNSCEAR report (UNSCEAR, 1972), in which the unit man-rad was introduced Population doses in units of person-rem were also used in the initial report of the Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation [BEIR (NASINRC, 1972)l A discussion of topics similar to collective dose in NCRP Report No 39 (NCRP, 1971) did not mention the conceptper se But, NCRP (1957) talked of "The maximum permissible dose to the gonads for the population of the United States as a whole from all sources of radiation, including medical and other manmade sources, and background, shall not exceed 14 million rems per million of population over the period from conception up to age 30, and one-third of that amount in each decade thereafter." The first specific reference to the collective dose concept in an NCRP report occurred in NCRP Report No 43, entitled Review of the Current State of Radiation / HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Protection Philosophy (NCRP, 1975), and the concept has been discussed, refined and applied in subsequent NCRP reports and recommendations 2.2 Applications The use of the collective dose concept has permeated into many aspects of radiation protection policy making and program implementation worldwide The scientific and technical literature contains numerous examples of collective dose-based estimates of the collective risk for a wide variety of radiation-related activities In its series of reports assessing the ionizing radiation exposure to the population of the United States (NCRP, 1987b; 1987c; 1987d; 1987e), the NCRP has made extensive use of the collective dose concept NCRP Report No 93 (NCRP, 1987b) summarizes radiation exposures from all sources that were individually reviewed in the other assessment reports, and includes collective dose estimates Other NCRP reports, notably Reports No 105, 107 and 116 (NCRP, 1989; 1990a; 1993) consider collective dose in their discussion of radiation protection recommendations Other examples of considerations of collective dose for radiation protection purposes in other countries include a study by Iyengar and Soman (1987) which examines in detail the collective occupational and public doses from all components of the Indian nuclear fuel cycle Similarly, Hyvonen (1990) evaluates the effectiveness of the Finnish radiation protection programs vis-a-vis exposures in medicine, industry, research and nuclear power Early United States examples include the final environmental statements for Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station (AEC, 1972) and for Hanford Waste Management Operations (ERDA, 1975), both of which discuss impacts and comparative population or overall risks in terms of collective doses, and a more generic study of light-water reactor effluents (AEC, 1973) Relevant guidance documents incorporating collective dose have been prepared by others including the ICRP (19731, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Nuclear Energy Agency (OECDLVEA, 1988) In the mid-1950s the principle of maintainingradiation exposures to the lowest practicable limit was introduced into its recommendations by the NCRP (1954) and the concept of optimization, also known as ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable), began to evolve (ICRP, 1955; 1959) This concept is now central to radiation protection practice and is based on a balancing of risks and benefits The ALARA concept was formally introduced as a recommendation for radiation protection by the ICRP in 1977 (ICRP, NCRP Publications NCRP publications are distributed by the NCRP Publications Office Information on prices and how to order may be obtained by directing an inquiry to: NCRP Publications 7910 Woodmont Avenue Suite 800 Bethesda, MD 20814-3095 The currently available publications are listed below NCRP Reports No Title Control and Removal ofRadioactive Contamination i n Laboratories (1951) Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Radionuclides i n Air and in Water for Occupational Exposure (1959)[IncludesAddendum issued in August 19631 Measurement of Neutron Flux and Spectra for Physical and Biological Applications (1960) Measurement ofAbsorbed Dose of Neutrons, and of Mixtures of Neutrons and Gamma Rays (1961) Stopping Powers for Use with Cavity Chambers (1961) Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials (1964) Radiation Protection i n Educational Institutions (1966) Dental X-Ray Protection (1970) Radiation Protection i n Veterinary Medicine (1970) Precautions i n the Management o f Patients Who Have Received Therapeutic Amounts of Radionuclides (1970) Protection Against Neutron Radiation (1971) Protection Against Radiation from Brachyt herapy Sources (1972) Specification of Gamma-Ray Brachytherapy Sources (1974) Radiological Factors AffectingDecision-Makingin a Nuclear Attack (1974) NCRP PUBLICATIONS 93 Krypton-85 i n the Atmosphere-Accumulation, Biological Significance, and Control Technology (1975) Alpha-Emitting Particles in Lungs (1975) Tritium Measurement Techniques (1976) Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X Rays and Gamma Rays of Energies Up to 10 MeV (1976) Environmental Radiation Measurements (1976) Radiation Protection Design Guidelines for 0.1-100 MeV Particle Accelerator Facilities (1977) Cesium-137fromthe Environment to Man: Metabolism and Dose (1977) Medical Radiation Exposure of Pregnant and Potentially Pregnant Women (1977) Protection of the Thyroid Gland i n the Event of Releases of Radioiodine (1977) Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods for Radiation Protection (1978) A Handbook ofRadioactivity Measurements Procedures, 2nd ed (1985) Operational Radiation Safety Program (1978) Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Radiocerium Relevant to Radiation Protection Guidelines (1978) Radiation Safety Training Criteria for Industrial Radiography (1978) Tritium i n the Environment (1979) Tritium and Other Radionuclide Labeled Organic Compounds Incorporated in Genetic Material (1979) Influence of Dose and Its Distribution i n Time on DoseResponse Relationships for Low-LET Radiations (1980) Management of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides (1980) Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields-Properties, Quantities and Units, Biophysical Interaction, and Measurements (1981) Radiation Protection i n Pediatric Radiology (1981) Dosimetry of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Beams for Radiation Therapy i n the Energy Range 10 keV to 50 MeV (1981) Nuclear Medicine-Factors Influencing the Choice and Use of Radionuclides in Diagnosis and Therapy (1982) Operational Radiation Safety-Training (1983) Radiation Protection and Measurement for Low-Voltage Neutron Generators (1983) / NCRP PUBLICATIONS Protection in Nuclear Medicine and Ultrasound Diagnostic Procedures i n Children (1983) Biological Effects of Ultrasound: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications (1983) Iodine-129: Evaluation of Releases from Nuclear Power Generation (1983) Radiological Assessment: Predicting the Transport, Bioaccumulation, and Uptake by Man of Radionuclides Released to the Environment (1984) Exposures from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon and Its Daughters (1984) Evaluation of Occupational and Environmental Exposures to Radon and Radon Daughters i n the United States (1984) Neutron Contamination from Medical Electron Accelerators (1984) Induction of Thyroid Cancer by Ionizing Radiation (1985) Carbon-14 i n the Environment (1985) SI Units in Radiation Protection and Measurements (1985) The Experimental Basis for Absorbed-Dose Calculations in Medical Uses of Radionuclides (1985) General Concepts for the Dosimetry of Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1985) Mammography-A User's Guide (1986) Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria for Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (1986) Use of Bioassay Procedures forAssessment of Internal Radionuclide Deposition (1987) Radiation Alarms and Access Control Systems (1986) Genetic Effects from Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1987) Neptunium: Radiation Protection Guidelines (1988) Public Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Power Generation i n the United States (1987) Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States (1987) Exposure of the Population i n the United States and Canada from Natural Background Radiation (1987) Radiation Exposure of the U.S Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources (1987) Comparative Carcinogenicity of Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals (1989) Measurement of Radon and Radon Daughters i n Air (1988) Guidance on Radiation Received i n Space Activities (1989) Quality Assurance for Diagnostic Imaging (1988) NCRP PUBLICATIONS 95 Exposure of the U.S Population from Diagnostic Medical Radiation (1989) Exposure of the U.S Population from Occupational Radiation (1989) Medical X-Ray, Electron Beam and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies Up to 50 MeV (Equipment Design, Performance and Use) (1989) Control of Radon i n Houses (1989) The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Radiations of Different Quality (1990) Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel (1989) Limit for Exposure to "Hot Particles" on the Skin (1989) Implementation of the Principle of As Low As Reasonably Achievable ~AI;IIRA)for Medical and Dental Personnel (1990) Conceptual Basis for Calculations of Absorbed-Dose Distributions (1991) Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Aquatic Organisms (1991) Some Aspects of Strontium Radiobiology (1991) Developing Radiation Emergency Plans for Academic, Medical or Industrial Facilities (1991) Calibration of Survey Instruments Used in Radiation Protection for the Assessment of Ionizing Radiation Fields and Radioactive Surface Contamination (1991) Exposure Criteria for Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound:I Criteria Based on Thermal Mechanisms (1992) Maintaining Radiation Protection Records (1992) Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection (1993) Limitation of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1993) Research Needs for Radiation Protection (1993) Radiation Protection i n the Mineral Extraction Industry (1993) A Practical Guide to the Determination of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields (1993) Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants (1994) Principles and Application of Collective Dose in Radiation Protection (1995) Binders for NCRP reports are available 'Ibvo sizes make it possible to collect into small binders the "old series" of reports (NCRP Reports Nos 8-30) and into large binders the more recent publications (NCRP Reports Nos 32-121) Each binder will accommodate from five to seven reports The binders carry the identification "NCRP Reports" 96 NCRP PUBLICATIONS and come with label holders which permit the user to attach labels showing the reports contained in each binder The following bound sets of NCRP reports are also available: Volume I NCRP Reports Nos 8, 22 Volume 11 NCRP Reports Nos 23, 25, 27, 30 Volume 111 NCRP Reports Nos 32, 35, 36, 37 Volume IV NCRP Reports Nos 38, 40, 41 Volume V NCRP Reports Nos 42,44,46 Volume VI NCRP Reports Nos 47, 49, 50,51 Volume VII NCRP Reports Nos 52,53,54,55,57 Volume VIII NCRP Report No 58 Volume IX.NCRP Reports Nos 59,60,61,62,63 Volume X NCRP Reports Nos 64, 65, 66, 67 Volume XI NCRP Reports Nos 68,69, 70, 71,72 Volume XII NCRP Reports Nos 73, 74,75, 76 Volume XIII NCRP Reports Nos 77, 78, 79,80 Volume XIV.NCRP Reports Nos 81, 82, 83, 84, 85 Volume XV NCRP Reports Nos 86, 87,88, 89 Volume XVI NCRP Reports Nos 90, 91, 92, 93 Volume XVII NCRP Reports Nos 94, 95,96, 97 Volume XVIII NCRP Reports Nos 98, 99, 100 Volume XM NCRP Reports Nos 101, 102, 103, 104 Volume XX.NCRP Reports Nos 105,106, 107, 108 Volume XXI NCRP Reports Nos 109,110, 111 Volume XXII NCRP Reports Nos 112, 113, 114 Volume XXIII NCRP Reports Nos 115, 116, 117,118 (Titles of the individual reports contained in each volume are given above.) NCRP Commentaries No Title Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere-With Specific Reference to the Public Health Significance of the Proposed Controlled Release at Three Mile Island (1980) Screening Techniques for Determining Compliance with Environmental Standards-Releases of Radionuclides to the Atmosphere (1986), Revised (1989) Guidelines for the Release of Waste Water from Nuclear Facilities with Special Reference to the Public Health Significance of the Proposed Release of Treated Waste Waters at Three Mile Island (1987) NCRP PUBLICATIONS 97 Review of the Publication, Living Without Landfills (1989) Radon Exposure of the U.S Population-Status of the Problem (1991) Misadministration of Radioactive Material i n MedicineScientific Background (1991) Uncertainty i n NCRP Screening Models Relating to Atmospheric Transport, Deposition and Uptake by Humans (1993) Considerations Regarding the Unintended Radiation Exposure of the Embryo, Fetus or Nursing Child (1994) Advising the Public about Radiation Emergencies: A Document for Public Comment (1994) Dose Limits for Individuals Who Receive Exposure Pom Radionuclide Therapy Patients (1995) Radiation Exposure and High-Altitude Flight (1995) Proceedings of the Annual Meeting No Title Perceptions of Risk, Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting held on March 14-15,1979(includingTaylor Lecture No 3) (1980) Critical Issues i n Setting Radiation Dose Limits, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting held on April 89, 1981 (including Taylor Lecture No 5) (1982) R a d i a t i o n Protection a n d N e w Medical Diagnostic Approaches, Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting held on April 6-7,1982 (including Taylor Lecture No 6) (1983) Environmental Radioactivity, Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting held on April 6-7,1983 (including Taylor Lecture No 7) (1983) Some Issues Important i n Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting held on April 4-5,1984 (includingTaylor Lecture No 8) (1985) Radioactive Waste, Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting held on April 3-4,1985 (includingTaylor Lecture No 9)(1986) Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, Proceedings of the Twenty-second Annual Meeting held on April 2-3,1986 (includingTaylor Lecture No 10)(1988) 98 NCRP PUBLICATIONS New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Its Implications for Risk Estimates, Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Meeting held on April 8-9,1987 (including Taylor Lecture No 11)(1988) Radon, Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting held on March 30-31, 1988 (including Taylor Lecture No 12) (1989) Radiation Protection Today-The NCRPat Sixty Years, Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting held on April 5-6, 1989 (including Taylor Lecture No 13)(1990) Health and Ecological Implications of Radioactively Contaminated Environments, Proceedings of the Twentysixth Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 1990 (including Taylor Lecture No 14) (1991) Genes, Cancer and Radiation Protection, Proceedings of the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting held on April 3-4,1991 (including Taylor Lecture No 15) (1992) Radiation Protection i n Medicine, Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting held on April 1-2, 1992 (including Taylor Lecture No 16) (1993) Radiation Science and Societal Decision Making, Proceedings of the Twenty-ninth Annual Meeting held on April 7-8, 1993 (including Taylor Lecture No 17) (1994) Lauriston S Taylor Lectures No Title The Squares of the Natural Numbers in Radiation Protection by Herbert M Parker (1977) Why be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates? by Sir Edward Pochin (1978) Radiation Protection-Concepts and Trade Offs by Hymer L Friedell (1979) [Available also in Perceptions of Risk, see above] From "Quantity of Radiation" and "Dose" to "Exposure" and 'Xbsorbed Dose7'-An Historical Review by Harold Wyckoff (1980) How Well Can We Assess Genetic Risk? Not Very by James F Crow (1981) [Available also in Critical Issues in Setting Radiation Dose Limits, see abovel Ethics, Trade-offs and Medical Radiation by Eugene L Saenger (1982) [Available also in Radiation Protection and New Medical Diagnostic Approaches, see abovel NCRP PUBLICATIONS 99 The Human Environment-Past, Present and Future by Merril Eisenbud (1983) [Available also in Environmental Radioactivity, see above] Limitation and Assessment i n Radiation Protection by Harald H Rossi (1984) [Available also in Some Issues Import a n t i n Developing Basic R a d i a t i o n Protection Recommendations, see abovel Truth (and Beauty) i n Radiation Measurement by John H Harley (1985) [Available also in Radioactive Waste, see abovel Biological Effects of Non-ionizing Radiations: Cellular Properties and Interactions by Herman P Schwan (1987) [Available also in Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, see abovel How to be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates by Seymour Jablon (1988) [Available also in New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and its Implications for Risk Estimates, see abovel How Safe is Safe Enough? by Bo Lindell (1988) [Available also in Radon, see abovel Radiobiology and Radiation Protection: The Past Century and Prospects for the Future by Arthur C Upton (1989) [Available also in Radiation Protection Today, see abovel Radiation Protection and the Internal Emitter Saga by J Newel1 Stannard (1990) [Available also in Health and Ecological Implications of Radioactively Contaminated Environments, see abovel When is a Dose Not a Dose? by Victor P Bond (1992) [Available also i n Genes, Cancer and Radiation Protection, see abovel Dose and Risk in Diagnostic Radiology: How Big? How Little? by Edward W Webster (1992)[Availablealso in Radiation Protection in Medicine, see above] Science, Radiation Protection and the NCRP by Warren K Sinclair (1993)[Available also in Radiation Science and Societal Decision Making, see abovel Mice, Myths and Men by R.J Michael Fry (1995) Symposium Proceedings No Title The Control of Exposure of the Public to Ionizing Radiation in the Event ofAccident orAttack, Proceedings of a Symposium held April 27-29, 1981 (1982) 100 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS Radioactive and Mixed Waste-Risk as a Basis for Waste Classification, Proceedings of a Symposium held November 9,1994 (1995) NCRP Statements No Title "Blood Counts, Statement of the National Committee on Radiation Protection," Radiology 63, 428 (1954) "Statements on Maximum Permissible Dose from Television Receivers and Maximum Permissible Dose to the Skin of the Whole Body," Am J Roentgenol., Radium Ther and Nucl Med 84, 152 (1960) and Radiology 75, 122 (1960) X-Ray Protection Standards for Home Television Receivers, Interim Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1968) Specification of Units ofNatura1 Uranium and Natural Thorium, Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1973) NCRP Statement on Dose Limit for Neutrons (1980) Control of Air Emissions of Radionuclides (1984) The Probability That a Particular Malignancy May Have Been Caused by a Specified Irradiation (1992) Other Documents The following documents of the NCRP were published outside of the NCRP report, commentary and statement series: Somatic Radiation Dose for the General Population, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, May 1959, Science, February 19, 1960, Vol 131, No 3399, pages 482-486 Dose Effect Modifying Factors In Radiation Protection, Report of Subcommittee M-4 (Relative Biological Effectiveness) of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Report BNL 50073 (T-471) (1967) Brookhaven National Laboratory (National Technical Information Service Springfield, Virginia) The following documents are now superseded and/or out of print: NCRP PUBLICATIONS / 101 NCRP Reports No Title X-Ray Protection (1931)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 31 Radium Protection (1934)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 41 X-Ray Protection (1936)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 61 Radium Protection (1938)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 131 Safe Handling of Radioactive Luminous Compound (1941) [Out of Printl Medical X-Ray Protection Up to Two Million Volts (1949) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 181 Safe Handling of Radioactive Isotopes (1949)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 301 Recommendations for Waste Disposal of Phosphorus-32 and Iodine-131 for Medical Users (1951)[Out of Printl Radiological Monitoring Methods and Instruments (1952) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 571 Maximum Permissible Amounts of Radioisotopes i n the Human Body and Maximum Permissible Concentrations in Air and Water (1953)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 221 Recommendations for the Disposal of Carbon-14 Wastes (1953)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 811 Protection Against Radiations from Radium, Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137 (1954)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 241 Protection Against Betatron-Synchrotron Radiations Up to 100 Million Electron Volts (1954)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 511 Safe Handling of Cadavers Containing Radioactive Isotopes (1953)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 211 Radioactive-Waste Disposal in the Ocean (1954)[Out of Printl Permissible Dose from External Sources of Ionizing Radiation (1954)including Maximum Permissible Exposures to Man, Addendum to National Bureau of Standards Handbook 59 (1958)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 391 X-Ray Protection (1955)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 261 Regulation o f Radiation Exposure by Legislative Means (1955)[Out of Print] Protection Against Neutron Radiation Up to 30 Million Electron Volts (1957)[Superseded by NCRP Report No 381 102 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS Safe Handling of Bodies Containing Radioactive Isotopes (1958) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 371 Protection Against Radiations from Sealed Gamma Sources (1960) [Superseded by NCRP Reports No 33,34 and 401 Medical X-Ray Protection Up to Three Million Volts (1961) [Superseded by NCRP Reports No 33, 34, 35 and 361 A Manual of Radioactivity Procedures (1961) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 581 Exposure to Radiation in an Emergency (1962) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 421 Shielding for High-Energy Electron Accelerator Installations (1964) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 511 Medical X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies up to 10 MeV-Equipment Design and Use (1968) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 1021 Medical X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies Up to 10 MeV-Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation Handbook (1970) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 491 Basic Radiation Protection Criteria (1971) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 911 Review of the Current State of Radiation Protection Philosophy (1975) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 911 Natural Background Radiation in the United States (1975) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 941 Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel (1976) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 1051 Review ofNCRP Radiation Dose Limit for Embryo and Fetus in Occupationally-Exposed Women (1977) [Out of Printl Radiation Exposure from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources (1977) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 951 A Handbook of Radioactivity Measurements Procedures, 1st ed (1978) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 58, 2nd ed.1 Mammography (1980) [Out of Print] Recommendations on Limits for Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1987) [Superseded by NCRP Report No 1161 NCRP Commentaries No Title Preliminary Evaluation of Criteria for the Disposal of Transuranic Contaminated Waste (1982) [Out of Printl NCRP PUBLICATIONS 103 NCRP Proceedings No Title Quantitative Risk in Standards Setting, Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting held on April 2-3, 1980 [Out of Print] Index Absolute risk 64 Acceptability of risk 58 Agriculture 51 ALARA 59,61,64 Below regulatory concern Breast cancer risks 22-24 fluroscopic examinations 24 Cancer risks 16-18,38 cohort studies 17 fractionatedlprotracted irradiation 18 from low radiation doses 16 in utero irradiation 38 thymus irradiation 17 thyroid cancer 16, 18 Carcinogenesis 12 leukemia 12 solid tumors 12 Cellular studies Chromosome aberrations 9-10 in spermatogonia 10 Cohort studies-external radiation 18 thyroid cancer risks 18 Collective dose 1, 3-6,46, 53-54, 64 annual limitation applications 4-5 as a comparison of safeguards as a.measure of the radiationrelated detriment as a tool for the optimization of radiological protection concept evaluations conceptual limitations 46 distributions 54 in radiation protection regualtions surrogate for societal risk 53 validity and utility Collective dose avoided 59 valuation of 59 Collective dose concept Committed dose 64 Consumer products 57 risk assessment 57 Cytogenetics Deterministic effect 47,64 Diagnostic x-ray workers 24 breast cancer risks 24 Dicentric aberrations Dose 64 Dose limits 61 Dose protraction 15 additivity of dose 15 Dose-rate effects 14 with neutron irradiation 14 Dose-rate independent response 11 with high-LET radiations 11 Dose-response 15 linear function of dose 15 linear-quadratic function of dose 15 Dose-response curve 64 Effective dose ( E ) 64 Environmental risks 56 from localized environmental sources 56 Equivalent dose (H) 64 Exposure pathways 51 Fractionation studies 11 Future exposures 57 risk assessment 57 Future population fertility 50 uncertainties 50 Genetic risks 43 Hanford workers 34 Healthy worker effect 33 In utero irradiation 37-38 cancer risks 38 INDEX In vitro transformation 14 Iodine-131 studies 19 thyroid cancer risks 19 Justification 61 Leukemia 12 Leukemia risks 25-26,33 ankylosing spondylitis data 25 atomic-bomb data 25 fractionated exposures 25 1311 treatment for hyperthyroidism 33 radiologists or x-ray workers 33 Thorotrast administration 33 Levels of risk 58 categorizing 58 Life shortening 13-14 dose-rate effects 14 Low-dose studies 16 signal-to-noise ratio 16 Lung adenocarcinoma 12 Lung cancer risks 41 for low-LET radiation 41 for radon progeny 41 Mammary adenocarcinoma 12 Mammary tumors 13 dose-rate effects 13 Multiple myeloma 34 Multiple myeloma risks 35 Mutagenesis cellular studies Mutation induction 11 spermatogonia 11 Mutations 9, 11 germ cell 11 in spermatogonia 11 point mutations somatic cell Negligible individual dose (NID) 47,64 Neutron irradiation 11 mutations in spermatogonia 11 Nuclear worker studies 34 Occupational radiation studies 21 thyroid cancer risks 21 / 105 Occupational studies 19 thyroid cancer risks 19 Oocyte.13 extreme sensitivity 13 Optimization of protection 59 Other cancer risks 42 Other cancers 42 Population characteristics 49 Population dose Preconception radiation exposure 44 carcinogenic risks 44 Radiation protection practice 61 ALARA 61 dose limits 61 justification 61 Radiation weighting factor (wR) 64 Radiation workers 55 risk assessment 55 Radium dial workers 22 thyroid cancer risks 22 Radon 56 risk assessment 56 Relative risk 64 Risk assessment 53-57 consumer products 57 future exposures 57 in specific applications 54 medical procedures 54 miscellaneous sources 57 radiation workers 55 radon 56 special occupational groups 55 Risk coefficient 65 Risk management 53, 58 Scoliosis 24 Screening studies-external radiation 18 thyroid cancer risks 18 Sellafield workers 34 Sievert (Sv) 65 Solid tumors 12-13 Harderian gland 13 pituitary 13 Special occupational groups 55 risk assessment 55 Spermatogonia 11 mutations 11 Stochastic effect 65 Transformation 12, 14-15 cell cycle effects 15 in 'vitro 14 Tumor induction 12 Thymus irradiation 17 Thyroid cancer 16-17, 22 1311 exposure 17 Thyroid cancer risk 18, 22 radium dial workers 22 Tissue weighting factor (wT)49, 65 Uncertainties 50-51 future medical technology 51 future population fertility 50 future population size 50 location 50 Utah fallout study 21 thyroid cancer risks 21 ... law theory governing liability Library of Congress Cataloging -in- PublicationData Principles and application of collective dose in radiation protection p cm.- (NCRP report ; no 121) Includes bibliographical... presented in NCRP Report No 104 (NCRP, 1990b) and for internally deposited radionuclides in NCRP Report No 89 (NCRP, 1987~) 3.2.2.1 Chromosome Aberrations The induction of reciprocal translocations in. .. of Ionizing Radiation [BEIR (NASINRC, 1972)l A discussion of topics similar to collective dose in NCRP Report No 39 (NCRP, 1971) did not mention the conceptper se But, NCRP (1957) talked of "The