NCRP report no 152 performance assessment of near surface facilities for disposal of low level radioactive waste

91823NCRP_Cover 7/20/06 9:46 PM Page 152 NCRP REPORT No 152 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF NEAR-SURFACE FACILITIES FOR DISPOSAL OF LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF NEAR-SURFACE FACILITIES FOR DISPOSAL OF LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE N C R P National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements NCRP REPORT No 152 Performance Assessment of Near-Surface Facilities for Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste Recommendations of the NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS December 31, 2005 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 7910 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 400 / Bethesda, MD 20814-3095 LEGAL NOTICE This Report was prepared by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and useful information in its documents However, neither NCRP, the members of NCRP, other persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this Report, nor any person acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information contained in this Report, or that the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this Report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this Report, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq as amended 42 U.S.C Section 2000e et seq (Title VII) or any other statutory or common law theory governing liability Disclaimer Any mention of commercial products within NCRP publications is for information only; it does not imply recommendation or endorsement by NCRP Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Performance assessment of near-surface facilities for disposal of low-level radioactive waste p cm — (NCRP report ; no 152) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-929600-89-5 ISBN-10: 0-929600-89-4 Low level radioactive waste disposal facilities—United States—Evaluation Radioactive waste disposal in the ground—United States—Evaluation I National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements TD898.15.P47 2006 363.72'89 dc22 2006018391 Copyright © National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 2006 All rights reserved This publication is protected by copyright No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or utilized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner, except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews [For detailed information on the availability of NCRP publications see page 448.] Preface The search for solutions to the challenges posed by the need for long-term disposal and isolation of low-level radioactive waste has been long and complex The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act, passed in 1980 and amended in 1985, specified that the disposal of most low-level waste not generated at U.S Department of Energy sites is the responsibility of states or State Compacts A critical factor in the process of determining acceptable disposal practices for low-level waste at any site is a demonstration of compliance with regulatory performance objectives NCRP was asked to evaluate current approaches to performance assessment for near-surface disposal facilities for low-level radioactive waste, and Scientific Committee 87-3 was established to prepare a report on this subject This Report provides a review of concepts underlying performance assessments of near-surface disposal facilities for low-level radioactive waste and approaches to conducting such assessments This review includes discussions on the nature and scope of performance assessment, accepted approaches to conducting all aspects of a performance assessment, and unresolved issues in conducting performance assessments and applying the results The Report also discusses a number of policy issues that affect conduct of performance assessment Examples of these issues include the time period for complying with performance objectives, application of drinking water standards, and interpretation of performance objectives for compliance purposes It is not the objective of this Report to present recommendations for resolution of policy issues, although the importance of such issues and other social, political and economic factors is recognized Serving on the Committee were: Chairmen David C Kocher (1999–2006) SENES Oak Ridge, Inc Oak Ridge, Tennessee Matthew W Kozak (1992–1999) Monitor Scientific LLC Richland, Washington iii iv / PREFACE Members William E Kennedy, Jr Dade Moeller & Associates, Inc Richland, Washington Roger R Seitz Bechtel BWXT Idaho Scoville, Idaho Vern Rogers* Rogers & Associates Engineering Corporation Salt Lake City, Utah Terrence Sullivan Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York NCRP Secretariat E Ivan White, Staff Consultant Cindy L O’Brien, Managing Editor David A Schauer, Executive Director The Council is grateful for the financial support provided by the U.S Department of Energy and the U.S Nuclear Regulatory Commission at various times during the preparation of this Report The Council also wishes to express its appreciation to the Committee members for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of this Report Thomas S Tenforde President *deceased Contents Preface iii Executive Summary 1 Introduction 11 1.1 Purpose of Report 11 1.2 Scope of Report 12 1.3 Related NCRP Recommendations 14 Definition and Principles of Performance Assessment 16 2.1 Nature of Performance Assessment 16 2.2 Definition of Performance Assessment 18 2.3 General Principles of Performance Assessment 20 2.3.1 Performance Assessment as an Iterative Process 21 2.3.2 Performance Assessment as a Decision Tool 22 2.3.3 Uncertainty in Results of Performance Assessment 23 2.3.4 Integration and Interpretation of Results 23 2.3.5 Summary 24 2.4 Balance Between Conservatism and Realism in Performance Assessment 25 Context for Performance Assessment 28 3.1 Definition of Low-Level Radioactive Waste 28 3.1.1 Earliest Descriptions of Low-Level Waste 28 3.1.2 Current Definition of Low-Level Waste 29 3.2 Sources and Properties of Low-Level Waste 34 3.3 ICRP Recommendations on Disposal of Radioactive Waste 35 3.3.1 General Recommendations on Radiation Protection 35 3.3.2 General Policy on Application of Protection Principles to Radioactive Waste Disposal 36 3.3.3 Application of Protection Principles to Disposal of Solid Radioactive Wastes 37 3.3.4 Discussion of ICRP Recommendations 45 v vi / CONTENTS 3.4 3.5 Requirements for Near-Surface Disposal of Low-Level Waste 46 3.4.1 Authorized Disposal Systems 47 3.4.1.1 Legal and Regulatory Specifications 47 3.4.1.2 Historical Development of Disposal Technologies 48 3.4.2 Requirements for Protection of the Public 49 3.4.2.1 Licensing Criteria Established by NRC 49 3.4.2.2 Requirements Established by DOE 52 3.4.2.3 Implementation of the ALARA Requirement 56 3.4.2.4 EPA Views on Requirements for Disposal of Low-Level Waste 57 3.4.2.5 Implications of Performance Objectives 59 3.4.2.6 Requirements of States and State Compacts 61 3.4.3 Unresolved Issues in Performance Objectives for Low-Level Waste Disposal 61 3.4.3.1 Time Period for Compliance 62 3.4.3.2 Inclusion of Doses Due to Radon 63 3.4.3.3 Performance Objective for Protection of Groundwater 64 3.4.3.4 Interpretation of Performance Objectives for Compliance Purposes 66 3.4.4 Other Approaches to Regulating Waste Disposal 67 3.4.4.1 Approaches to Regulating Radioactive Waste Disposal 67 3.4.4.2 Approach to Regulating Disposal of Hazardous Chemical Waste 69 3.4.5 Requirements for Protection of the Environment 73 Other Concepts in Performance Assessment 74 3.5.1 Institutional Controls 74 3.5.1.1 Active Institutional Controls 74 3.5.1.2 Passive Institutional Controls 75 3.5.2 Model Validation and Confidence in Model Outcomes 76 CONTENTS 3.5.3 / vii 3.5.2.1 Quality Assurance 78 3.5.2.2 Model Calibration 79 3.5.2.3 Evaluation of Conservative Bias 80 Concept of Reasonable Assurance 81 3.5.3.1 Description and Interpretation of Reasonable Assurance 83 3.5.3.2 An Approach to Achieving Reasonable Assurance of Compliance 84 Framework for Performance Assessment 88 4.1 Data Collection, Conceptual Models, and Mathematical Models 89 4.1.1 Data Collection 90 4.1.2 Development of Conceptual Models 91 4.1.3 Selection and Implementation of Mathematical Models 93 4.2 Process for Conducting Performance Assessments 95 4.2.1 Historical Perspective 96 4.2.2 General Process for Conduct of Performance Assessment 100 4.2.2.1 Description of Context for Performance Assessment 101 4.2.2.2 Description of Disposal System 103 4.2.2.3 Development and Justification of Scenarios 103 4.2.2.4 Formulation and Implementation of Models 104 4.2.2.5 Conduct of Calculations (Consequence Analysis) 105 4.2.2.6 Interpretation of Results 106 4.2.2.7 Modifications of Assessment 107 4.2.2.8 Iterations of Performance Assessment 108 4.2.2.9 Summary 109 Performance Assessment Models 110 5.1 General Approach to Modeling of Disposal Systems 110 5.1.1 Decoupling and Simplifying an Analysis 113 5.1.2 Analysis by Modules 114 5.1.3 Analysis of Time Dependence 117 5.1.4 Organization of Section 117 viii / CONTENTS 5.2 5.3 5.4 Cover Performance and Infiltration 117 5.2.1 Introduction 117 5.2.2 Types of Covers 121 5.2.3 Degradation of Covers 123 5.2.4 Approaches to Estimating Infiltration 125 5.2.5 Summary and Conclusions 129 Performance of Concrete Barriers 130 5.3.1 General Approach to Modeling of Concrete Barriers 132 5.3.2 Water Flow Through Concrete 132 5.3.3 Degradation of Concrete 134 5.3.3.1 Sulfate Attack 135 5.3.3.2 Freeze/Thaw Cycling 136 5.3.3.3 Calcium Leaching 136 5.3.3.4 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 137 5.3.3.5 Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel 137 5.3.3.6 Combination of Reactions 139 5.3.4 Application of Models 140 5.3.5 Example Analyses of Long-Term Performance of Concrete Barriers 140 5.3.6 Summary 143 Source Term 143 5.4.1 Inventories of Radionuclides 144 5.4.2 Radionuclide Release Rates (Source Term) 147 5.4.3 Disposal Facility Concepts 153 5.4.4 Waste Containers 155 5.4.5 Waste Forms 158 5.4.5.1 Waste-Form Performance: Aqueous Phase 160 5.4.5.1.1 Surface Rinse with Partitioning 160 5.4.5.1.2 Diffusion-Controlled Release 162 5.4.5.1.3 Dissolution (Constant) Release 165 5.4.5.1.4 Solubility-Limited Release 166 5.4.5.2 Waste-Form Performance: Gas Phase 167 5.4.5.3 Ingrowth of Radionuclides 167 CONTENTS 5.4.6 5.5 / ix Transport in Disposal Facility 168 5.4.6.1 Aqueous-Phase Transport 168 5.4.6.2 Gas-Phase Transport 170 5.4.7 Interfaces with Other Performance Assessment Models 171 5.4.8 Source-Term Issues 171 5.4.8.1 Radionuclide Inventory Issues 172 5.4.8.1.1 Unit Source Term 172 5.4.8.1.2 Inaccurate Estimation of Inventories 173 5.4.8.2 Waste-Container Issues 174 5.4.8.2.1 Insufficient Characterization of Containers 175 5.4.8.2.2 Distributed Failure of Containers 175 5.4.8.3 Waste-Form Issues 175 5.4.8.3.1 Changes in Waste Types and Characteristics 176 5.4.8.3.2 Insufficient Waste-Form Characterization 176 5.4.8.3.3 Insufficient Data on Release Rates 177 5.4.8.3.4 Homogeneity of Wastes 177 5.4.8.3.5 Issues of Geochemistry and Solubility 178 5.4.8.4 Issues of Radionuclide Transport 179 5.4.8.4.1 Steady-State Flow 179 5.4.8.4.2 Uniform Flow Fields 179 5.4.8.4.3 Role of Geochemistry in Transport 180 5.4.8.4.4 Role of Microbial Processes 181 5.4.8.4.5 Role of Colloids 181 5.4.9 Summary 182 Unsaturated Zone Flow and Transport 183 5.5.1 Introduction 183 5.5.2 Interfaces with Other Performance Assessment Models 185 454 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Some Issues Important in Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 1984 (including Taylor Lecture No 8) (1985) Radioactive Waste, Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting held on April 3-4, 1985 (including Taylor Lecture No 9)(1986) Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, Proceedings of the Twenty-second Annual Meeting held on April 2-3, 1986 (including Taylor Lecture No 10) (1988) New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Its Implications for Risk Estimates, Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Meeting held on April 8-9, 1987 (including Taylor Lecture No 11) (1988) Radon, Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting held on March 30-31, 1988 (including Taylor Lecture No 12) (1989) Radiation Protection Today—The NCRP at Sixty Years, Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting held on April 5-6, 1989 (including Taylor Lecture No 13) (1990) Health and Ecological Implications of Radioactively Contaminated Environments, Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 1990 (including Taylor Lecture No 14) (1991) Genes, Cancer and Radiation Protection, Proceedings of the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting held on April 3-4, 1991 (including Taylor Lecture No 15) (1992) Radiation Protection in Medicine, Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting held on April 1-2, 1992 (including Taylor Lecture No 16) (1993) Radiation Science and Societal Decision Making, Proceedings of the Twenty-ninth Annual Meeting held on April 7-8, 1993 (including Taylor Lecture No 17) (1994) Extremely-Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: Issues in Biological Effects and Public Health, Proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Meeting held on April 6-7, 1994 (not published) Environmental Dose Reconstruction and Risk Implications, Proceedings of the Thirty-first Annual Meeting held on April 12-13, 1995 (including Taylor Lecture No 19) (1996) Implications of New Data on Radiation Cancer Risk, Proceedings of the Thirty-second Annual Meeting held on April 3-4, 1996 (including Taylor Lecture No 20) (1997) The Effects of Pre- and Postconception Exposure to Radiation, Proceedings of the Thirty-third Annual Meeting held on April 2-3, 1997, Teratology 59, 181–317 (1999) Cosmic Radiation Exposure of Airline Crews, Passengers and Astronauts, Proceedings of the Thirty-fourth Annual Meeting held on April 1-2, 1998, Health Phys 79, 466–613 (2000) Radiation Protection in Medicine: Contemporary Issues, Proceedings of the Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting held on April 7-8, 1999 (including Taylor Lecture No 23) (1999) Ionizing Radiation Science and Protection in the 21st Century, Proceedings of the Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting held on April 5-6, 2000, Health Phys 80, 317–402 (2001) Fallout from Atmospheric Nuclear Tests—Impact on Science and Society, Proceedings of the Thirty-seventh Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 2001, Health Phys 82, 573–748 (2002) NCRP PUBLICATIONS 24 25 26 / 455 Where the New Biology Meets Epidemiology: Impact on Radiation Risk Estimates, Proceedings of the Thirty-eighth Annual Meeting held on April 10-11, 2002, Health Phys 85, 1–108 (2003) Radiation Protection at the Beginning of the 21st Century–A Look Forward, Proceedings of the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting held on April 9–10, 2003, Health Phys 87, 237–319 (2004) Advances in Consequence Management for Radiological Terrorism Events, Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Meeting held on April 14–15, 2004, Health Phys 89, 415–588 (2005) Lauriston S Taylor Lectures No 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Title The Squares of the Natural Numbers in Radiation Protection by Herbert M Parker (1977) Why be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates? by Sir Edward Pochin (1978) Radiation Protection—Concepts and Trade Offs by Hymer L Friedell (1979) [available also in Perceptions of Risk, see above] From “Quantity of Radiation” and “Dose” to “Exposure” and “Absorbed Dose”—An Historical Review by Harold O Wyckoff (1980) How Well Can We Assess Genetic Risk? Not Very by James F Crow (1981) [available also in Critical Issues in Setting Radiation Dose Limits, see above] Ethics, Trade-offs and Medical Radiation by Eugene L Saenger (1982) [available also in Radiation Protection and New Medical Diagnostic Approaches, see above] The Human Environment—Past, Present and Future by Merril Eisenbud (1983) [available also in Environmental Radioactivity, see above] Limitation and Assessment in Radiation Protection by Harald H Rossi (1984) [available also in Some Issues Important in Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, see above] Truth (and Beauty) in Radiation Measurement by John H Harley (1985) [available also in Radioactive Waste, see above] Biological Effects of Non-ionizing Radiations: Cellular Properties and Interactions by Herman P Schwan (1987) [available also in Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, see above] How to be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates by Seymour Jablon (1988) [available also in New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and its Implications for Risk Estimates, see above] How Safe is Safe Enough? by Bo Lindell (1988) [available also in Radon, see above] Radiobiology and Radiation Protection: The Past Century and Prospects for the Future by Arthur C Upton (1989) [available also in Radiation Protection Today, see above] Radiation Protection and the Internal Emitter Saga by J Newell Stannard (1990) [available also in Health and Ecological Implications of Radioactively Contaminated Environments, see above] When is a Dose Not a Dose? by Victor P Bond (1992) [available also in Genes, Cancer and Radiation Protection, see above] Dose and Risk in Diagnostic Radiology: How Big? How Little? by Edward W Webster (1992) [available also in Radiation Protection in Medicine, see above] 456 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Science, Radiation Protection and the NCRP by Warren K Sinclair (1993) [available also in Radiation Science and Societal Decision Making, see above] Mice, Myths and Men by R.J Michael Fry (1995) Certainty and Uncertainty in Radiation Research by Albrecht M Kellerer Health Phys 69, 446–453 (1995) 70 Years of Radiation Genetics: Fruit Flies, Mice and Humans by Seymour Abrahamson Health Phys 71, 624–633 (1996) Radionuclides in the Body: Meeting the Challenge by William J Bair Health Phys 73, 423–432 (1997) From Chimney Sweeps to Astronauts: Cancer Risks in the Work Place by Eric J Hall Health Phys 75, 357–366 (1998) Back to Background: Natural Radiation and Radioactivity Exposed by Naomi H Harley Health Phys 79, 121–128 (2000) Administered Radioactivity: Unde Venimus Quoque Imus by S James Adelstein Health Phys 80, 317–324 (2001) Assuring the Safety of Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound by Wesley L Nyborg Health Phys 82, 578–587 (2002) Developing Mechanistic Data for Incorporation into Cancer and Genetic Risk Assessments: Old Problems and New Approaches by R Julian Preston Health Phys 85, 4–12 (2003) The Evolution of Radiation Protection–From Erythema to Genetic Risks to Risks of Cancer to ? by Charles B Meinhold, Health Phys 87, 240–248 (2004) Radiation Protection in the Aftermath of a Terrorist Attack Involving Exposure to Ionizing Radiation by Abel J Gonzalez, Health Phys 89, 418–446 (2005) Symposium Proceedings No Title The Control of Exposure of the Public to Ionizing Radiation in the Event of Accident or Attack, Proceedings of a Symposium held April 27-29, 1981 (1982) Radioactive and Mixed Waste—Risk as a Basis for Waste Classification, Proceedings of a Symposium held November 9, 1994 (1995) Acceptability of Risk from Radiation—Application to Human Space Flight, Proceedings of a Symposium held May 29, 1996 (1997) 21st Century Biodosimetry: Quantifying the Past and Predicting the Future, Proceedings of a Symposium held February 22, 2001, Radiat Prot Dosim 97(1), (2001) National Conference on Dose Reduction in CT, with an Emphasis on Pediatric Patients, Summary of a Symposium held November 6-7, 2002, Am J Roentgenol 181(2), 321–339 (2003) NCRP Statements No Title “Blood Counts, Statement of the National Committee on Radiation Protection,” Radiology 63, 428 (1954) “Statements on Maximum Permissible Dose from Television Receivers and Maximum Permissible Dose to the Skin of the Whole NCRP PUBLICATIONS 10 / 457 Body,” Am J Roentgenol., Radium Ther and Nucl Med 84, 152 (1960) and Radiology 75, 122 (1960) X-Ray Protection Standards for Home Television Receivers, Interim Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1968) Specification of Units of Natural Uranium and Natural Thorium, Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1973) NCRP Statement on Dose Limit for Neutrons (1980) Control of Air Emissions of Radionuclides (1984) The Probability That a Particular Malignancy May Have Been Caused by a Specified Irradiation (1992) The Application of ALARA for Occupational Exposures (1999) Extension of the Skin Dose Limit for Hot Particles to Other External Sources of Skin Irradiation (2001) Recent Applications of the NCRP Public Dose Limit Recommendation for Ionizing Radiation (2004) Other Documents The following documents were published outside of the NCRP report, commentary and statement series: Somatic Radiation Dose for the General Population, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, May 1959, Science 131 (3399), February 19, 482–486 (1960) Dose Effect Modifying Factors in Radiation Protection, Report of Subcommittee M-4 (Relative Biological Effectiveness) of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Report BNL 50073 (T-471) (1967) Brookhaven National Laboratory (National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia) Residential Radon Exposure and Lung Cancer Risk: Commentary on Cohen's County-Based Study, Health Phys 87(6), 656–658 (2004) Index 222, 311, 355, 361, 362, 363, 364, 374, 387, 388, 391, 393 As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) 35, 54, 374 Atomic Energy Act (AEA) 32, 57, 373, 374, 384, 385, 389 Autocatalysis 375 Absorbed dose 73, 167, 284, 373, 376, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389 Accessible environments 202, 316, 336, 366, 368, 369, 371, 374, 386 Accuracy 78, 80, 100, 196, 218, 219, 320, 373, 375, 377, 378, 383 bias 78, 80, 373, 375, 377, 383 precision 320, 373, 378 Activation 33, 373 Activity 15, 16, 29, 34, 47, 48, 51, 55, 57, 58, 65, 72, 73, 145, 146, 147, 157, 159, 168, 173, 174, 177, 178, 207, 214, 217, 223, 230, 252, 254, 256, 257, 261, 263, 266, 268, 269, 271, 274, 276, 278, 284, 292, 308, 315, 365, 373, 375, 377, 379, 383, 388, 391, 392 becquerel (Bq) 373, 375 curie (Ci) 373, 377 AEA 32, 34, 47, 57, 70, 72, 73, 374 Agreement State 19, 30, 34, 47, 54, 72, 145, 293, 304, 373, 374, 376, 384 ALARA 35, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 68, 221, 365, 373, 374, 384, 385, 389 Amorphous 181, 373 Anaerobic 167, 373 Analytical solution 79, 161, 163, 164, 169, 196, 216, 219, 327, 334, 373 Anion 146, 373, 384 Annual dose equivalent 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 374 Aquaitard 203, 374 Aquatic foodchain pathways 258, 272, 274, 275, 278, 279 Aquifer 4, 7, 91, 115, 117, 171, 184, 185, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 213, 220, 221, Background radiation 374 Barrier 2, 4, 7, 8, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21, 40, 42, 44, 48, 56, 59, 60, 69, 72, 75, 86, 87, 88, 93, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, 127, 130–143, 144, 148, 151, 153, 156–158, 168–172, 176, 179, 181, 235, 242, 243, 245, 286, 293, 296–299, 301, 302, 305, 306, 307, 309, 310, 315, 316, 318, 319, 330, 353, 355, 356, 359, 360, 362, 366, 374, 378, 381, 385 Bayesian probability theory 374 Becequerel 375 Benchmarking 79, 334, 356, 375 Beta radiation 375, 383, 395 Bias 78, 80, 81, 82, 88, 100, 101, 106, 196, 215, 218, 219, 248, 259, 260, 280, 306, 320, 342, 343, 368, 369, 373, 375, 377, 378, 383, 391 accuracy 100, 196, 218, 219, 373 conservative bias 78, 80, 81, 82, 106, 215, 248, 259, 280, 306, 342, 343, 368, 369, 375, 377 imprecision 378 precision 320, 373, 378 Bioaccumulation factor 78, 275, 276, 277, 278, 375, 376 concentration factor 275, 278, 376 458 INDEX / concentration ratio 275, 276, 277, 376 Biokinetic model 261, 262, 263, 265–267, 272, 375 Biosphere 38, 39, 44, 69, 112, 114, 117, 253, 375 Boundary condition 375 Byproduct material 32, 70, 373, 374, 375, 376, 384, 389 Cap 3, 16, 148, 154, 155, 296, 315, 375, 377, 387, 394 cover 148, 154, 155, 377 tumulus 394 Capillary fringe 186, 375 volumetric water content 375 Cation 145, 375 Cement 131, 135, 148, 159, 164, 170, 176, 177, 181, 375, 377 (see concrete) CERCLA 34, 57, 64, 68, 302, 309, 376, 393 SARA 376 Superfund 34, 302, 309, 376, 393 Characteristic curve 188, 189, 190, 191, 195, 196, 328, 375 Chelate 181, 376 Chemisorption 206, 376 Colloid 151, 152, 178, 179, 181, 182, 215, 376 Commercial waste 376 Committed dose 3, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 73, 167, 254, 261–264, 266, 268–272, 283, 284, 309, 373, 374, 376, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389, 391, 393 absorbed dose 73, 167, 284, 373, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389 dose equivalent 3, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 254, 261, 262, 268, 270, 374, 379, 380, 388, 389, 391 effective dose equivalent 3, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 254, 261–264, 266, 268–272, 309, 374, 376, 379, 393 459 equivalent dose 3, 261, 262, 264, 266, 269, 270, 374, 376, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389, 391 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) 34, 376, 393 Compressive strength 132, 134, 136, 376 Concentration factor 275, 278, 376 Concentration ratio 275, 276, 277, 376 Conceptual model 2, 8, 21, 22, 23, 24, 78, 84, 86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 95, 99, 103–108, 144, 159, 160, 161, 171, 173, 196, 204, 205, 323, 325, 326, 327, 332, 333, 334, 346, 350, 354, 355, 356, 362, 368, 369, 372, 376 Concrete 4, 8, 16, 34, 48, 56, 93, 110, 115, 117, 128, 130–143, 147, 148, 153–156, 169, 171, 181, 241, 296, 299, 307, 329, 335, 356, 358, 360, 376, 378, 381, 394 (see cement) grout 8, 16, 34, 48, 128, 134, 169, 378, 381 Conservative bias 80, 106, 215 Containment 4, 59, 60, 61, 66, 130, 286, 377 Controlled area 373, 377, 378 Convection 198, 377 Coordination complex 377, 383 Corrosion 135, 137, 138, 139, 141, 143, 150, 156, 157, 158, 165, 167, 181, 235, 277 Cover 3, 16, 148, 154, 155, 296, 315, 375, 377, 387, 394 cap 3, 16, 148, 296, 315, 375, 387, 394 Creep 156, 158, 377 Critical group 36, 37, 38, 39, 67, 377 Critical organ 377 Curie (Ci) 15, 16, 29, 34, 47, 48, 51, 55, 57, 58, 65, 72, 73, 145, 146, 147, 157, 159, 168, 173, 174, 177, 460 / INDEX 178, 207, 214, 217, 223, 230, 252, 254, 257, 261, 253, 266, 268, 269, 271, 274, 276, 278, 284, 292, 308, 315, 365, 373, 375, 377, 379, 383, 388, 391, 392 activity 15, 16, 29, 34, 47, 48, 51, 55, 57, 58, 65, 72, 73, 145, 146, 147, 157, 159, 168, 173, 174, 177, 178, 207, 214, 217, 223, 230, 252, 254, 257, 261, 253, 266, 268, 269, 271, 274, 276, 278, 284, 292, 308, 315, 365, 373, 375, 377, 379, 383, 388, 391, 392 Darcy velocity 80, 127, 194, 198, 199, 208, 365, 377 Defense waste 377 Depassivation 137, 138, 139, 143, 377 Deposition velocity 278, 377 Desorption 180, 377, 391 Deterministic effects 377 Deterministic methods 331, 338, 347, 350, 377 Detriment 35, 37, 264, 283, 284, 377, 393 Differential analysis 345, 378 Diffusion 9, 136, 138, 139, 141, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167–171, 183, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 220–227, 234, 235, 236, 237, 364, 365, 378, 381, 384, 386 Diffusion coefficient 135, 159, 163, 164, 165, 209, 210, 212, 235, 236, 378, 386 Diffusivity 138, 139, 378 Dispersion 8, 49, 168, 169, 171, 183, 184, 191, 197, 206, 210–216, 218–225, 238, 239, 325, 330, 364, 365, 378 Dispersion coefficient 211, 212, 213, 214, 220, 224, 365, 378 Dispersivity 212, 213, 225, 325, 329, 330, 378 Disposal cell 147, 149, 168, 170, 172, 378 Disposal facility 3, 4, 7, 11, 13, 16–20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32, 38, 40, 41, 45, 46, 52, 54, 55, 56, 60, 62, 65, 68, 71, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, 131, 140, 143–154, 157, 167–185, 189, 192, 195, 197, 203, 215, 218, 223, 226, 235, 240, 241, 242, 245, 346, 350, 251, 253, 259, 281, 285, 289, 292, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 302–316, 318, 319, 321, 324, 331, 335, 337, 353, 354, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 366–372, 377, 380, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387, 391, 392, 393, 395 Disposal site 5, 6, 12, 15, 16, 20, 29, 34, 37, 42, 43, 46, 48, 50, 51, 52, 55, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 71, 72, 74, 75, 78, 80, 91, 99, 103, 104, 105, 110, 114, 123, 155, 156, 159, 176, 177, 196, 202, 205, 207, 210, 212, 223, 227, 237, 238, 239, 241–246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 258, 260, 278, 281, 282, 286–297, 299–309, 317, 318, 324, 327, 334, 336, 346, 351, 353, 354, 355, 366, 369, 370, 372, 376, 378, 382, 387 Disposal system 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16–22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 55, 59, 66, 67, 68, 69, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 101, 103, 104, 106–117, 121, 130, 131, 140, 154, 182, 183, 206, 208, 215, 219, 226, 241, 243, 244, 250, 280, 283, 286, 288, 291, 299, 300, 301, 305, 309, 315, 321, 322, 324, 326, 328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 334, 336, 342, 346, 348, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 358, 366, 368, 369, 370, 372, 374, 378, 386, 389, 390, 394 Disposal unit 7, 19, 30, 31, 46, 48, 59, 60, 103, 118, 127, 128, 149, INDEX / 150, 155, 196, 291, 310, 311, 353, 378, 381, 383, 385 geologic repository 19, 30, 31, 46, 48, 59, 60, 196, 291, 378, 381, 383, 385 land disposal facility 378 near-surface disposal 378, 383 Distribution coefficient 7, 91, 92, 152, 180, 181, 206, 207, 209, 217, 222, 223, 275, 277, 328, 362, 364, 378 Dose 3, 6, 7, 14, 15, 23, 25, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40–46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 56–69, 73, 75, 76, 81, 87, 88, 91, 100, 101, 105, 113, 114, 115, 146, 147, 152, 153, 158, 167, 173, 174, 175, 177, 202, 205, 208, 218, 221, 225, 226, 227, 229, 232, 235, 240, 242, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 321, 323, 324, 326, 332, 335, 337, 344, 346, 349, 357, 361, 364, 365, 366, 367, 373, 374, 376, 378, 379, 380, 384, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393 absorbed dose 73, 167, 284, 373, 376, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389 collective dose 36, 40, 56, 57, 221 committed dose 58, 261, 263, 283, 374, 376, 379 dose assessments 14, 229, 235, 240, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 256, 267, 271, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 285, 286, 287, 290, 293, 300, 301, 302, 306, 308, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314, 318, 319 dose coefficient 58, 88, 91, 101, 249, 253, 254, 255, 259, 260, 261, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 461 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 282, 283, 285, 286, 379 dose commitment (see committed dose) dose equivalent 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 261, 262, 268, 374, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389, 391 effective dose 15, 36, 37, 42, 65, 254, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 271, 272, 283, 284, 285, 313, 374, 376, 378, 379, 391, 393 effective dose equivalent 3, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 254, 261, 262, 263, 264, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 283, 309, 374, 376, 379, 393 equivalent dose 3, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 261, 262, 268, 374, 376, 378, 379, 380, 388, 389, 391, 393 quality factor 379, 388 tissue weighting factor 264, 284, 379, 388, 393 Dose rate 115, 254, 256, 257, 269, 270, 284, 379, 389, 391 Dosimetric model 284, 379 Dynamic 21, 87, 126, 133, 236, 256, 266, 326, 379 Effective porosity 208, 209, 213, 379, 387 Eh 180, 183, 379 Embrittlement 158, 379 Encapsulation 48, 379, 394 Enhancement factor 228, 379 Environment 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34, 35, 41, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 60, 62, 64, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, 101, 103, 104, 110, 112, 115, 117, 118, 119, 130, 131, 133, 134, 140, 144, 147, 151, 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 167, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 197, 199, 202, 205, 208, 221, 229, 232, 234, 235, 243, 244, 245, 462 / INDEX 246–259, 268, 269, 270, 272, 280–286, 295, 301, 303, 305, 306, 307, 313, 315, 316, 318, 329, 330, 336, 353, 357, 359, 360, 366, 367, 368, 369, 373, 374, 376, 378, 379, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386, 389, 390, 392, 393 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 12, 49, 303, 393, 394 EPA 12, 49, 51–61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 88, 126, 145, 219, 223, 224, 259, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 269, 270, 277, 284, 285, 303, 309, 316, 317, 336 Epoxy 139, 141, 380 Equilibrium 7, 92, 105, 141, 159, 160, 161, 162, 168, 217, 255, 256, 268, 277, 328, 364, 380, 386, 387 Error 79, 105, 125, 126, 185, 196, 197, 204, 239, 263, 265, 270, 327, 328, 329, 334, 356, 380, 395 Error function 239, 327, 380 Evaporation 118, 125, 126, 380 Exfiltration 151, 380 Exposure pathways 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 50, 51, 52, 57, 59, 91, 104, 112, 113, 117, 204, 205, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251–259, 261, 264, 269, 272, 273, 279, 280, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 297, 299, 300, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 318, 350, 355, 356, 367, 368, 369, 370, 391, 393 External exposure 153, 245, 249, 252, 253, 254, 259, 260, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 280, 282, 284, 285, 286, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 379, 380, 383, 394 Extrapolation 80, 158, 311, 380 Fault tree analysis 97, 380 Finite-difference method 217, 380 Finite-element method 217, 381 Fission product 30, 31, 145, 176, 381, 382 Flux 4, 69, 87, 114, 118, 139, 185, 209, 211, 213, 220, 222, 235, 237, 278, 358, 365, 378, 381, 387 Flux density 163, 164, 235, 377, 381 Foodchain pathways 254, 258, 260, 272, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279 aquatic foodchain pathways 258, 272, 274, 275, 278, 279 terrestrial foodchain pathways 254, 258, 260, 274, 277, 278 Fuel reprocessing 28, 30, 31, 381 Fuzzy set 381 Fuzzy set analysis 344, 381 Gamma radiation 381, 383 Gaussian plume model 238, 240, 381 Generic 11, 14, 19, 27, 42, 51, 52, 71, 72, 78, 85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 100, 113, 228, 229, 230, 240, 241, 249, 258, 259, 260, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 285, 287, 288, 290, 293, 301, 305, 355, 358, 359, 364, 365, 366, 367, 370, 381 analysis 11, 52, 301 data 27, 78, 90, 91, 94, 100, 240, 258, 259, 260, 272, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 285, 287, 355, 358, 364, 365, 366, 367 models 93, 100, 113, 359, 366, 367, 370 parameters 228, 230 pathways 113 performance assessments 19, 51, 71, 72, 88, 113, 229, 241, 249, 272, 288, 293 reference level 42 scenarios 290, 293, 305, 367, 370 screening models 14 Geologic repository 19, 30, 31, 46, 48, 59, 60, 196, 291, 378, 381, 383, 385 INDEX / Groundwater 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 41, 45, 55, 57, 59, 60, 64, 65, 66, 71, 72, 79, 80, 91, 92, 105, 112, 115, 116, 117, 121, 127, 140, 141, 144, 146, 154, 166, 177, 184, 187, 197–211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, 227, 235, 244, 245, 246, 251, 252, 257, 281, 299, 300, 301, 306, 308, 330, 343, 355, 356, 357, 363, 364, 365, 366, 374, 381, 384, 386, 387 Grout 8, 16, 34, 46, 128, 134, 169, 378, 381 Half-life 126, 169, 220, 314, 365, 381 Hazard 9, 11, 26, 27, 29, 42, 43, 45, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 145, 154, 249, 292, 354, 376, 381, 385, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394 Heuristic 327, 336, 381 High-level radioactive waste 246, 250, 381, 383, 386 Homolog 286, 382 Humic 181, 382 Hydraulic conductivity 8, 9, 16, 80, 119, 121, 123, 127, 132, 133, 136, 137, 141, 142, 143, 186, 188, 189, 190, 191, 193–199, 201, 202, 236, 237, 292, 343, 362, 363, 375, 377, 378, 382, 383, 386, 387, 388, 391, 393 permeability 16, 119, 121, 132, 136, 137, 141, 142, 143, 236, 237, 383, 386 pump test 198, 199, 387 slug test 201, 292, 363, 391 transmissivity 388, 393 Hydraulic head 7, 9, 79, 80, 116, 127, 133, 186, 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 203, 208, 362, 363, 377, 382, 387, 392 pressure head 7, 116, 127, 186, 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 203, 377, 382, 387, 392 Hysteresis 119, 179, 382 463 IAEA 33, 35, 56, 69, 85, 87, 104, 246, 253, 256, 278 Importance analysis 6, 14, 23, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 326, 330, 338, 339, 342, 344, 345, 350, 351, 352, 370, 371, 372, 382 Inadvertent intruder 5, 6, 45, 46, 48–56, 64, 76, 146, 173, 174, 226, 235, 240, 246, 248, 249, 250, 268, 288–314, 317, 318, 319, 366, 382 Infiltration 4, 7, 8, 48, 79, 81, 116–130, 132, 133, 134, 139–143, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155, 169, 171, 182, 185, 186, 189, 191, 192, 195, 197, 242, 336, 337, 358, 359, 360, 361, 363, 382, 384, 386, 391 percolation 118, 386 Initial condition 7, 128, 147, 172, 199, 382 Institutional control 5, 6, 8, 15, 17, 22, 28, 38, 40, 41, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 62, 72, 74, 75, 76, 108, 125, 153, 244, 248, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 309, 310, 317, 358, 359, 369, 372, 377, 382 Integration 2, 3, 6, 17, 21, 23, 24, 92, 101, 109, 113, 161, 166, 205, 322, 354, 355, 357, 368, 372, 373, 379, 382, 390 Interception fraction 278, 382 Intermediate-level radioactive waste 154, 382 Internal exposure 261, 272, 282, 383 Intrinsic permeability 236, 383 Inventory 105, 114, 143, 144, 148, 150, 159, 160, 162, 164, 166, 168, 169, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 226, 383, 390 Isolation 36, 71, 154, 283, 286, 328, 354, 372, 378, 381, 383, 387, 394 Isomorphic 383 Isotropic 7, 214, 383 Kriging 201, 383 464 / INDEX Land disposal facility 378, 383 Latin hypercube sampling method 341, 343, 383, 385 Monte-Carlo method 343, 385 Leaching 135, 136, 137, 140, 143, 160, 277, 356, 383, 384 Ligand 151, 180, 183, 242, 383 Linear-energy transfer (LET) 383, 388, 389 LLRWPA 29, 30, 47, 384 Low-level radioactive waste 1, 11, 28–33, 47, 61, 70, 72, 110, 144, 353, 383, 384, 392 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (LLRWPA) 1, 47, 61, 384, 392 Lysimeter 76, 127, 384 Mass loading 227, 228, 229, 230, 234, 240, 384 Matric potential 186, 384 suction pressure 186, 392 Maximally exposed individual 57, 384 Meat transfer coefficient 274, 275, 384 Migration 16, 89, 95, 166, 172, 181, 184, 185, 236, 245, 262, 374, 384, 393 Milk transfer coefficient 254, 255, 274, 275, 276, 279, 384 Mill tailings 1, 12, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 57, 64, 72, 123, 384, 395 Mixed bed 145, 384 Mixed waste 70, 72, 384 Models 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17–28, 34, 43, 44, 45, 60, 61, 66, 67, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84–287, 290, 304, 305, 306, 308, 312, 313, 315, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 325–334, 336–372, 373, 375, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 385, 386, 387, 380, 391, 392, 394, 395 benchmarking 79, 334, 356, 375 calibration 78, 80, 385 multiplicative-chain 95, 246, 255, 256, 285, 385 parameter 26, 76, 87, 249, 250, 259, 260, 274, 286, 304, 305, 306, 308, 318, 320, 325, 328, 330, 340, 352, 387 screening 14, 15, 17, 86, 103, 104, 198, 221, 232, 259, 356, 391 sensitivity analysis 6, 22, 320, 321, 322, 344, 345, 346, 352, 371, 378, 391 structure 26, 345, 385 uncertainty analysis 6, 23, 44, 45, 96, 197, 218, 320, 323, 324, 330, 331, 332, 333, 338, 339, 340, 342, 345, 346, 347, 348, 351, 370, 394 validation 28, 74, 76, 77, 253, 395 Modified mass loading model 227, 229, 234 Modulus of elasticity 385 Moisture content 8, 132, 162, 186–195, 197, 209, 213, 214, 230, 236, 362, 375, 385 Monitoring 2, 9, 18, 19, 22, 49, 72, 74, 75, 76, 106, 108, 170, 184, 198, 204, 364, 372, 377, 382, 385 Monte-Carlo analysis 241, 343, 383, 385 Latin hypercube sampling method 241, 383 Multiplicative-chain model 95, 246, 255, 256, 285, 385 NARM 31, 32, 72, 73, 376, 384, 385 Naturally occurring and accelerator-produced radioactive material (NARM) 32, 376, 384, 385, 385 Near-surface disposal 378, 383 Nuclear fuel cycle 1, 31, 32, 34, 385, 395 Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA) 29, 30, 32, 33, 64, 385 Numerical solution 196, 218, 327, 386 INDEX / Osmosis 215, 386 Oxidation 158, 379, 386, 389 Parameter 26, 76, 87, 249, 250, 259, 260, 274, 278, 304, 305, 308, 318, 320, 325, 328, 330, 332, 338, 340, 343, 344, 346, 352, 387 uncertainty 278, 325, 328, 330, 332, 338, 340, 343, 344, 346, 387 Partition coefficient 160, 161, 171, 176, 177, 386 Pathways 3, 5, 6, 9, 13, 14, 15, 17, 50, 51, 52, 56, 57, 59, 78, 91, 104, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 123, 142, 154, 155, 170, 204, 205, 207, 226, 227, 237, 240–261, 263, 264, 269, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 383, 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 318, 350, 355, 356, 367, 368, 369, 370, 386, 391, 393 Peclet number 220, 221, 386 Percolation 118, 386 (see infiltration) Performance assessment 1–10, 16–27, 88–109, 110–143, 386 models 110–143 Performance objective 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59–69, 71, 73, 74, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 92, 103, 105, 106, 109, 113, 153, 174, 182, 202, 205, 218, 246, 248, 249, 259, 261, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273, 291, 283, 286, 300, 315, 316, 317, 323, 329, 330, 331, 335, 337, 338, 339, 344, 346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 353, 354, 357, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 382, 386, 389 Perturbation analysis 343, 386 Physisorption 206, 387 Piezometric surface 199, 387 Plant-to-soil concentration ratio 256, 274, 276, 277, 387 465 Pore velocity 194, 195, 220, 387 Porosity 127, 141, 142, 186, 192, 193, 208, 209, 210, 213, 214, 329, 379, 387 effective porosity 208, 209, 213, 379, 387 Possibilistic theory 344, 387 Possibility theory 387 Post closure 1, 2, 18, 19, 22, 42, 71, 108, 172, 178, 372, 386, 387 Precision in calculations 320, 373, 387 Pressure head 7, 9, 79, 80, 116, 127, 133, 186, 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 203, 208, 362, 363, 377, 382, 387, 392 hydraulic head 7, 116, 127, 186, 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 203, 377, 382, 387, 392 Probabilistic 39, 51, 66, 67, 97, 142, 153, 249, 283, 322, 324, 325, 331, 332, 341, 342, 343, 344, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 377, 387, 388, 392, 393, 394 stochastic 249, 283, 324, 325, 342, 343, 377, 388, 392, 393, 394 Probabilistic methods 331, 333, 340, 343, 349, 350, 351, 374, 387, 392 Bayesian probability theory 374 stochastic methods 343, 387, 392 Probabilistic risk assessment 97, 387 Probability distribution 51, 66, 277, 280, 328, 332, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 348, 349, 351, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387 Pump test 198, 199, 387 Quality assurance 42, 76, 78, 79, 84, 87, 96, 101, 143, 334, 356, 357, 399 Quality factor 379, 388 Radiation weighting factor 284, 380, 388 466 / INDEX Radiolysis 167, 388 Radon 3, 50, 52, 55, 58, 63, 64, 144, 154, 155, 167, 170, 235, 236, 237, 251, 263, 268, 269, 281, 366, 374, 388 progeny 388 RCRA 70, 71, 72, 73, 123, 384, 385, 389 Reasonable assurance 1, 2, 18, 20, 21, 22, 28, 44, 67, 74, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 106, 107, 109, 146, 286, 321, 352, 353, 357, 372 386, 389 Redox 151, 180, 389 Reduction 39, 57, 68, 138, 148, 161, 208, 310, 312, 319, 326, 333, 334, 379, 389 Reference individual 249, 261, 262, 266, 271, 283, 389 Regression analysis 345, 389 Resource Recovery and Recovery Act (see RCRA) Response surface 345, 389 Resuspension factor model 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 240, 390 Resuspension rate model 227, 233, 234, 240, 390 Retardation coefficient 390 Risk assessment 37, 71, 97, 283, 387, 390 Risk coefficient 37, 254, 265, 283, 284, 285, 390 Robust 6, 41, 43, 45, 56, 87, 305, 357, 390 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 65, 390 Saturated zone 7, 9, 116, 186, 198, 199, 203, 219, 220, 305, 362, 363, 390 Saturation 4, 132, 133, 136, 184, 186, 188, 189, 198, 255, 361, 381, 390 Scaling factor 174, 361, 390 Scenario 6, 15, 38, 40, 41, 45, 46, 50, 52, 61, 67, 76, 101–109, 119, 123, 146, 154, 227, 229, 232, 234, 237, 242, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 256, 258, 259, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272, 273, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295–319, 331, 334, 336, 337, 338, 346, 367, 370, 377, 390, 391 Screening models 14, 15, 17, 86, 103, 104, 198, 221, 232, 259, 356, 391 Sensitivity analysis 6, 22, 320, 321, 322, 344, 345, 346, 352, 371, 378, 391, 392 step-wise regression 345, 392 Shallow land disposal 154, 291, 391 Shannon’s entropy 342, 391 Sievert (Sv) 379, 380, 391 Site-specific 1, 5, 8, 9, 14, 18, 19, 26, 27, 50, 54, 55, 56, 62, 64, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 90–95, 100, 103, 108, 113, 114, 119, 126, 171, 177, 180, 183, 189, 196, 197, 202, 212, 223, 226, 228, 230, 233, 241, 245, 249, 258, 259, 260, 272, 274, 277, 279, 285, 287, 288, 290, 293, 294, 301, 304, 305, 308, 312, 317, 318, 319, 326, 332, 333, 344, 355, 356, 358, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 381, 385, 386, 391 Sorption 7, 151, 152, 168, 169, 171, 173, 179, 180, 181, 183, 191, 206, 207, 209, 213, 214, 216, 221, 222, 225, 261, 266, 267, 282, 324, 325, 328, 359, 364, 373, 375, 376, 377, 381, 384, 387, 390, 391 isotherm 7, 214, 328, 391 Source material 31, 374, 384, 391, 392 Source term 5, 7, 8, 60, 61, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 121, 143–183, 185, 205, 217, 218, 234, 280, 312, 319, 360, 361, 362, 364, 391 Spallation 391 Special nuclear material 374, 375, 391, 392 Speciation 171, 180, 207, 392 INDEX / Specific activity 174, 256, 257, 278, 281, 292 model 256, 257, 278, 281, 292 Specific storage 198, 388, 391, 392 Spent nuclear fuel 316, 327, 336, 381, 382, 383, 385, 392, 394, 395 State compacts 47, 61, 384, 392 Steady state 7, 9, 117, 121, 125, 127, 171, 179, 185, 191, 192, 195, 200, 203, 224, 226, 238, 240, 326, 336, 337, 338, 363, 365, 387, 392 Step-wise regression 345, 392 Stochastic 249, 283, 324, 325, 342, 343, 377, 378, 387, 388, 392, 394 effects 378, 388, 392 methods 343, 387, 392 variation 324, 392, 394 Strain 385, 392 Stress 132, 137, 157, 158, 199, 231, 232, 234, 377, 385, 392, 393, 395 Suction pressure 186, 392 Superfund 34, 57, 64, 68, 302, 309, 376, 393 CERCLA 34, 57, 64, 68, 302, 309, 376 Surveillance 2, 377, 383, 393 Suspension 181, 221, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 240, 366, 376, 384, 389, 390, 393 Tensile strength 141, 393 Terrestrial foodchain pathways 254, 258, 260, 274, 277, 278 Tortuosity 210, 393 Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) 70, 385, 393 Transfer factors 253, 254, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281, 285, 393 Translocation factor 278, 393 Transmissivity 388, 393 (see hydraulic conductivity) Transpiration 118, 119, 123, 125, 126, 151, 203, 251, 393 467 Transport 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 26, 45, 60, 70, 75, 79, 89, 91, 92, 95, 103, 109, 112–118, 122, 123, 131, 140, 141, 142, 144, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 155, 161, 162, 166–173, 177, 179, 181, 183–196, 205–245, 262, 374, 384, 393 atmospheric transport 226–240 biotic transport 240–245 groundwater transport 205–220 migration 16, 89, 95, 166, 172, 181, 184, 185, 236, 245, 262, 374, 384, 393 surface water transport 206, 221–225 unsaturated zone transport 183–196 Transuranic waste 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 47, 57, 60, 61, 65, 66, 74, 202, 316, 317, 336, 383, 393, 395 Treatment 9, 32, 48, 56, 59, 70, 71, 72, 86, 148, 158, 170, 353, 389, 394, 395 Tumulus 394 Uncertainty 278, 325, 328, 330, 332, 338, 340, 341, 343, 344, 346, 386, 387 perturbation analysis 343, 386 Undisturbed performance 55, 61, 288, 316, 394 Unsaturated zone 4, 7, 8, 18, 25, 76, 93, 116, 117, 121, 122, 132, 133, 143, 183–197, 206, 208, 209, 213, 214, 217, 219, 221, 235, 237, 328, 343, 359, 361, 362, 363, 364, 376, 392, 394 Usage factor 253–260, 272, 273, 279, 280, 281, 285, 395 Vadose zone (see unsaturated zone) Verification 79, 334, 395 Viscosity 133, 236, 383, 395 468 / INDEX Waste 1–10, 11–22, 24–34, 36, 37, 40, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60, 64, 70, 72, 76, 77, 103, 106, 108, 110, 119, 134, 140, 144–153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165–169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 182, 183, 241, 242, 243, 288, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 310, 311, 312, 314, 315, 319, 350, 360, 361, 370, 379, 383, 384, 386, 394, 395 classification system 5, 33, 48, 50, 52, 53, 56, 64, 145, 174, 288, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 312, 370, 395 dilution factor 311, 314, 319, 395 form 4, 7, 8, 17, 20, 34, 52, 53, 60, 76, 108, 110, 119, 134, 140, 144–153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165–169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 182, 183, 241, 242, 243, 360, 361, 370, 379, 384, 386, 394, 395 form performance 160 management 28, 36, 37, 70, 72, 77, 176, 350, 395 package 7, 40, 46, 48, 56, 59, 60, 103, 106, 134, 147, 159, 177, 296, 310, 315, 383, 395 Weathering half-time 278, 395 Yield strength 137, 143, 395 .. .NCRP REPORT No 152 Performance Assessment of Near- Surface Facilities for Disposal of Low- Level Radioactive Waste Recommendations of the NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION... Radiation Protection and Measurements Performance assessment of near- surface facilities for disposal of low- level radioactive waste p cm — (NCRP report ; no 152) Includes bibliographical references... subclasses of low- level waste, including a subclass of such waste that is not generally acceptable for near- surface disposal 34 / CONTEXT FOR PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT 3.2 Sources and Properties of Low- Level