Approaches to learning and learning values an investigation of adult learners in malaysia

APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND LEARNING VALUES: AN INVESTIGATION OF ADULT LEARNERS IN MALAYSIA TAN, PO LI, B.A., MMLS Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2005 School of Learning and Professional Studies Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY KEYWORDS Adult Learning, Professional Development, Approaches to Learning, Cultural Values, Asian Values, Cross-Cultural Studies, Cross-Cultural Methodology, Cultural Awareness and Training II ABSTRACT This research was inspired by a pressing question which formed the main aim of the current study What factors contribute to the differential academic performance of adult learners in the formal setting in Malaysia? It is hoped that by addressing this question, insights obtained may be useful for the Malaysian policy makers in attempting to implement the government’s initiative—Malaysia Vision 2020 The current literature informs that in order to achieve the desired goals, Malaysian adult learners, must now more than ever be conscious of the effect of learning values and approaches to learning Hence, there is a need to develop a more holistic understanding of the interrelated dynamics between learning values and approaches to learning The current study adopts a transdisciplinary, etic/emic approach, using two culturally sensitive questionnaires, Revised Study Process Questionnaires-2 Factors Malaysia (RSPQ-2FM) and Learning Values Survey (LVS) on 858 Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia The study found the significant others can have substantial influence on the ‘face value’ for both Malay and Chinese adult learners generally, but was more pronounced for the Malay adult learners This in turn may encourage Malay adult learners to submit to pressure from others in influencing how they perceive the importance of learning and motivation in learning Because Malay adult learners are constantly driven by external factors to compete with other cultural groups in education or economic achievement, they may tend to avoid challenging tasks such as deeper approaches to learning in order to rapidly achieve their immediate learning goals Engaging with deep approaches and meaningful learning are effortful and the pressure to save face may result in the likelihood of adopting surface approaches This coupled with the finding that they not appreciate the middle way principles as much as the Chinese adult learners suggest that they may be less flexible and/or pragmatic learners The findings suggest that practice of middle way principles (such as ‘Willing to compromise one’s own values to suit the situation/issues when I learn’) can indeed enhance certain positive learning approaches III which implies that Malay adult learners may be disadvantaged in the learning settings due to their lack of appreciation of the middle way principles It is also interesting to find that Malay adult learners appreciate time factor more than their Chinese counterparts when engaging with Deep Approaches to learning In contrast, the middle way principle practiced as a way of life by the Chinese culture has made Chinese adult learners more malleable, resulting in a relatively less face conscious cultural group Being less externally driven and less restrictive, Chinese adult learners are more likely to adopt deep approaches to enhance meaningful learning In addition, the Chinese culturally ingrained learning approach, Understand and Memorization was found to be more likely to produce positive learning outcome Unlike their Malay counterparts, Chinese adult learners view work experiences more essential in helping them to engage with Deep Approaches to learning The above findings are novel and add to previous studies on approaches to learning by introducing the effect of learning values While previous research has referred to cultural variable in learning, they have not sufficiently explored the effect of culture Learning values is one significant cultural variable that is considered in the study The findings underpin the different emphasis placed by the two cultural groups as they engage with professional development activities It is hoped that by identifying values pertinent to learning in this competitive globalized economy, the study has provided insights for Malaysian policy makers to develop holistic future education plans to assist in achieving Malaysian Vision 2020 Insights gained can also support plans where Malay can be encouraged to become competent global leaders and workers, capable of competing in this knowledge economy IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 The Global Scene 1.2 The Malaysian Scene 1.2.1 The Current Educational Policy 1.2.2 The Definition of Adult Learners 1.2.3 The Neglected Adult Learners in Malaysia 1.2.4 The Academic Performance of the Malay Learners 1.3 Aim of the Study and Research Questions 14 1.4 Outline of the Study 16 Chapter Two: Literature Review 17 2.1 Section One 19 2.1.1 Adult Learning Theories and Their Application in Malaysian Context 19 2.1.2 Explicit Learning and Implicit Learning 24 2.1.3 Implicit Learning from Adult Learners’ Perspective 24 2.1.4 Explicit learning in a Formal Environment, the Adult Learners’ Perspective 27 2.1.4.1 Students Approaches to Learning (SAL) and Its Relevance to Adult Learning 28 2.1.4.1.1 A qualitative paradigm to SAL theory and its relevance to adult learning 31 2.1.4.1.2 A quantitative paradigm to SAL theory and its relevance to adult learning 33 2.1.5 Biggs’s 3P Model with Malaysian Adult Learners as Context 34 2.1.5.1 Presage Factors 35 2.1.5.2 Process Factors 36 2.1.5.3 Product Factors 36 2.1.6 Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) 40 2.1.7 Relevance of SPQ for Asian Adult learners 42 2.1.7.1 Presage Factors 45 2.1.7.1.1 Conceptions of learning and Approaches to Learning 45 2.1.7.1.2 Socio-economic status, travel/work experience and V Approaches to Learning 46 2.1.7.1.3 Age and ‘Approaches to Learning’ 49 2.1.7.2 Product Factor 50 2.1.7.2.1 Assessment/learning outcome and ‘Approaches to Learning’ 50 2.2 Section Two 53 2.2.1 Cultural Factors as an Important Concept in Understanding Learning 53 2.2.2 Cultural Factors and Adult Learning Studies 54 2.2.3 The Findings of Cross-Cultural Research on Learning 56 2.2.3.1 Discrepancy in Performances 56 2.2.3.2 Inappropriateness of Western Constructs and Models 57 2.2.3.2.1 On repetition and memorization 57 2.2.3.2.2 On teaching method and behavior 68 2.2.3.2.3 On western instrument 68 2.2.3.2.4 On self-regulation and self-efficacy theories 68 2.2.4 SAL Theory, Memorization, and Adult Learners 60 2.2.5 Cross-Cultural Studies on Motivation and its Relevance to Asian Adult Learners 64 2.2.6 The Significance of Values in Cross-Cultural Research 71 2.2.7 What are Values? 72 2.2.7.1 Universal Values 72 2.2.7.2 Values and Attitudes 73 2.2.7.3 Values and Motivation 74 2.2.7.4 Values and Adult Learners 74 2.2.7.5 Values and Cultures 75 2.2.7.6 Learning Values 78 2.2.8 The Study of Cultural Values and Learning 80 2.2.9 The Influence of Confucius Values Today and in Malaysia 81 2.2.10 The Relationships of Confucius Values and Learning 82 2.2.10.1 The Importance of Education 82 2.2.10.2 The Belief of Effort and Human Malleability 85 2.2.10.3 Pragmatic Learning 88 2.2.11 The Influence of Social Groups in the Environment 91 VI 2.2.11.1 People with Confucian Heritage as Collectivist Society? 91 2.2.11.2 Family Influence 93 2.2.11.2.1 Parental expectation 93 2.2.11.2.2 Parental involvement 94 2.2.11.2.3 Peers Involvement 95 2.3 Section Three 98 2.3.1 Issues Regarding Studies on Malaysian Learners 98 2.3.1.1 Generalizations about Malaysian Learners 98 2.3.1.2 Inaccurate and Bias Report 99 2.3.1.3 General Findings did not Differentiate Three Major Cultural Groups 101 2.3.2 Issues Regarding Value Research in Malaysia 103 2.4 Conclusion 108 Chapter Three: Methodology 110 3.1 The Nature of Human Enquiry 110 3.2 Criteria for Selecting an Approach 111 3.2.1 Rationale for Selecting Quantitative Approach in the Current Study 113 3.2.1.1 Based on Research Aim of the Current Study 113 3.2.1.2 Based on the Audience(s) of the Current Study 114 3.2.2 Rationale for Excluding a Qualitative Approach 117 3.3 Cross-Cultural Research Methodology 118 3.3.1 Some Cross-Cultural Methodological Issues Relevant to the Current Study 119 3.3.1.1 Issues of Cross-Cultural Methodology in Learning 119 3.3.1.2 Complexity of Cross-Cultural Research 120 3.3.1.3 The Effect of Power Relation 121 3.3.1.4 Sampling Issues in Cross-Cultural Research 122 3.3.1.5 Culturally Sensitive Instrumentation—Equivalence of Language & Concepts and, Etic/Emic Approach 123 3.3.2 Strategies of Inquiry and Method 124 3.3.2.1 Relevance of Self-Administered Questionnaire to the Current Study 124 VII 3.3.2.2 The Adoption of Self-Administered Questionnaire 126 3.3.2.3 Rationale for Adapting SAL Instrument for Malaysian Adult Learners 127 3.3.2.4 Rationale for Adapting ‘Learning Values Survey’ (LVS) for Malaysian Adult Learners 128 3.3.3 Variables in the Current Study 129 3.3.4 Scales Construction for Self-Administered Questionnaire 131 3.3.4.1 Validity and Reliability 132 3.3.4.2 Scale Construction Process 134 3.4 Details of Scales Construction for the Current Study 137 3.4.1 Section one of the Questionnaire- Demographic Data 137 3.4.2 Step One: Scale Development for R-SPQ-2FM 138 3.4.2.1 Rationale for Adapting R-SPQ-2FM from SPQ and R-SPQ-2F 138 3.4.2.2 Scale Tailoring for R-SPQ-2FM—Malaysian Adult Learners 139 3.4.2.2.1 Addition of Career Motive Subscale 141 3.4.2.2.2 Adaptation of Achieve Motive Subscale 142 3.4.2.2.3 Addition of Understanding and Memorizing Subscale 144 3.4.2.2.4 Items relevant to adult learners in Deep Strategy subscale 145 3.4.2.3 Description of Scales for R-SPQ-2FM in Preliminary Study 145 3.4.2.4 Cultural Sensitivity – Adaptation of Language 146 3.4.2.4.1 Language use in items for R-SPQ-2FM 147 3.4.2.4.2 Language in scoring scale for R-SPQ-2FM 148 3.4.3 Step One: Scale Development for LVS 149 3.4.3.1 Rationale for Adapting LVS from CVS and CCVs 149 3.4.3.2 Adaptation of LVS for Learning Context 152 3.4.3.3 Scale Tailoring for LVS—Malaysian Adult Learners 152 3.4.3.3.1 Item related to ‘face saving’ in LVS 152 3.4.3.3.2 Items related to ‘religious-secular’ influence in LVS 153 3.4.3.3.3 Items related to values of knowledge workers 153 3.4.3.4 Description of Scales in LVS 154 3.4.3.5 Adaptation of Scoring Scale for LVS 155 3.4.3.6 Translation and Back Translation for Cultural Sensitivity for LVS 155 VIII 3.4.3.6.1 Translation 155 3.4.3.6.2 Back-translation of Malay and Chinese Versions of LVS 157 3.4.4 Content Validity and Face Validity Assessment of the Whole Instrument 168 3.5 The Preliminary Study for Validation of Instrument 168 3.6 The Main Study 159 3.6.1 The Sample 159 3.6.1.1 Purposive Sampling 159 3.6.2 The Characteristics of the Sample 160 3.6.3 The Procedure 161 3.6.4 Data Analysis 162 3.6.4.1Data Screening 162 3.6.4.2 Statistical Analyzes 163 3.7 Limitation of the Methodology and Future Research 165 3.7.1 Measurement issues 165 3.7.2 Sampling Issues 165 3.7.3 Response Style Bias 166 3.8 Ethics 168 Chapter Four: Validation of the Instruments 170 4.1 Methods of Analyzes 170 4.1.1 Explanation of Stage One Analysis-Exploratory Factor Analysis & Establishing the values of Cronbach’s Alpha 170 4.1.2 Explanation of Stage Two Analysis-Confirmatory Factor Analysis 171 4.1.3 Data Screening 172 4.1.4 Missing Data 172 4.1.5 Outliers 172 4.2 Sample Description 173 4.2.1Sample Used for Stage One Analysis-The Pilot Sample 173 4.2.2 Sample Used for Stage Two Analysis-The Main Sample 173 4.3 The Results of EFA-Stage One Analyzes 174 IX 4.3.1 R-SPQ-2FM 174 4.3.2 LVS 178 4.4 Other Feedback and Observation from the Stage One Pilot Study 181 4.5 Results of CFA-Stage Two Analyzes 182 4.5.1 R-SPQ-2FM 182 4.5.2 LVS 184 4.6 Conclusion 185 Chapter 5: Results and Data analysis 186 5.1 Section 1-Analysis Consider all participants 186 5.1.1 Demographic Data of the Main Sample 186 5.1.2 Data Screening 190 5.1.2.1 Check for Normality, Missing Data and Outliers 190 5.1.2.2 Addressing Response Bias 190 5.2 Section 2-Analysis of R-SPQ-2FM and LVS 197 5.2.1 Research Question 197 5.2.2 Research Question 198 5.5.2.1 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference Between Groups and Difference Between Groups on Each of the Approaches to Learning (the Dependent Variables) 199 5.5.2.2 Results of MANOVA comparing total difference between Groups and Difference between Groups on Each of the Dependent Variables when Loaded with the Moderating Variables 201 5.2.2.3 Comparing Approaches to Learning of Malay and Chinese using Structural Equation Modeling 205 5.2.3 Research Question 209 5.2.4 Research Question 211 5.2.4.1 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference between Groups and Difference between Groups on Each of the Learning Values Dependent Variables 211 5.2.4.2 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference between Groups X Section Start Here Study Process Questionnaire The questionnaire contains questions about your attitude towards your studies and your usual ways of studying There is no right way of studying It all depends on what suits your own style and courses you are studying The following questions have been carefully selected to cover the more important aspects of studying It is important that you answer each question as honestly as you can If you think that your answer to a question would depend on the course/paper being studied, give the answer that would apply to the COURSE/PAPER(S) MOST IMPORTANT TO YOU Please CIRCLE the appropriate number alongside each item The numbers alongside stand for the following response 1- this item is untrue of me 2- this item is slightly true of me 3- this item is somewhat true of me 4- this item is true of me 5- this item is very true of me untrue of me slightly true of me somewhat true of me true of me very true of me 1……………2………………….3…………………… 4…………….5 Do not spend a long time on each item: your first reaction is probably the best one Please answer each item Do not worry about projecting a good image Your answers are CONFIDENTIAL Thank you for your cooperation 346 Very true True Somewhat true Slightly true Untrue (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) I am at university mainly because I feel that I will be able to obtain a better job if I have a higher academic qualification I find that at times studying gives me a feeling of deep personal satisfaction I find that I have to enough thinking on a topic so that I can form my own conclusions before I am satisfied I would see myself basically as an ambitious person and want to get to the top, whatever I study 5 I see further education is for me and my family, a good way to get a better job I not find my study very interesting so I keep my effort to the minimum I chose my present study largely because of better job situation when I finish my study I find most new topics interesting and often spend extra time trying to obtain more information about them 5 11 I find I can get by in most assessments by memorizing key sections rather then trying to understand them 12 I work hard at my studies because I find the learning material interesting 5 I learn some things by rote (memorization), going over and over them until I know them by heart even if I not understand them 10 I have a strong desire to excel in all my studies 13 I generally restrict my study to what is specifically required as I think it is not necessary to anything extra 14 I spend a lot of my free time finding out more about interesting topics, which have been discussed in different lectures 347 15 I find it is not helpful to study topics in depth It confuses and wastes time, when all you need is a basic understanding on the topics Very true True Somewhat true Slightly true Untrue (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) 16 I come to most lectures with questions in mind that I want answering 17 I make a point to read up most of the references/books suggested by the lecturers 18 I want top grades in most or all of my study so that I will be able to select the best jobs available 19 I believe that lecturers should not expect students to spend a lot of time studying materials that won’t be examined 20 I reflect (remind myself) on what I learn and relate it to real-life experience 5 22 I see no point in learning material, which is not likely to be in the examination 23 Repetition helps memorizing by creating a deep impression 24 I find the best way to pass the examinations is to spot questions 25 Repetition helps understanding by discovering new meaning 26 I learn better when I apply my work experience into my learning 5 28 I find that studying academic topics can be as exciting as a good novel or movie 29 Repetition plus ‘attentive effort’ can lead to new meaning 21 I repeat many times so that I can understand 27 I am willing to put in a lot of effort to excel in my study 348 Section Start Here Learning Value Survey The Learning Value Survey contains questions to find out what matters are important or unimportant to you when you learn For each item, please indicate its importance to you when you engage in learning It is important that you answer each questions AS HONESTLY AS you can Please CIRCLE the appropriate number alongside each item The numbers alongside stand for the following response 1- this item is of no importance to me 2- this item is of little importance to me 3- this item is of moderate importance to me 4- this item is of high importance to me 5- this item is of supreme importance to me no importance little importance moderate importance high importance supreme importance 1………… 2…………… …………… …………….5 If you are unclear of the meaning of the items, please read the translated Malay/Chinese items to help you You can concentrate better by asking yourself the following question when you rate an item: “How important is this item to me personally when I learn” Repeat the same question when you rate the next item, and so on Thank you 349 Little importance Moderate importance High importance Supreme importance (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) No importance HOW IMPORTANT IS THIS ITEM TO ME … 5 5 5 Being industrious/hardworking when I learn Mempunyai sikap kerajinan semasa belajar Being persistent when I learn Mempunyai sikap kegigihan/ketabahan semasa belajar Being flexible and adaptable when I learn Mempunyai kemampuan menyesuaikan diri semasa belajar Being committed when I learn Mempunyai sikap penuh tanggung jawab semasa belajar Being able to bear hardships when I learn Mempunyai sikap daya tahan semasa belajar Being moderate /follow the middle way when I learn Mempunyai sikap yang sederhana semasa belajar 350 Little importance Moderate importance High importance Supreme importance (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) No importance HOW IMPORTANT IS THIS ITEM TO ME … 5 5 To value life long learning Menghargai kepentingan pembelajaran seumur hidup To value the pursuit of education Menghargai kepentingan mengejar ilmu Having to differentiate between religious and secular (scientific) knowledge when I learn Dapat membezakan antara ilmu agama dan secular(Sains) semasa belajar 10 Having a sense of shame/saving own face when I learn Mempunyai sikap menjaga air muka sendiri semasa belajar 11 To consider education/learning more important than a high level of social status Menganggap pendidikan/pembelajaran lebih penting daripada status sosial yang tinggi / 351 Little importance Moderate importance High importance Supreme importance (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) No importance HOW IMPORTANT IS THIS ITEM TO ME … 5 5 12 Having the value of wisdom/ resourcefulness when I learn Mempunyai sikap kebijaksanaan semasa belajar 13 Having a sense of saving own face/ ‘kia- su’/ ‘afraid to lose’ to motivate me to learn Mempunyai sikap ‘tidak mahu kalah’ kerana ingin menjaga air muka sendiri demi mendorong saya semasa belajar 14 However painful or poor my life is, I should not neglect my study Saya tidak patut mengabaikan pelajaran saya, walaupun betapa susah atau miskin hidup saya 15 Having to save family face when I learn Menjaga nama/maruah keluarga semasa belajar 16 Saving other’s face by not outperforming others in learning Tidak menjatuhkan air muka orang lain dengan tidak mengatasi mereka semasa belajar , 352 Little importance Moderate importance High importance Supreme importance (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) No importance HOW IMPORTANT IS THIS ITEM TO ME … 5 5 17 To avoid confrontation/ able to reach consensus when I learn Mengelak percanggahan/mencapai penyesuaian semasa belajar dengan rakan 18 To conform to group orientation when I learn Menyesuaikan diri dengan kumpulan semasa belajar 19 Wanting to outperform others when I feel envious of others’ learning success Ingin mengatasi orang lain apabila berasa iri hati terhadap kejayaan mereka dalam pelajaran , 20 Accepting my learning failure as fated/related to Karma/fatalistic Menerima kegagalan dalam pelajaran sebagai takdir Tuhan 353 Little importance Moderate importance High importance Supreme importance (Please circle the appropriate number along side each item) No importance HOW IMPORTANT IS THIS ITEM TO ME … 5 21 Learn to be compatible in the global world Belajar supaya dapat mengikut arus globalisasi 22 Willing to compromise one’s values to suit the situations/issues when I learn Sanggup bertolak-ansur apabila situasi/isu bercanggah dengan nilai diri semasa belajar 23 Being modest and not showing off when I learn Bersikap rendah diri/tidak menonjol diri semasa belajar 354 Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire Your assistance in providing this information is very much appreciated If there is anything else more specific you would like to tell me about how you approach learning or your values in learning, please so in the space provided below If you would like to assist in further investigation of this study, please fill out your contact details in the box below Name : _ Email Add : _ Contact Number : _ Thank you! 355 Appendix G Process of Respecification and Reestimation of Models The Malay and Chinese models before respecification indicated poor fit, Malay: SRMR =0.13, CFI = 0.988, and GFI =.94; Chinese: SRMR =0.13, CFI = 0.988 (see Table 30 and Figure 11 and 12 in Appendix G) It is apparent that some modification in specification is needed in order to determine a model that better represents the sample data Authors like Byrne (2001) and Cheng (2001) have suggested examining modification indices to identify any areas of misfit in the model and that large modification indices would argue for the presence of factor cross-loading—a loading on more than one factor The modification indices (part of AMOS output) for both Malay and Chinese models suggested 1) a path from Others→VL to be added for Malay model and a path from Self→MY for Chinese model and 2) a correlation path to be added for Others and Self latent variables for both Malay and Chinese models These suggestions are substantively meaningful based on theory and empirical research Detailed justifications for these paths are found in section 5.2.6.1, 6.2.3 and 6.2.5 The Malay and Chinese models were revised and reestimated Table 30 shows that all the goodness-of-fit indices surpassed the recommended values, thus indicating satisfactory fit 356 evl eda VL em e 65 DA 78 eql QL 74 Self 85 ecmam ME 53 -.31 CMAM 43 emy ere 22 MY 37 54 Others 74 RE 34 86 eface eu m UM 81 esa SA FACE Figure 11: Malay LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Model before respecification Note: i) Observed Variables : QL=Qualities of learning VL=Values of learning MY=Middle way FACE=Face DA=Deep Approach CM/AM= Career Motive/Achieve Motive UM=Understand & Memorizing SA=Surface Approach ii) Latent Variables: ME = Meaning Orientation RE = Reproductive Orientation Self Others 357 evl eda VL em e 77 DA 90 eql 68 77 Self QL ME ecmam 53 -.25 CMAM 47 emy MY 10 46 Others eface ere 77 37 RE 21 eu m UM 79 64 esa FACE SA Figure 12: Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Model before respecification Note: i) Observed Variables : QL=Qualities of learning VL=Values of learning MY=Middle way FACE=Face DA=Deep Approach CM/AM= Career Motive/Achieve Motive UM=Understand & Memorizing SA=Surface Approach ii) Latent Variables: ME = Meaning Orientation RE = Reproductive Orientation Self Others 358 Table 30 : Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Models before and after respecification _ SRMR CFI GFI _ Recommended ≤.08 ≥.9 ≥.9 Values Malay Model (Figure 11) 13 88 94 Revised Research Model (Figure 9) 029 98 95 Chinese Model (Figure 12) 13 82 92 Revised Research 05 93 96 Model (Figure 10) _ 359 APPENDIX H List of publication and conferences Tan, P.L., Pillay, H., & Spencer, F (2004) Adult learners in Malaysia: Some Issues to consider In E Mcwilliam, S Danby, and J.Knight (Eds.) Performing educational research (pp.303-317), Queensland, Post Pressed National Library of Australia Tan, P.L., Pillay, H., & Spencer, F (2005, April) Approaches to learning and learning values of Malay and Chinese knowledge workers Paper presented at the Sixth Biennial Conference of the Asian Association of Social Psychology: Global perspectives on Asian social psychology Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Tan, P.L., Pillay, H., & Spencer, F (2004, May) Towards a holistic cross-cultural framework for the investigation of Malaysian adult learners’ professional development engagement Paper presented at the Fifth International Conference on Human Resource Development Research and Practice across Europe 2004 University of Limerick, Limerick, Republic of Ireland Tan, P.L., Pillay, H., & Spencer, F (2004, November).Towards a Holistic CrossCultural Framework for the Investigation of Malaysian Knowledge Workers Paper presented at the Innovation and Enterprise: Education for the New Economy Educational Research Association of Singapore, Singapore 360 ... Memorization and Surface Approaches 257 6.3.4 Face and Approaches to Learning 259 6.3.5 Malay, Face and Approaches to Learning 263 6.3.6 Chinese, Middle Way and Approaches to Learning 268 XI Chapter... Conceptions of learning and Approaches to Learning 45 2.1.7.1.2 Socio-economic status, travel/work experience and V Approaches to Learning 46 2.1.7.1.3 Age and Approaches to Learning 49 2.1.7.2... Cultural Values and Learning 80 2.2.9 The Influence of Confucius Values Today and in Malaysia 81 2.2.10 The Relationships of Confucius Values and Learning 82 2.2.10.1 The Importance of Education