Các trang trong thể loại “trắc địa”

Cỏc trang th loi Trc a Mc lc Trc a 1.1 Cỏc chuyờn ngnh ch yu 1.2 Cỏc c s o to ngh trc a Vit Nam 1.3 c trng ngnh trc a ti Vit nam 1.4 am kho Bn 2.1 T l 2.2 Liờn kt ngoi Bn a hỡnh 3.1 Lch s 3.2 Cỏc quy c 3.3 T l v chớnh xỏc 3.4 Ngun d liu lp bn 3.5 Ni dung 3.5.1 3.6 Ngụn ng ng dng Tỏc ng ca bn ti a danh 3.7 S húa bn 3.8 OpenStreetMap 3.9 i tng nghiờn cu 3.10 am kho 3.11 Xem thờm 3.12 Liờn kt ngoi Ca sụng 3.6.1 4.1 Liờn kt ngoi 10 4.2 am kho 10 a ng lc hc 11 5.1 Tng quan 11 5.2 Bin dng ca ỏ 11 5.2.1 11 n hi i ii MC LC 5.2.2 Bin dng 11 5.2.3 Bin dng giũn 12 5.2.4 Cu trỳc bin dng 12 5.3 Nhit ng lc hc 12 5.4 ng lc ca trỏi t 12 5.5 Phng phỏp 12 5.6 Xem thờm 13 5.7 am kho 13 5.8 ng dn ngoi 13 ng ng mc 14 6.1 14 am kho Geoid 15 7.1 Hỡnh dng Trỏi t 15 7.2 Mụ t 16 7.3 Nguyờn nhõn ca s bt thng Geoid 16 7.4 Bin thiờn theo thi gian 16 7.5 Cỏc thiờn th 16 7.6 i tng nghiờn cu 16 7.7 am kho 16 7.8 Xem thờm 17 7.9 Liờn kt ngoi 17 GNSS 18 8.1 18 am kho H quy iu 19 9.1 C hc c in 19 9.1.1 Lc 19 uyt tng i 20 9.2.1 uyt tng i hp 20 9.2.2 uyt tng i rng 20 9.3 Xem thờm 20 9.4 am kho 20 9.2 10 H thng nh v Ton cu 21 10.1 Phõn loi 21 10.2 S hot ng ca GPS 21 10.3 chớnh xỏc ca GPS 21 10.4 Cỏc thnh phn ca GPS 22 10.4.1 Phn khụng gian 22 10.4.2 Phn kim soỏt 22 MC LC iii 10.4.3 Phn s dng 10.5 Tớn hiu GPS 10.6 Ngun li ca tớn hiu GPS 22 22 23 10.7 ng dng GPS 23 10.7.1 Dõn dng 23 10.8 y nh phỏp lý ti Vit Nam v GPS 24 10.9 Cỏc thit b ng dng GPS 24 10.9.1 Trong quõn s 24 10.10 Cỏc h thng nh v khỏc 24 10.11 Xem thờm 24 10.12 am kho 24 10.13 Liờn kt ngoi 25 11 H ta a lý 26 11.1 Chiu th nht v th hai: v v kinh 26 27 27 11.4 Xem thờm 28 11.5 am kho 28 11.6 Liờn kt ngoi 28 11.2 Chiu th ba: cao, chiu cao, chiu sõu 11.3 Ta a tnh 12 Hip hi c t v Trc a 29 12.1 Lch s 29 12.2 Mc tiờu 29 12.3 Hot ng 29 12.4 T chc 29 12.5 am kho 29 12.6 Xem thờm 29 12.7 Liờn kt ngoi 29 13 Hỡnh cu dt 13.1 Din tớch b mt 30 30 13.2 Xem thờm 30 13.3 am kho 30 14 Kho sỏt xõy dng 14.1 Nhng ngi lm kho sỏt ni ting 31 31 14.2 Xem thờm 32 14.3 am kho 32 14.4 Liờn kt ngoi 32 15 Kinh 15.1 Lch s 33 33 iv MC LC 15.2 Lu ý v tớnh toỏn kinh 34 15.3 am s elip 34 15.4 Chiu di mt cung 34 15.5 Kinh v v hong o 35 15.6 Kinh trờn cỏc thiờn th khụng l Trỏi t 35 15.7 Xem thờm 36 15.8 Ghi chỳ 36 15.9 Liờn kt ngoi 36 16 Liờn on c t v Trc a v a vt lý 37 16.1 Mc tiờu 37 16.2 Cỏc thnh viờn 37 16.3 Cỏc i tỏc 37 16.4 Hot ng 37 16.5 am kho 37 16.6 Xem thờm 37 16.7 Liờn kt ngoi 37 17 Mỏy kinh v 17.1 am kho 18 Mỏy ton c 38 38 39 18.1 Cỏc ch 39 18.1.1 o khong cỏch 39 18.1.2 o gúc 39 18.1.3 o ta 39 18.1.4 X lý d liu 39 18.2 ng dng 39 18.2.1 Kho sỏt khai thỏc m 39 18.2.2 Xõy dng cụng trỡnh 39 18.3 Cỏc hóng sn xut 39 18.4 am kho 39 19 Mc nc bin 40 19.1 am kho 41 19.2 Xem thờm 41 19.3 Liờn kt ngoi 41 20 ng bt nc 42 20.1 Nguyờn lý 42 20.2 Lch s 42 20.3 Cỏc dng 43 20.4 Xem thờm 43 MC LC v 20.5 am kho 43 20.6 Liờn kt ngoi 43 21 Ra a khu tng hp giao thoa 44 21.1 Chỳ thớch 44 21.2 Liờn kt ngoi 44 22 Ellipsoid quy iu 45 22.1 Cỏc tham s ellipsoid Trỏi t 45 22.2 Ta 45 22.3 Cỏc ellipsoid quy chiu lch s ca Trỏi t 45 22.4 Ellipsoid quy chiu cho cỏc thiờn th 46 22.5 am kho 46 22.6 Xem thờm 46 22.7 Liờn kt ngoi 46 23 m dũ trng lc 47 23.1 C s phng phỏp 23.1.1 Cỏc bin thiờn 47 47 23.2 it b o c 47 23.3 B trớ quan sỏt 48 23.3.1 o ng b 48 23.3.2 o trờn tu bin 48 23.3.3 o trờn mỏy bay 48 23.4 Vi trng lc 48 23.5 X lý phõn tớch 48 23.5.1 Kh trng bỡnh thng 48 23.5.2 Kh bin thiờn 48 23.5.3 Hiu chnh cao im o 49 23.5.4 Hiu chnh a hỡnh 49 23.5.5 Kh sai s khp tuyn 49 23.5.6 Lp bn trng d thng 49 23.6 i tng nghiờn cu 49 23.7 Xem thờm 49 23.8 am kho 49 23.9 Liờn kt ngoi 50 24 nghim Cavendish 51 24.1 Lch s 51 24.2 Liờn h gia G v lng Trỏi t 52 24.3 Xem thờm 52 24.4 am kho 52 24.5 Liờn kt ngoi 53 vi MC LC 25 nghim Siehallion 54 25.1 Bi cnh 54 25.2 Tỡm ngn nỳi thớch hp 55 25.2.1 Chimborazo, 1738 55 25.2.2 Schiehallion, 1774 55 25.3 Cỏc o c 56 25.3.1 iờn hc 56 25.3.2 Kho sỏt 56 25.4 Cỏc thớ nghim lp li 57 25.5 C s toỏn hc v vt lý 57 25.6 Chỳ thớch 58 25.7 am kho 58 26 y triu 60 26.1 c im 60 26.2 Nguyờn nhõn 60 26.3 Phõn loi 61 26.3.1 Nht triu 61 26.3.2 Bỏn nht triu 61 26.4 Con ngi da vo thy triu 61 26.5 y triu v danh t ting Vit 62 26.6 am kho 62 27 Trng hp dn 63 27.1 C hc c in 63 27.2 uyt tng i rng 64 27.3 Xem thờm 64 27.4 Chỳ thớch 64 28 V 65 28.1 V tuyn 65 28.1.1 Cỏc v tuyn quan trng 65 28.2 Phõn chia 28.3 Tỏc ng ca v 65 66 66 28.5 Chiu di ca mt cung 66 28.6 Cỏc kiu v 67 28.4 Cỏc tham s elip 28.6.1 V " thụng thng 67 28.6.2 V rỳt gn 67 28.6.3 V bo ton din tớch 67 28.6.4 V cu trng 67 28.6.5 V bo ton gúc 67 MC LC vii 28.6.6 V a tõm 67 28.6.7 So sỏnh cỏc loi v 68 28.6.8 V thiờn 68 28.6.9 V c 68 28.6.10 Hiu chnh cho cao 68 28.7 c thờm 68 28.8 Xem thờm 68 28.9 Ghi chỳ 69 28.10 Liờn kt ngoi 69 29 Vũng cung trc c Struve 29.1 Chui 70 70 29.1.1 Na Uy 70 29.1.2 y in 70 29.1.3 Phn Lan 71 29.1.4 Nga 71 29.1.5 Estonia 71 29.1.6 Latvia 71 29.1.7 Litva 71 29.1.8 Belarus 71 71 29.1.10 Ukraina 71 29.2 Hỡnh nh 72 29.3 am kho 72 29.4 Liờn kt ngoi 72 29.1.9 Moldova 30 Xớ o 73 30.1 Khớ hu vựng xớch o 73 30.2 Cỏc quc gia cú ng xớch o 73 30.3 Xem thờm 74 30.4 am kho 74 Chng Trc a xõy dng cụng trỡnh ỳng bn v thit k, quan trc chuyn dch v bin dng ca cỏc cụng trỡnh v nn múng cụng trỡnh ton b tui i ca cụng trỡnh Cụng c o ch yu bng cỏc loi mỏy o c: mỏy kinh v, mỏy thy bỡnh, mỏy di laser, mỏy ton c in t, mỏy nh v GPSv cỏc mỏy lỏser scan th h mi giỳp quột v ghi nhn li ton b hin trng cỏc cụng trỡnh Trc a m (mining geodesy) Trc a cao cp (higher geodesy): o c trờn quy mụ ton cu Vin (remote sensing): õy l phõn ngnh trc a o v t nh hng khụng (mỏy bay,) sau quỏ trỡnh bay chp, bng tu bin (o v thm lc a, ỏy i dng,) Cụng c o cú th bng: mỏy nh, thit b siờu õm, a vụ tuyn in, Trc a nh (photogrammetry): õy l lnh vc x lý kt qu trc a qua nh Trc a hay trc c hay o c l mt ngnh khoa hc v Trỏi t, c th l o c v x lý s liu o c a hỡnh v a vt nm trờn b mt Trỏi t nhm v lờn mt phng giy hay cũn gi l bn Trc a l o c v trớ ta v cao, hỡnh dng, kớch thc, phng hng ca a hỡnh mt t v a vt nm trờn mt t õy l ngnh ngh cú t lõu i ti cỏc nc chõu u, sn phm ca ngnh cú úng gúp quan trng v liờn quan mt thit n nhiu lnh vc ca xó hi c bit lnh vc: lp Bn a hỡnh quc gia, nghiờn cu v quy hoch, thit k, thi cụng cỏc cụng trỡnh, qun lý t ai, qun lý ti nguyờn khoỏng sn, qun lý rng, qun lý bin i khớ hu, qun lý giao thụng, in lc, vin thụng, thy li nh v v tinh (GPS): nh v a vt v o v a hỡnh bng v tinh a tnh (l loi vin c bit) H thng thụng tin a lý (GIS): l chuyờn ngnh v phn mm v c s d liu a lý (cụng ngh thụng tin) Trc a bin 1.2 Cỏc c s o to ngh trc a Vit Nam 1.1 Cỏc chuyờn ngnh ch yu Hin Vit Nam cú cỏc trng i hc o to k Trc a bn (surveying and maping): o v cỏc s trc a nh: i hc M a cht H Ni, i hc loi bn phc v cho dõn dng nh: cụng tỏc Ti nguyờn v Mụi trng nh ph H Chớ Minh, a chớnh, bn a hỡnh, quy hoch xõy dng,) i hc Ti nguyờn v Mụi trng H Ni, i hc Giao thụng ti H Ni, i hc Bỏch khoa nh v mc ớch quõn s ph H Chớ Minh, i hc Khoa hc T nhiờn thuc Trc a cụng trỡnh: kho sỏt thit k cụng trỡnh, i hc c gia H Ni (chuyờn ngnh bn vin trin khai bn v thit k ca cụng trỡnh thc & GIS ti khoa a lý), Hc vin K thut õn a set out, phc v thi cụng v giỏm sỏt thi cụng s, i hc Xõy dng (chuyờn ngnh K thut Trc a) Tuy nhiờn, trỡnh v tay ngh ca cỏc k s/ trung cp tt nghip t nhng mụi trng o to ny ang l mt ln Mt quỏ nhiu thi gian cỏc k s cú th nm bt v thc hin cụng vic Cn xem li quy trỡnh o to v liờn kt gia o to v sn xut 1.3 Thc trng ngnh trc a ti Vit nam Dự l mt ngnh khoa hc c bn, nhng hin nay, ngnh ang mt dn sc hp dn, s lng sinh viờn trng b ngh sau vi nm rt nhiu tớnh cht cụng vic vt v, sng xa nh, thu nhp khụng tng xng v tỡnh trng n lng lõu ngy khin h mt mi, cha cú mt Hip hi o c bn hot ng hiu qu v vỡ li ớch chung Tỡnh trng phỏ giỏ khỏ ph bin gõy mt lũng tin nghiờm trng n cỏc i tỏc cn cung cp dch v 1.4 Tham kho CHNG TRC A 68 28.6.7 CHNG 28 V So sỏnh cỏc loi v Biu di õy ch cỏc khỏc bit gia cỏc kiu v Cỏc d liu ó dựng c tỡm thy bng phớa di biu Lu ý rng cỏc giỏ tr bng l phỳt, khụng phi , v biu cng phn ỏnh theo iu ny Cng lu ý thờm rng cỏc biu tng bo ton gúc b n phớa sau cỏc biu tng a tõm chỳng rt gn sỏt v giỏ tr ỏng quan tõm khỏc m chỳng cú th cú Mt cỏch c th tho lun v cỏc húa thch, thng l s cú ớch hn bit húa thch cú ti ni no chỳng b vựi lp xung thay vỡ bit ni chỳng c o bi lờn: iu ny c gi l c v hay v c ca húa thch V c cú th xỏc nh nh cỏc d liu c t trng Nu cỏc ht nh cú th nhim t l tn ti ỏ c to ra, chỳng s hng chớnh chỳng theo t trng Trỏi t ú ging nh cỏc kim ca la bn T k cú th lun hng ca cỏc ht nh ny bng cỏch a mu vt vo t trng, v t thiờn ca cỏc ht ny cú th s dng suy lun v ban u ca trm tớch 28.6.10 Hiu chnh cho cao ng IH l vuụng gúc vi hỡnh phng cu ti im H Gúc nú to thnh vi xớch o tng ng vi v trc a Khi chuyn i t v trc a (thụng thng), cỏc hiu chnh cn phi c thc hin theo cao ca 28.6.8 V thiờn cỏc h thng khụng o gúc t ng trc giao ca hỡnh phng cu Trong hỡnh bờn phi, im H (nm trờn b Phộp o m h hn cho v l v thiờn vn, l gúc mt hỡnh phng cu) v im H' (nm mt cao ln gia mt phng xớch o v ng vuụng gúc vi geoit hn no ú) cú cỏc v a tõm khỏc (tng ng (th a cu) hay ng dõy ri Nú bt ngun t gúc l cỏc gúc v ), mc dự chỳng chia s cựng mt v gia ng chõn tri v Bc cc Nú ch khỏc vi v trc a (gúc ) (Lu ý rng dt ca hỡnh phng trc a mt chỳt rt nh, cỏc bin dng nh ca cu v cao ca im H' l ln hn ỏng k so vi th a cu so vi hỡnh elipxoit tham chiu nhng gỡ thy trờn Trỏi t, s thi phng cỏc sai s V thiờn khụng nờn nhm ln vi xớch v, ta núi chung tỡm thy nhng tớnh toỏn nh th.) m cỏc nh thiờn s dng mụ t v trớ ca cỏc ngụi phớa bc hay nam ca thiờn xớch o (xem h ta xớch o), cng khụng phi hong v, ta 28.7 c thờm cỏc nh thiờn dựng mụ t v trớ ca cỏc ngụi phớa bc hay nam ng hong o (xem h ta John P Snyder Map Projections: a working manual hong o) excerpts 28.6.9 V c Cỏc chõu lc di chuyn theo thi gian, trụi dt lc a, mang theo nhng gỡ ó húa thch v cỏc c trng 28.8 Xem thờm American Practical Navigator ca Nathaniel 28.10 LIấN KT NGOI 69 Phng hng Chuyn i thp phõn sang , phỳt, giõy ụng tin v chuyn i t thp phõn sang , phỳt, giõy H ta a lý Chuyn i thp phõn sang , phỳt, giõy H trc a Chuyn i kinh v v Chuyn i kinh v v t thp phõn sang , phỳt, giõy v ngc li Cng bao gm c im xa nht v tớnh toỏn khong cỏch Bowditch Trc a hc a lý Khong cỏch vũng trũn ln V nga Danh sỏch cỏc thnh ph ln theo v Danh sỏch cỏc thnh ph ln theo kinh Worldwide Index - Tageo.com cha 2.700.000 ta ca mt s ni Tớnh toỏn khong cỏch da trờn v v kinh - Phiờn bn JavaScript Kinh Phiờn bn bn cú th thu nh, phúng to, 3,42 MiB Hoa tiờu Kinh v v trung bỡnh cho cỏc quc gia H trc a th gii Tỡm kinh v v cho bt k ni no trờn th gii 28.9 Ghi chỳ [1] Location, Location, Location e relationship of climate to, and the eect of disease and agricultural productivity on, the economic success of a city or region [2] e Math Forum [3] John P Snyder, Map ProjectionsA Working Manual (1987) 24-25 [4] NIMA TR8350.2 trang 3-1 [5] IERS Conventions (2003) (Chng 1, trang 12) [6] Length of degree calculator - National GeospatialIntelligence Agency 28.10 Liờn kt ngoi Ta a lý (v v kinh ) ti T in bỏch khoa Vit Nam Cụng thc tớnh V tin, quóng ng v hng trờn hi Mercator cho Excel libproj4: vin bao hm ton din cỏc chc nng chiu bn (bn tho s b), 1,88 MiB Free GeoCoder GEONets Names Server, truy nhp vo c s d liu ca Cc tỡnh bỏo a khụng gian quc gia Hoa K Tỡm kim v v kinh Cỏc ngun xỏc nh v v kinh Chng 29 Vũng cung trc c Struve Vũng cung trc c Struve l mt chui cỏc trm trc c tam giỏc kộo di t Hammerfest Na Uy ti Bin en, chy qua 10 quc gia v trờn 2.820 km Chui cỏc trm ny c nh khoa hc Nga gc c l Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve thnh lp v s dng cỏc nm t 1816 ti 1855 thit lp kớch thc v hỡnh dng chớnh xỏc ca Trỏi t Vo thi gian ú, chui ny ch chy qua hai quc gia l: y in-Na Uy v quc Nga Nm 2005, chui ny ó c UNESCO cụng nhn l Di sn th gii bao gm 34 im trm gc l cỏc i tng nim, cỏc ct mc ỏnh du, im ỏnh du Trm xa nht v phớa bc ca vũng cung trc c Struve ti Fuglenes, Na Uy Raipas ti Alta Luvdiidcohkka ti Kautokeino Baelljasvarri ti Kautokeino , 29.1.2 Thy in Pajtas-vaara (Tynnyrilaki) ti Kiruna 29.1 Chui Kerrojupukka (Jupukka) ti Pajala 29.1.1 Na Uy Pullinki ti ệvertorneồ Fuglenes ti Hammerfest Perra-vaara (Perọvaara) ti Haparanda 70 29.1 CHUI 71 29.1.5 Estonia Woibifer (Vừivere) ti Avanduse Katko (Simuna) ti Avanduse Dorpat (Tartu observatory) ti Tartu 29.1.6 Latvia Sestu-Kalns (Ziestu) ti Sausneja Nh th ti Alatornio, Phn Lan 29.1.3 Phn Lan Stuor-Oivi (hin l Stuorrahanoaivi) ti Enontekiử (Enontekis ting y in) Avasaksa (hin l Aavasaksa) ti Ylitornio (ệvertorneồ ting y in) Tornea (hin l Alatornion kirkko) ti Tornio (Torneồ ting y in) Puolakka (hin l Oravivuori) ti Korpilahti Porlom II (hin l Tornikallio) ti Lapinjọrvi (Lapptrọsk ting y in) Svartvira (hin l Mustaviiri) ti Pyhtọọ (Pyis ting y in) Jacobstadt (Jekabpils) ti Jekabpils 29.1.7 Litva Karischki (Gireiiai) ti Panemunlis Meschkanzi (Mekonys) ti Nemenin Beresnọki (Paliepiukai) ti Nemis 29.1.8 Belarus Tupischki (Tupishki) ti huyn Oshmyany Lopati (Lopaty) ti huyn Zelva Ossownitza (Ossovnitsa) ti huyn Ivanovo Tchekutsk (Chekutsk) ti huyn Ivanovo 29.1.4 Nga Leskowitschi (Leskovichi) ti huyn Ivanovo 29.1.9 Moldova im trc a Rudi ti lng Rudi, huyn Soroca 29.1.10 Ukraina Katerinowka ti Antonivka, tnh Khmelnytsky (493357B 264522 / 49.56583B 26.75611) Felschtin ti Hvardiiske, tnh Khmelnytsky (491948B 264055 / 49.33000B 26.68194) im ỏnh du ti Hogland, Nga Mọki-pọọlys (Mọkinpọọllys) ti Hogland Hogland, Z (Gogland, Tochka Z) cng ti Hogland Baranowka ti Baranivka, tnh Khmelnytsky (490855B 265930 / 49.14861B 26.99167) Staro-Nekrassowka (Stara Nekrasivka) ti Nekrasivka, tnh Odessa (451954B 285541 / 45.33167B 28.92806) 72 CHNG 29 VềNG CUNG TRC C STRUVE 29.2 Hỡnh nh i quan sỏt Tartu (c) Estonia Nh th Helme 29.3 Tham kho 29.4 Liờn kt ngoi Lit kờ trờn website ca UNESCO Bi ca UNESCO v chui vũng cung FIG ngh ti UNESCO Vũng cung trc c Struve tr thnh Di sn th gii J.R Smith Vũng cung trc c Struve Di sn th gii ti Ukraina Nh th ln ỏnh Sophia v cụng trỡnh liờn quan, Kiev Pechersk Lavra Trung tõm lch s Lviv Vũng cung Struve (cựng vi quc gia khỏc) C trỳ ca ngi Metropolitans Bukovinian v m Cỏc khu rng nguyờn sinh trờn dóy Carpath v Cỏc khu rng si c ca c (cựng vi c) nh ph c ca Tauric Chersonese v cỏc vựng lõn cn Nh th g Tserkvas trờn dóy Karpat Ba Lan v Ukraina (cựng vi Ba Lan) Chng 30 Xớch o 150 120 90 60 30 30 60 90 120 150 180 60 60 30 30 xuõn phõn v thu phõn ca mi bỏn cu vo thỏng (khong ngy 211 thỏng 3) v thỏng (khong ngy 221 thỏng 9) hng nm Ti xớch o, cỏc tia nng t Mt Tri ú chiu vuụng gúc vi b mt Trỏi t 00 00 30 30 60 60 150 120 90 60 30 30 60 90 120 150 Cỏc khu vc gn ng xớch o cú s thay i di ca ngy v ờm theo l ớt nht, ch dao ng khong thi gian vi phỳt c nm 180 30.1 Khớ hu vựng xớch o Bn Trỏi t cú ng Xớch o i ngang Trong nhiu khu vc vựng xung quanh xớch o ngi ta ch xỏc nh cú hai l khụ v ma, nhng phn ln cỏc khu vc rt gn vi xớch o l m t quanh nm, mc dự cỏc cú th dao ng ph thuc vo s a dng ca cỏc yu t nh cao ca a hỡnh so vi mt bin cng nh khong cỏch ti cỏc i dng B mt ca Trỏi t ti xớch o ch yu l bin 30.2 Cỏc quc gia cú ng xớch o ng xớch o i ngang qua lónh th v lónh hi ca 14 quc gia: Xớch o l ng tng tng vũng quanh Trỏi t, nm mt phng i qua tõm v vuụng gúc vi trc ca Trỏi t, chia Trỏi t lm hai phn bng Sóo Tomộ v Prớncipe - cú l chy ngang qua Ilhộu das Rolas, mt o nh qun o ny Xớ o l mt ng trũn tng tng c v trờn b mt mt hnh tinh (hoc cỏc thiờn th khỏc) ti khong cỏch nm gia hai cc Trờn Trỏi t, xớch o chia hnh tinh thnh Bc bỏn cu v Nam bỏn cu eo nh ngha thỡ v ca ng xớch o l di xớch o ca Trỏi t l khong 40.075,0 km, hay 24.901,5 dm Gabon Cng hũa Congo Cng hũa Dõn ch Congo Uganda ng xớch o l mt nm v tuyn ch yu da trờn quan h gia s t quay ca Trỏi t vi mt phng qu o ca nú xung quanh Mt Tri Ngoi ra, xớch o l v tuyn cú di ln nht Kenya Somalia Trong s quan sỏt t Trỏi t thỡ Mt Tri chuyn ng theo ca nú trờn bu tri s vt qua ng xớch o hai ln mi nm vo thi im din tit 73 Maldives cú th trt qua mi o Indonesia 74 CHNG 30 XCH O Colombia Brasil 30.3 Xem thờm Xớch o nhit Chớ tuyn Bc Chớ tuyn Nam Vũng Bc cc Vũng Nam cc 30.4 Tham kho Moritz, H (thỏng nm 1980) Geodetic Reference System 1980 Bulletin Gộodộsique Springer-Verlag) 54 (3): 395 (Berlin: 405 Bibcode:1980BGeod 54 395M doi:10.1007/BF02521480 (IUGG/WGS-84 data) Ta, Laurence G (1981) Computational Spherical Astronomy New York: Wiley ISBN 0-471-06257X OCLC 6532537 (IAU data) Trong cỏc khu vc du lch thỡ ng xớch o thụng thng c ỏnh du cnh ng Sumatra Lingga v cỏc o nh khỏc gn Sumatra Borneo Kalimantan Sulawesi Halmahera v cỏc o nh khỏc qun o Moluccas Kiribati n o Gilbert cú th trt qua mi o n o Phoenix trt qua gn o Baker Line Islands trt qua gn o Jarvis M o Baker Ecuador n o Galapagos chy ngang qua o Isabela Ecuador i lc 30.4 THAM KHO 75 {{int:Coll-attribution-page| Trc a Ngun: https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%AFc_%C4%91%E1%BB%8Ba?oldid=26308795 Ngi úng gúp: Mekong Bluesman, Vng Ngõn H, Casablanca1911, JAnDbot, Survey~viwiki, Doón Hiu, Hopthudem, Magnier, Qbot, Phamluan chaing, EGeo, Xqbot, Lsxinh, Huypro0107, TuHan-Bot, EmausBot, ZộroBot, RedBot, CNBH, Cheers!, Cheers!-bot, 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Idioma-bot, Qbot, PixelBot, Alexbot, MelancholieBot, CarsracBot, Luckas-bot, Rubinbot, Xqbot, Philong1508, Bựi T ý, esevenseas, Tnt1984, TuHan-Bot, EmausBot, FoxBot, WikitanvirBot, Movses-bot, Cheers!-bot, MerlIwBot, DanGong, AvocatoBot, JYBot, AlphamaBot, Mbtl, Addbot, itxongkhoiAWB, PhanAnh123, Tuanminh01, AlbertEinstein05 v ngi vụ danh | Tp_tin:50th_Space_Wing.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/50th_Space_Wing.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: http://www.af.mil/shared/media/ggallery/hires/AFG-070423-004.jpg Ngh s u tiờn: United States Air Force Tp_tin:80lmx-p-l.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/80lmx-p-l.jpg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? {{int:Coll-image-attribution|Tp_tin:Alatornion_kirkko.jpg|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Alatornion_ kirkko.jpg%7CCC-BY-SA-3.0%7CTỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to ra|Jvuollo at [http://fi.wikipedia.org .wikipedia}} Tp_tin:All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project,_Idaho_1918.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ f/f3/All_female_survey_crew_-_Minidoka_Project%2C_Idaho_1918.jpg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Photo from the U.S Bureau of Reclamation, of the U.S Department of the Interior Ngh s u tiờn: U.S Bureau of Reclamatio Tp_tin:Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Annual_Average_ Temperature_Map.jpg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? 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Tp_tin:Leica_TCRP_1203.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Leica_TCRP_1203.jpg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: Jensens 80 CHNG 30 XCH O Tp_tin:Loch_Rannoch.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Loch_Rannoch.jpg Giy phộp: CC BY-SA 2.0 Ngi úng gúp: From geograph.org.uk Ngh s u tiờn: Anne Burgess Tp_tin:Longitude_Vespucci.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Longitude_Vespucci.png Giy phộp: CC BY-SA 3.0 Ngi úng gúp: source image of Earth from the CIA World Factbook; of the Moon and Mars, from their respective Wikipedia articles Ngh s u tiờn: Xiaphias Tp_tin:Maarja-Magdaleena_Kirik.JPG Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Maarja-Magdaleena_Kirik JPG Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to (Original text: selbst erstellt) Ngh s u tiờn: Anatra1987 15:05, 22 Jan 2009 (CET) Tp_tin:Magellan_GPS_Blazer12.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Magellan_GPS_Blazer12.jpg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: Nachoman-au Tp_tin:MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/ MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PIA02031.jpg Ngh s u tiờn: NASA/JPL-Caltech/GSFC Tp_tin:Mekonysgeo.JPG Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Me%C5%A1konysgeo.JPG Giy phộp: CCBY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: Rimantas Lazdynas Tp_tin:Model_of_the_initiation_of_termination_of_a_Rayleigh-Taylor_instability_in_2D.gif Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Model_of_the_initiation_of_termination_of_a_Rayleigh-Taylor_instability_in_2D.gif Giy phộp: CC BY-SA 3.0 Ngi úng gúp: http://wiki.palabos.org/community:gallery:rt_2d Ngh s u tiờn: palabos.org Tp_tin:NAVSTAR_GPS_logo_shield-official.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/vi/2/2f/NAVSTAR_GPS_logo_ shield-official.jpg Giy phộp: Phm vi cụng cng Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Nj_cboug.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Nj_cboug.jpg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:NoiDungBanDoDiaHinh.PNG Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/vi/e/e2/NoiDungBanDoDiaHinh.PNG Giy phộp: Phm vi cụng cng Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:OblateSpheroid.PNG Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/OblateSpheroid.PNG Giy phộp: CCBY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Olchon_Shaman_Rock.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Olchon_Shaman_Rock.jpg Giy phộp: CC BY-SA 3.0 Ngi úng gúp: selbst aufgenommen, own work Ngh s u tiờn: Kirsten Buerger Tp_tin:Old_Observatory,_Tartu,_April_2012.JPG Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Old_ Observatory%2C_Tartu%2C_April_2012.JPG Giy phộp: CC BY-SA 3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: BigFlyingSaucer Tp_tin:Old_man_of_hoy2.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Old_man_of_hoy2.jpg Giy phộp: CCBY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Chuyn t en.wikipedia sang Commons Ngh s u tiờn: Grinner ti Wikipedia Ting Anh Tp_tin:Ong_bot_nuoc.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Ong_bot_nuoc.svg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA3.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Parallel_45.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Parallel_45.jpg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: Dondon83~commonswiki Tp_tin:Petersburg-square.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Petersburg-square.jpg Giy phộp: CC BY 2.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? 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Tp_tin:Tide_schematic.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Tide_schematic.svg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Public domain image: File:Tides schematic.JPG which was based on an image in Leidraad voor het Stuurbrevet by Richard Vooren, Paul Van den Keybus Ngh s u tiờn: User:KVDP, SVG conversion by Surachit Tp_tin:Topographic-Relief-perspective-sample.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/ Topographic-Relief-perspective-sample.jpg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Chuyn t en.wikipedia sang Commons Derived from from USGS data les o44072d6.tif and 1631103.dem.sdts.tar.gz Ngh s u tiờn: Kbh3rd ti Wikipedia Ting Anh Tp_tin:Topographic_map_example.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Topographic_map_ example.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? 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Vay mượn từ đồ nước khác không Các đối tượng khác thể đồ dấu hiệu biểu tượng, kèm theo chữ tên hay kiểu đối tượng Ví dụ, phân loại đường sá kiểu vẽ đường màu vẽ Các suối có phân biệt theo mùa