Antecedents of firm export performance the role of export promotion programs

Antecedents of Firm Export Performance: The Role of Export Promotion Programs Submitted by A K Shamsuddoha B.Com (Honours), M.Com (Rajshahi), M.Com (La Trobe) A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations Faculty of Business Queensland University of Technology Brisbane, Queensland 4000 Australia 2004 Key Words Antecedents of export performance, Impact of Export promotion programs, Export Assistance Programs, Developing country, Bangladesh ii Abstract This study empirically investigates the direct and indirect effects of export promotion programs (EPPs) on firm export performance Government export promotion programs normally define the premise for successful exporting activities of the corporate sector and play a key role in stimulating international business activities of firms (Cavusgil and Michael, 1990; Marandu, 1995; Seringhaus and Rosson, 1990) While the extant literature on export performance mostly neglected EPPs as an antecedent of export performance, the literature on export promotion fails to relate it to export performance A very few researchers in this area have focused on a direct relationship between EPPs and firm export performance, however, no study has investigated the effect of EPPs on other determinants of export performance toward establishing any indirect relation between EPPs and export performance This study attempts to develop and test a comprehensive model of firm export performance that investigates how EPPs directly and indirectly influence firm export performance Theoretical foundations are drawn from internationalization process and resourcebased theories as frameworks for the analysis of the study The model integrates the use of EPPs, management perception of export market environment, export knowledge, export commitment, and export strategy that influence firm export performance and develops a number of hypotheses Export promotion programs are classified into two categories according to their similarity of purpose- “market development”, and “finance and guarantee” related programs All other variables in the model are latent and are measured by a set of observed items The model is tested on primary data obtained from a sample survey of exporting firms drawn from three major export oriented industries in Bangladesh Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques (in AMOS 5) are used to test the validity of the overall model and the relationship between variables hypothesized in the model A two stage process is employed whereby the construct measurements are first evaluated, followed by an evaluation of the structural relationships Analysis of the structural relationships supports most of the hypothesized relationships The dimensions of export promotion programs are found to positively impact overall export performance The research findings demonstrate that the use of market development-related export promotion programs influence firm export performance directly as well as indirectly through management perception of the export market environment, export knowledge and commitment However, finance and guarantee-related export promotion programs indirectly influence export performance through export commitment The study provides a guideline for managers of firms suggesting how they can benefit from EPPs in improving their positive attitude towards the export market environment, building their knowledge and enhancing commitment to exporting for better success in their international operations This study provides guidelines to policymakers in designing and targeting export promotion programs effectively The study also contributes to the literature by examining the indirect impact of EPPs on firm export performance Finally, the limitations of the study are considered and possible directions for further research outlined iii Table of Contents Key Words …………………………………………………………………… Abstract ………………………………………………………………………… List of Tables…………………………………………………………………… List of Figures………………………………………………………………… List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………… Statement of Original Authorship……………………………………………… Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………… Publications and Conferences ii iii vii viii ix x xi Chapter Introduction 1-8 1.1 The research focus ………………………………………………….1 1.2 The research problem, the question and the objective ………….… 1.2.1 The research problem………………………… ………….… 1.2.2 Research question and objective of the study… …………….5 1.3 1.4 1.5 The research significance……………….……………… ………… The research methodology……….……………………… ………….7 Organization of the thesis………………………………….……… Chapter Literature Review - 61 2.1 Introduction………………………………………………… ……….9 2.2 Theoretical foundations of firm export performance………… …… 2.2.1 International trade theory……………………………… … 10 2.2.2 Internationalization process/stage theory……………… … 13 2.2.3 Competitive strategy theory……………………………… 15 2.3 Definitions, determinants and measures of export performance… 18 2.3.1 Conceptual definitions of firm export performance….…… 18 2.3.2 Determinants of export performance………………….…… 19 2.3.3 Models of export performance………………………….… 29 2.3.4 Measures of export performance……………………… 38 2.4 Export promotion related literature…………………………… … 42 2.4.1 Studies on how to develop export promotion programs….…45 2.4.2 Studies on the impact of export promotion programs on firm export performance……………………………………….…53 2.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………… 59 Chapter The Research Model and Hypotheses 63 - 81 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………….…63 3.2 The research model and hypotheses ……………………………… 63 3.3 Conclusion ……………………………………………………… 80 iv Chapter Research Methodology 83 - 118 4.1 Introduction…………………………………….……………………83 4.2 Operationalization of variables………………….………………… 83 4.3 Research methods……………………………….………………… 91 4.3.1 Nature of research ……………………….………………….91 4.3.2 Questionnaire – the research instrument….…………………92 4.3.3 Translation of research instrument ……….……………… 93 4.3.4 Pre-test of research instrument…………….……………… 95 4.3.5 Final questionnaire ………………….…….………….…… 95 4.3.6 Key informant……………………………….……….………96 4.3.7 Population and sample……………………….……….…… 97 4.3.8 Sample size…………………………………….…….…… 98 4.3.9 Data collection, data editing and entry………….……….…100 4.3.10 Non-response bias……………………………… ……… 102 4.3.11 Check for outliers……………………………… ……… 103 4.3.12 Basic descriptive statistics of the sample……… ……… 104 4.3.13 Validity and reliability of research instrument….……… 107 4.4 Data analysis procedures ……………………………….………… 108 4.4.1 Factor and reliability analysis…………………………… 109 4.4.2 Structural equation modeling (SEM)…………………… 110 4.4.2.1 Advantages of structural equation modelling…… 112 4.4.2.2 Characteristics of structural equation modeling application………………………………………… 113 4.4.2.3 Identification……………………………………… 113 4.4.2.4 Estimation……………………………………… 114 4.4.2.5 Assessment of overall model fit……………….… 115 4.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………….… 118 Chapter Analysis and Results 119 - 162 5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….… 119 5.2 Results of exploratory factor analysis ………………………….….119 5.2.1 Export commitment……………………………………… 121 5.2.2 Export knowledge………………………………………….123 5.2.3 Export strategy…………………………………………… 124 5.2.4 Management perception of export market environment… .125 5.2.5 Export performance……………………………………… 128 5.2.6 Summary of the exploratory factor analysis results……….128 5.3 The structural equation model…………………………………… 129 5.3.1 Measurement models…………………………………… 130 5.3.1.1 Export commitment……………………………… 132 5.3.1.2 Export knowledge……………………………….…134 5.3.1.3 Export strategy………………………………….… 135 5.3.1.4 Management perception of export market Environment ………………………………………137 5.3.1.5 Export performance…………………………… …138 5.3.1.6 Summary of the measurement models………….….139 v 5.4 5.5 5.6 Results of structural equation model……………………… … 141 Discussion of the results…………………………………… … 147 Conclusion………………………………………………… ……158 Chapter Summary, Conclusions and Implications 163 - 179 6.1 Introduction…………………………………………… ……… 163 6.2 Overview of Research…………………………………… …… 163 6.2.1 Previous research……………………………… … … 164 6.2.2 Proposed model…………………………………… .….67 6.2.3 Questionnaire development and administration……… .167 6.2.4 Model testing and research findings……………… …… 168 6.3 Contributions of the study……………………… ….……………170 6.3.1 Theoretical perspective…………………… ……………170 6.3.2 Managerial perspective……………………… …………173 6.3.3 Public policy maker perspective………………… …… 174 6.4 6.5 6.6 Strengths and limitations of the study……………………… … 176 Future research direction……………………………………… .177 Conclusion……………………………………………… …… 179 Appendix A: Letter from Supervisor and Head of School…………………… 181 Appendix B: Survey Instrument (English version)………………………182 - 193 Appendix C: Survey Instrument (Bangla version)……………………….194 - 207 Bibliography …………………………………………………………… 209 - 229 vi List of Tables Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8 Table 5.1 Table 5.1a Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.4a Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7 Table 5.8 Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 5.11 Table 5.12 Table 5.13 Table 5.14 Table 5.15 Table 5.16 Table 5.17 Determinants of Export Performance…………………………… Past Empirical Studies on Export Promotion Programs………… Summary of Hypothesized Relationships……………………… Concept, Conceptual and Operational Definition, and Measurement of Variables……………………………………… Total Population, Sample Drawn and Response Rate…………… Distribution of Respondents by Industry Type………………… Distribution of Respondent Firms by the Number of Employees Distribution of Respondent Firms by Length of International Experience……………………………………………………… Summary of Respondents’ Personal Characteristics…………… Reliability of the Purified Scales………………………………… Goodness of Fit Criteria and Acceptable Fit Interpretation…… Extracted Factors and Factors Loadings Related to Export Commitment …………………………………………………… Extracted Factor and Factors Loadings Related to Export Commitment …………………………………………………… Extracted Factor and Factor Loadings Related to Export Knowledge……………………………………………………… Extracted Factor and Factor Loadings Related to Export Strategy Extracted Factors and Factor Loadings Related to Management Perception of Export Market Environment……………………… Extracted Factors and Factor Loadings Related to Management Perception of Export Market Environment …………………… Extracted Factor and Factor Loadings Related to Export Performance……………………………………………………… Model Fit Statistics……………………………………………… Export Commitment – Factor Loadings, Critical Ratios and PValues…………………………………………………………… Export Knowledge – Factor Loadings, Critical Ratios and PValues…………………………………………………………… Export Strategy – Factor Loadings, Critical Ratios and P-Values Export Process – Factor Loadings, Critical Ratios and P-Values Export Performance – Factor Loadings, Critical Ratios and PValues…………………………………………………………… Correlation Matrix between the Constructs, Means and Standard Deviation………………………………………………………… Results of the Analysis of the Structural Equation Model……… Standardized Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects Among the Constructs………………………………………………………… Standardized Solutions for the Structural Equation Model of Export Performance……………………………………………… Hierarchical Regression Models………………………………… Summary of Research Hypotheses and esults………………161 - vii 21 44 81 85 102 104 105 106 107 108 117 122 122 123 124 126 127 128 133 134 135 136 138 139 140 143 144 146 158 162 List of Figures Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 3.1 Figure 4.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 The Aaby and Slater Model (1989)……………………………… 30 The Cavusgil and Zou Model (1994)…………………………… 31 The Katsikeas, Piercy, and Ioannidis Model (1996)…………… 33 The Lages Model (2000)………………………………………… 34 The Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan Model (2000)………… 36 The Leonidou, Katsikeas, and Samiee Model (2002) 37 The Bruning Model (1995)……………………………………… 46 The Singer and Czinkota Model (1994)………………………… 55 The Marandu Model (1995)…………………………………… 56 The Gencturk and Kotabe Model (2001)……………………… 58 A Conceptual Model of Firm Export Performance…………… 66 The Direct and Indirect Effects………………………………… 111 A Testable Model……………………………………………… 141 The Empirically Tested Structural Model of Firm Export Performance……………………………………………………… 145 viii List of Abbreviations ADF AGFI AIC AMOS ANOVA BFLLFEA BG BGMEA BTTLMEA CFA CFI CMIN/DF CR EFA EPB EPPs FDI FEP GFI H-O-S IE KMO LDCs ML NFI PLC RMSEA SEM SPSS TLI ULS US USA = Asymptotically Distribution free = Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index = Akaike Information Criterion = Analysis of Moment Structures = Analysis of Variance = Bangladesh Finished Leather, Leather goods and Footwear Exporters Association = Born Global = Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association = Bangladesh Terry Towel and Linen Manufacturers and Exporters Association = Confirmatory Factor Analysis = Comparative Fit Index = Chi-square/ Degree of freedom = Critical Ratios = Exploratory Factor Analysis = Export Promotion Bureau = Export Promotion Programs = Foreign direct Investment = Firm Export Performance = Goodness-of-Fit Index = Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson = Initial Estimates = Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin = Less Developed Countries = Maximum Likelihood = Normed Fit Index = Product Life Cycle = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = Structural Equation Modelling = Statistical Package for Social Science = Tucker-Lewis Index = Unweighted Least Squares Estimates = United States = United States of America ix Statement of original authorship “The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any other higher education institution To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.” Signed: Date: x De Luz, M, (1993), Relationship Between Export Strategy Variables and Export Performance for Brazil-based Manufacturers, Journal of Global Marketing, 7(1): 87110 Denis, J E., and D Depelteau, (1985), Market Knowledge, Diversification and Export Expansion, Journal of International Business Studies, 16(Fall): 77-89 Dess, G G., and R B Robinson, Jr., (1984), Measuring Organizational Performance in the Absence of Objective Measures: The Case of the Privately Held Firm and Conglomerate Business Unit, Strategic Management Journal, 5: 265-273 Diamantopoulos, A and B B Schlegelmilch, (1994), Linking Export Manpower to Export Performance: A Canonical Regression Analysis of European and US Data, in Cavusgil, S.T., and C Axinn, (eds.), Advances in International Marketing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 6: 161-181 Diamantopoulos, A., and K Inglis, (1988), Identifying Differences Between High and Low Involvement Exporters, International Marketing Review, 5(2): 52-60 Dominguez, L V., and C G Sequeira, (1993), Determinants of LDC Exporters’ Performance: A Cross-National Study, Journal of International Business Studies, 24 (First Quarter): 19-40 Donthu, N., and S H Kim, (1993), Implications of Firm Controllable Factors on Export Growth, Journal of Global Marketing, 7(1): 47-63 Douglas, S P., and C S Craig, (1989), Evolution of Global Marketing Strategy: Scale, Scope and Synergy, Columbia Journal of World Business, Fall: 47-59 Ellis, J., and D Williams, (1995), International Business Strategy, London, Pitman Erramilli, K M., (1991), The Experience Factor in Foreign Market Entry Behaviour of Service Firms Journal of International Business Studies, 22(Third Quarter): 479501 Eshghi, A., (1992), Attitude Behaviour Inconsistency in Exporting, International Business Review, 9(3): 40-60 Evangelista, F U., (1994), Export Performance and Its Determinants: Some Empirical Evidence From Australian Manufacturing Firms, in Cavusgil, S.T., and C Axinn (eds.), Advances in International Marketing, New York: JAI, Greenwich, CT, 6: 207-229 Evangelista, F U., (1996), Linking Business Relationships to Marketing Strategy and Export Performance: A Proposed Conceptual Framework, Advances in International Marketing, 8: 59-83 Bibliography 215 Fenwick, I., and L Amine, (1979), Export Performance and Export Policy: Evidence from the U.K Clothing Industry, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 30(8): 747-754 Fornell, C., (1987), A Second Generation of Multivariate Analysis: Classification of Methods and Implication for Marketing Research, in Houston, M J., (ed.), Review of Marketing, Chicago: American Marketing Association Fornell, C., P Lorange, and J Roos, (1990), The Cooperative Venture Formation Process: A Latent Variable Structural Modeling Approach, Management Science, 36 (October) Galbraith, C., R Craig, and D Schendel, (1983), An Empirical Analysis of Strategy Types, Strategic Management Journal, 4(2): 153-173 Gencturk, E F., and M Kotabe, (2001), The Effect of Export Assistance Program Usage on Export Performance: A Contingency Explanation, Journal of International Marketing, 9(2): 51-72 Gerbing, D W., and J C Anderson, (1985), The Effect of Sampling Error and Model Characteristics on Parameter Estimation for Maximum Likelihood Confirmatory Analysis, Multivariate Behavioral Research, 20: 255-271 Gerbing, D W., and J C Anderson, (1988), An Updated Paradigm for Scale Development Incorporating Unidimensionality and its Assessment, Journal of Marketing Research, 15 (May): 186-192 Givon, M M., and Z Shapira, (1984), Response to Rating Scales: A Theoretical Model and Its Application to the Number of Categories Problem, Journal of Marketing Research, November: 410-419 Gomez-Mejia, L R., (1988), The Role of Human Resources Strategy in Export Performance: A Longitudinal Study, Strategic Management Journal, 9: 493-505 Goodnow, J D., and J E Hansz, (1972), Environmental Determinants of Overseas Market Entry Strategies, Journal of International Business Studies, 3(1): 33-60 Government of Bangladesh, (1998), Export Policy, 1997-2002, Ministry of Commerce, Dhaka, Bangladesh Government of Bangladesh, (2000), Export Statistics, 1998-99, Export Promotion Bureau, Dhaka Bangladesh Gray, B J., (1997), Profiling Managers to Improve Export Promotion Targeting, Journal of International Business Studies, 28(Second Quarter): 387-420 Gronhaug, K., and T Lorenzen, (1982), Exploring Industrial Export Strategy, in Assessment of Marketing Thought and Practice, Proceedings of the American Marketing Association, Chicago, pp 294-298 Bibliography 216 Gronhaug, K., and T Lorentzen, (1983), Exploring the Impact of Government Export Subsidies, European Journal of Marketing, 17(2): 5-12 Haar, J., and M Ortiz-Buonafina, (1995), The Internationalization Process and Marketing Activities: The Case of Brazilian Export Firms, Journal of Business Research, 32(2): 175-181 Hair Jr, J F., R E Anderson, R L Tatham, and W C Black, (1998), Multivariate Data Analysis, 5th edn., Sydney: Prentice Hall Hair Jr, J F., R P Bush, and D J Ortinau, (2000), Marketing Research – A Practical Approach for the New Millennium, Sydney: Irwin McGraw-Hill Harrigan, K R., (1987), Strategic Alliances: Their New Role in Global Competition, Columbia Journal of World Business, (Summer): 67-69 Harrigan, K R., (1988), Joint Ventures and Competitive Strategies, Strategic Management Journal, 9: 141-158 Hayduk, L A., (1987), Structural Equation Modeling, Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press Hayduk, L A., (1996), LISREL Issues, Debates and Strategies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Heckscher, E., (1919, reprint 1950), The Effects of Foreign Trade on Distribution and Income, in Ellis, H S., and L A Metzler, (eds.), Readings in the Theory of International Trade, London, Allen and Unwin Henry, W V., (1996), What New Exporters Think about U.S Government Sponsored Export Promotion Services and Publications, Multinational Business Review, Fall: 21-29 Hofer, C W., (1975), Toward a Contingency Theory of Business Strategy, Academy of Management Journal, 18: 784-810 Hofer, C W., and D Schendel, (1978), Strategy Formulation: Analytical Concepts, St Paul, MN, West Publishing Holzmuller, H H., and B Stottinger, (1996), Structural Modeling of Success Factors in Exporting: Cross-Validation and Further Development of an Export Performance Model, Journal of International Marketing, 4(2): 29-55 Holzmuller, H H., and H Kasper, (1991), On a Theory of Export Performance: Personal and Organizational Determinants of Export Trade Activities Observed in Small and Medium-Sized Firms, Management International Review, 31(Special Issue): 45-70 Homburg, G., (1991), Cross-Validation and Information Criteria in Causal Modeling, Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (May): 137-44 Bibliography 217 Howard, D G., and I M Herremans, (1988), Sources of Assistance for Small Business Exporters, Journal of Small Business Management, July: 48-54 Hoyle, R H., (1995), Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Application, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Hu, L-T., and P M Bentler, (1999), Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives, Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6:1-55 Huber, G P., and D J Power, (1985), Retrospective Reports of Strategic-Level Managers: Guidelines for Increasing their Accuracy, Strategic Management Journal, 16: 171-180 Hunt, H G., J D Froggatt, and P J Hovell, (1967), The Management of Export Marketing in Engineering Industries, British Journal of Marketing, Spring Ifju, P A., and R J Bush, (1994), Export Assistance in the Harwood Lumber Industry: An Examination of Awareness, Use, and Perceived Benefit, Forest Products Journal, June Ito, K., and V Pucik, (1993), R & D Spending, Domestic Competition, and Export Performance of Japanese Manufacturing Firms’, Strategic Management Journal, 14: 61-75 Jain, S.C., (1989), Standardization of International Marketing Strategy: Some Research Hypotheses, Journal of Marketing, 53(January): 70-79 Jarque C., and A Bera, (1981), Efficient Tests for Normality, Heteroskedasticity and Serial Independence of Regression Residuals: Monte Carlo Evidence, Economics Letters, 7: 313-318 Johanson, J., and F Wiedersheim-Paul (1975), The Internationalization of the Firm: Four Swedish Cases, Journal of Management Studies, October: 305-322 Johanson, J., and J-E., Vahlne, (1977), The Internationalization Process of the Firm: A Model of Knowledge Development and Increasing Foreign Commitments, Journal of International Business Studies, 8(1): 23-32 Johanson, J., and J-E, Vahlne, (1990), The Mechanism of Internationalization, International Marketing Review, 7(4): 11-24 Johanson, J., L Mattson, P Sanden, and J E Vahlne, (1976), Knowledge and Internationalization, in Uppsala University 500 Years, Uppsala: Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Uppsala Johanson, J K., and I Nonaka, (1983), Japanese Export Marketing Structures, Strategies, Counter-Strategies, International Marketing Review, 1(Winter): 12-24 Bibliography 218 Joreskog, K G., (1969), A General Approach to Confirmatory Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis, Psychometrika, 32: 183-202 Joreskog, K G., and D Sorbom, (1988), LISREL 7: A Guide to the Program and Its Applications, Chicago: SPSS Julian C C., (2003), Export Marketing Performance: A Study of Thailand Firms, Journal of Small Business Management, 41(2): 213-221 Jung, K-H., (1984), Firm Characteristics, Strategy, and Performance of Exporting Companies in Korea, Paper presented at the AIB Annual Meeting in Cleveland, Ohio, (October) Katsikeas, C S., N F Piercy, and C Ioannidis, (1996), Determinants of Export Performance in a European Context, European Journal of Marketing, 30(6): 6-35 Katsikeas, C., S Leonidas, C Leonidou, and N A Morgan, (2000), Firm-Level Export Performance Assessment: Review, Evaluation, and Development, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(4): 493-511 Kay, J., (1993), The Foundations of Corporate Success, New York, Oxford University Press Kaynak, E., and V Kothari, (1984), Export Behavior of Small- and Medium-Sized Manufacturers: Some Policy Guidelines for International Marketers, Management International Review, 24(2): 61-69 Kaynak, E., and W K Kuan, (1993), Environment, Strategy, Structure, and Performance in the Context of Export Activity: An Empirical Study of Taiwanese Manufacturing Firms, Journal of Business Research, 27: 33-49 Kedia, B L., and J Chhokar, (1986), An Empirical Investigation of Export Promotion Programs, Columbia Journal of World Business, Winter: 13-20 Keesing, D B., (1966), Labor Skills and Comparative Advantage, American Economic Review, 56: 249-258 Keng, K A., and T S Jiun, (1989), Differences between Small and Medium-Sized Exporting and Non-Exporting Firms: Nature or Nurture, International Marketing Review, (4): 27-40 Khan, M S., (1978), A Study of Success and Failure in Exports, Department of Business Administration, University of Stockholm Kirpalani, V H., and N B Macintosh, (1980), International Marketing Effectiveness of Technology-Oriented Small Firms, Journal of International Business Studies, 11(Winter): 81-90 Kleinschmidt, E J., and R G Cooper, (1984), A Typology of Export Strategies Applied to the Export Performance of Industrial Firms, in Kaynak, E., (ed.), International Marketing Management, New York: Praeger, 217-231 Bibliography 219 Kline, R B., (1998), Principle and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, The Guilford Press, New York Koh, A C., (1991), Relationships among Organizational Characteristics, Marketing Strategy and Export Performance, International Marketing Review, 8(3): 46-60 Koh, A C., and R A Robicheaux, (1988), Variations in Export Performance Due to Differences in Export Marketing Strategy: Implications for Industrial Marketers, Journal of Business Research, 17: 249-258 Kotabe, M., and M R Czinkota, (1992), State Government Promotion of Manufacturing Exports: A Gap Analysis, Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter: 637-658 Kotabe, M., and K Helsen, (1998), Global Marketing Management, New York: John Wiley Kotabe, M., (1993), The Promotional Roles of the State Government and Japanese Manufacturing Direct Investment in the United States, Journal of Business Research, 27: 131-146 Krause, D R., T V Scannell, and R J Calantone, (2000), A Structural Analysis of the Effectiveness of Buying Firms’ Strategies to Improve Supplier Performance, Decision Sciences, 31(1): 33-55 Kravis, I B., (1956), Wages and Foreign Trade, Review Economic Statistics, 38: 1430 Krugman, P R., and Obstfield, (1991), International Economics: Theory and Policy, 2nd edn., Harper Collins, New York Kumcu, E., T Harcar, and M E Kumcu, (1995), Managerial Perceptions of the Adequacy of Export Incentive Programmes: Implications for Export-Led Economic Development Policy, Journal of Business Research, 32: 163-174 Lages, L F., (2000), A Conceptual Framework of the Determinants of Export Performance: Reorganizing Key Variables and Shifting Contingencies in Export Marketing, Journal of Global Marketing, 13(3): 29-51 Lambert, D., and T Harrington, (1990), Measuring Non-Response Bias in Mail Surveys, Journal of Business Logistics, 11 (2): 5-25 Lee, C S., and Y S Yang, (1990), Impact of Export Market Expansion Strategy on Export Performance, International Marketing Review, 7(4): 41-51 Leonidou, L C., (1995), Export Stimulation Research: Review, Evaluation and Integration, International Business Review, 4(2): 133-156 Bibliography 220 Leonidou, L C., (1998), Organizational Determinants of Exporting: Conceptual, Methodological, and Empirical Insights, Management International Review, 38(1): 752 Leonidou, L C., C S Katsikeas, and S Samiee, (2002), Marketing Strategy Determinants of Export Performance: A Meta-Analysis, Journal of Business Research, 55(1): 51-67 Leonidou, L C., and C S Katsikeas, (1996), The Export Development Process: An Integrative Review of Empirical Models, Journal of International Business Studies, 27(Third Quarter): 517-551 Leonidou, L C., C S Katsikeas, and N F Piercy, (1998), Identifying Managerial Influences on Exporting: Past Research and Future Directions, Journal of International Marketing, 6(2): 74-102 Leontief, W., (1953), Domestic Production and Foreign Trade: The American Capital Re-Examined, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 97: 333-349 Lewin, A Y., and J W Minton, (1986), Determining Organizational Effectiveness: Another Look, and an Agenda for Research, Management Science, 32(5): 514-538 Lim, J S., T W Sharkey, and K I Kim, (1993), Determinants of International Marketing Strategy, Management International Review, 33(2): 103-120 Lim, J S., T W Sharkey, and K I Kim, (1991), An Empirical Test of an Export Adoption Model, Management International Review, 31(1): 51-62 Lim, J S., T W Sharkey, and K I Kim, (1996), Competitive Environmental Scanning and Export Involvement: An Initial Inquiry, International Marketing Review, 13(1): 65-80 Louter, P J., C Ouwerkerk, and B A Bakker, (1991), An Inquiry into Successful Exporting, European Journal of Marketing, 25(6): 7-23 Luck, D J., and A E Prell, (1968), Marketing Strategy, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall MacCallum, R C., (1995), Model Specification: Procedures, Strategies, and Related Issues, in Hoyle R H., (ed.), Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications, Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp 76-99 Madsen, T K., (1987), Empirical Export Performance Studies: A Review of Conceptualizations and Findings, in Cavusgil S T (ed.), Advances in International Marketing, Greenwich, CT; JAI Press, 2:177-198 Madsen, T K., (1989), Successful Export Marketing Management: Some Empirical Evidence, International Marketing Review, 6(4): 41-57 Bibliography 221 Madsen, T K., (1994), A Contingency Approach to Export Performance Research, in Axinn, C.N., (ed.), Advances in International Marketing, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 6:25-42 Mahoney, J., (1995), The Management of Resources and the Resource of Management, Journal of Business Research, 33(2): 91-101 Malhotra, N K., (2004), Marketing Research – An Applied Orientation, 4th edn., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall Marandu, E E., (1995), Impact of Export Promotion on Export Performance: A Tanzanian Study, Journal of Global Marketing, 9(1/2): 9-39 Marin, G., and B V O Marin, (1991), Research with Hispanic Populations: Applied Social Research Series, Vol 23, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA McGorry, S Y., (2000), Measurement in a Cross-Cultural Environment: Survey Translation Issues, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 3(2): 7481 McKee, D., and P R., Varadarajan, (1995), Special Issue on Sustainable Competitive Advantage, Journal of Business Research, 33(2): 77-79 Miesenbock, K J., (1988), Small Businesses and Exporting: A Literature Review, International Small Business Journal, 6(January/March): 42-61 Miller, L E., and K L Smith, (1983), Handling Non-Response Issues, Journal of Extension, (Sept/Oct): 45-50 Minhas, B., (1962), The Homohypallagic Production Function, Factor Intensity Reversal, and the Hekscher-Ohlin Theorem, Journal of Political Economy, 70: 138156 Mintzberg, H., (1988), Generic Strategies: Toward a Comprehensive Framework, in Advances in Strategic Management, Vol 5, AI Press, Greenwich, CT Mintzberg, H., (1987), Five Ps for Strategy, California Management Review Mitchell, M., and J Jolley, (1996), Research Design Explained, Fort Worth, USA: Harcourt Brace Publishers Moen, Q., (2000), SMEs and International Marketing: Investigating the Differences in Export Strategy Between Firms of Different Size, Journal of Global Marketing, 13(4): 7-28 Moini, A H., (1995), An Inquiry into Successful Exporting: An Empirical Investigation Using a Three-stage Model, Journal of Small Business Management, July: 9-25 Bibliography 222 Moini, A H., (1998), Small Firms Exporting: How Effective are Government Export Assistance Programs? Journal of Small Business Management, January: 1-15 Moller, K., (1984), Role of Promotional Management in Exporting to the Soviet Union and OECD Countries, in Kaynak, E (ed.), International Marketing Management, New York: Praeger, 318-334 Mulaik, S A., L R James, J V Alstine, N Bennett, S Lind, and C D Stilwell, (1989), Evaluation of Goodness-of-fit Indices for Structural Equation Models, Psychological Bulletin, 105: 430-445 Naidu, G M., and T R Rao, (1993), Public Sector Promotion of Exports: A NeedsBased Approach, Journal of Business Research, 27: 85-101 Naidu, G M., and V K Prasad, (1994), Predictors of Export Strategy and Performance of Small and Medium-Sized Firms, Journal of Business Research, 31: 107-115 Naidu, M S., T., Cavusgil, B K Murthy, and M Sarker, (1997), Export Promotion Model for India: Implications for Public Policy, International Business Review, 6(2): 113-125 Namiki, N., (1994), A Taxonomic Analysis of Export Marketing Strategy: An Exploratory Study of US Exporters of Electronic Products, Journal of Global Marketing, 8(1): 27-50 Newman, S W., (1962), Differences Between Early and Late Respondents to a Survey, Journal of Advertising Research, 11 (June): 37-39 Nicholson, N., and S O Brenner, (1994), Dimensions of Perceived Organisational Performance: Tests of a Model, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 43(1): 89-108 Nunnally, J C., (1978), Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company O’Cass, A., and C Julian, (2003), Examining Firm and Environmental Influences on Export Marketing Mix Strategy, European Journal of Marketing, 37 (3/4): 366-384 Ohlin, B., (1933), Interregional and International Trade, Oxford, U.K., The University Press Parasuraman, A., A Z Valerie, and L B Leonard, (1988), SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality, Journal of Retailing, 64 (Spring): 12-37 Pelham, A., and D Wilson, (1996), A Longitudinal Study of the Impact of Market Structure, Firm Structure, Strategy, and Market Orientation Culture on Dimensions of Small-Firm Performance, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(1): 2743 Bibliography 223 Pennings, J M., (1979), Coordination Between Strategically Interdependent Organizations, in Paul C N., and H S William, (eds.), Handbook for Organizational Design, Amsterdam: Elsevier Penrose, E., (1959), The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, London, Basil Blackwell Perlmutter, H V., and D A Heenan, (1986), Cooperate to Compete Globally, Harvard Business Review, 64(2): 136-152 Pfeffer, J., and G R Salancik, (1978), The External Control of Organizations, New York: Harper & Row Piercy, N., (1982), Export Strategy: Markets and Competition, George Allen & Unwin, London Porter, M E., (1980), Competitive Strategy, The Free Press, New York Porter, M E., (1991), Towards a Dynamic Theory of Strategy, Strategic Management Journal, 12(Winter, Special Issue): 95-117 Prahalad, C K., and G Hamel, (1990), The Core Competence of the Corporation, Harvard Business Review, (May/June): 79-91 Rabino, S., (1980), An Examination of Barriers to Exporting Encountered by Small Manufacturing Companies, Management International Review, 20(1): 67-73 Ramaswami, S., and Y Yang, (1989), Perceived Barriers to Exporting and Export Assistance Requirements, in Cavusgil, T., and M Czinkota, (eds.), Trade Promotion and Assistance: International Perspectives, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press Rao, C P., (1990), Impact of Domestic Recession on Export Marketing Behavior, International Marketing Review, 7(2): 54-65 Rao, T R., and G M Naidu, (1992), Are the Stages of Internationalization Empirically Supportable? Journal of Global Marketing, 6(1/2): 147-170 Raven, P V., J M McCullough, and P S Tansuhaj, (1994), Environmental Influences and Decisions-making Uncertainty in Export Channels: Effects on Satisfaction and Performance, Journal of International Marketing, 2(3): 37-59 Ray, A S., (1988), The Determinants of India’s Manufactured-Export Performance: Industry Level and Firm-Level Evidence, PhD Dissertation, Wolfson College, University of Oxford, U.K Raymond, M A., J Kim, and A T Shao, (2001), Export Strategy and Performance: A Comparison of Exporters in a Developed Market and an Emerging Market, Journal of Global Marketing, 15(2): 5-29 Reid, S D., (1981), The Decision-Maker and Export Entry and Expansion, Journal of International Business Studies, 12(3): 101-112 Bibliography 224 Reid, S D., (1984), Market Expansion and Firm Internationalization, in Kaynak, E (eds.), International Marketing Management, Praeger Publishers, New York, 197206 Reid, S D., (1984a), Information Acquisition and Export Entry Decisions in Small Firms, Journal of Business Research, 12(2): 141-158 Reid, S D., (1987), Export Strategies, Structure, and Performanve: An Empirical Study of Small Italian Manufacturing Firms, in Rosson, P J., and S D Reid, (eds.), Managing Export Entry and Expansion: Concepts and Practice, New York, Praeger, NY, pp 335-357 Reynolds, F D., and J Neter, (1982), How Many Categories for Respondent Classification?, Journal of Market Research Society, (October): 345-346 Reynolds, P J., (1971), A Primer in Theory Construction, Bobbs-Merrill Publishing Co., Indianapolis, Ind Ricardo, D., (1817, reprint 1981), The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press Rice, P Y Jr., (1993), The Impact of Quality, Satisfaction, and Value on Service Patronage: A Comprehensive Approach Using Structural Equation Modeling, Ph.D Dissertation, Mississippi State University Rivera-Batiz, F L., and L A Rivera-Batiz, (1994), International Finance and Open Economy Macroeconomics, 2nd edn., Macmillan, New York Robertson, K R., and V R Wood, (2001), The Relative Importance of Types of Information in the Foreign Market Selection Process, International Business Review, 10: 363-379 Root, F., (1994), Entry Strategies for International Markets, New York: Lexington Books Rosson, J., and I D Ford, (1982), Manufacturer-Overseas Distributor Relationships and Export Performance, Journal of International Business Studies, Fall: 57-72 Sachs, J D., and F B Larrain, (1993), Macroeconomics in the Global Economy, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J Samiee, S., and P G P Walters, (1990), Influence of Firm Size on Export Planning and Performance, Journal of Business Research, 20: 235-248 Samiee, S., and P G P Walters, (1999), Determinants of Structured Export Knowledge Acquisition, International Business Review, 8: 373-397 Samuelson, P A., (1948), International Trade and the Equalization of Factor Prices, Economic Journal, 58: 163-184 Bibliography 225 Schaie, K W., and C Hertzog, (1982), Longitudinal Methods, in Wolman, B B., (eds.), Handbook of Developmental Psychology, New York McGraw-Hill Schaie, K W., and C Hertzog, (1985), Measurement in the Psychology of Adulthood and Aging, in Birren, J E., and K W Schaie, (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 2nd edn., New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Scherer, F M., and D Ross, (1990), Industrial Market Structures and Economic Performance, 3rd edn., Boston, Houghton Mifflin Schlegelmilch, B B., and A.G Ross, (1987), The Influences of Managerial Characteristics on Different Measures of Export Success, Journal of Marketing Management, 3(2): 145-158 Schlegelmilch, B B., (1986), Controlling Country Specific and Industry-Specific Influences on Export Behavior, European Journal of Marketing, 20(2): 54-71 Schlegelmilch, B B., (1986a), Can Export Performance Be Explained by Attitudinal Differences? in Managerial and Decision Economics, 7: 249-254, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd U.K Schumacker, R E., and R G Lomax, (1996), A Beginner’s Guide to Structural Equation Modeling, Mahwah, New Jersey Seifert, B., and J Ford, (1989), Are Exporting Firms Modifying Their Product, Pricing and Promotion Policies? International Marketing Review, 6(6): 53-68 Seringhaus, F H R., (1986), The Role of Information Assistance in Small Firm’s Export Involvement, International Small Business Journal, 5(2): 26-36 Seringhaus, F H R., (1986a), The Impact of Government Export Marketing Assistance, International Marketing Review, Summer: 55-66 Seringhaus, F H R., (1987), The Use of Trade Missions in Foreign Market Entry, Industrial Marketing and Purchasing, 2(Winter): 43-60 Seringhaus, F H R., and G Botschen, (1991), Cross-National Comparison of Export Promotion Services: The Views of Canadian and Austrian Companies, Journal of International Business Studies, First Quarter: 115-133 Seringhaus, F H R., and P Rosson, (1990), Government Export Promotion: A Global Perspective, London: Routledge Seringhaus, F H R., (1993), Export Promotion in Developing Countries: Status and Prospects, Journal of Global Marketing, 6(4): 7-31 Shoham, A., (1995), Global Marketing Standardization, Journal of Global Marketing, 9(1/2): 91-119 Bibliography 226 Shoham, A., (1991), Performance in Exporting: State-of-the-art Literature Review and Synthesis and Directions for Future Research, Paper presented at the Conference of the academy of International Business, Miami, Florida Silverman, M., R M Castaldi, and S Sengupta, (2002), Increasing the Effectiveness of Export Assistance Programs: The Case of the California Environmental Technology Industry, Journal of Global Marketing, 15(3/4): 173-192 Simpson, C L., and D Kujawa, (1974), The Export Decision Process: An Empirical Inquiry, Journal of International Business Studies, (Spring): 107-117 Singer, T O., and M R Czinkota, (1994), Factors Associated with Effective Use of Export Assistance, Journal of International Marketing, 2(1): 53-71 Smith, A., (1776, reprint 1963), An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Homewood, Ill Irwin Sood, J H., and P Adams, (1984), Model of Management Learning Styles as a Predictor of Export Behavior and Performance, Journal of Business Research, 12: 169-182 Steiger, J H., (1990), Structural Model Evaluation and Modification: An Interval Estimation Approach, Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25: 173-180 Sullivan, D., and A Bauerschmidt, (1989), Common Factors Underlying Barriers to Export: A Comparative Study in the European and U.S Paper Industry, Management International Review, 29: 17-32 Tabachnick, B G., and L S Fidell, (2001), Using Multivariate Statistics, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 4th edn Tanaka, J S., (1993), Multifaceted Conceptions of Fit in Structural Equation Models, in Bollen, K.A., and J S Long, (eds.), Testing Structural Equation Models, Sage, Newbury Park Terpstra, V., (1987), International Marketing, Hinsdale, IL: The Dryden Press Tookey, D A., (1964), Factors Associated with Success in Exporting, Journal of Management Studies, March: 48-66 Travis, W P., (1964), The Theory of Trade and Protection, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Turnbull, P W., and J-P., Valla, (1986), Strategies for International Industrial Marketing, London: Croom Helm Ullman, J B., (1996), Structural Equation Modeling, in Tabachnick, B.G., and L S Fidel, (eds.), Using Multivariate Statistics, Harper Collins, New York Bibliography 227 Vanek, J., (1959), The Natural Resource Content of Foreign Trade, 1870-1955 and the Relative Abundance of the United States, Review of Economics and Statistics, 41: 146-153 Venkatraman, N., and J E Prescott, (1990), Environment-Strategy Coalignment: An Empirical Test of Its Performance Implications, Strategic Management Journal, 11: 1-23 Venkatraman, N., and V Ramanujam, (1986), Measurement of Business Performance in Strategic Research: A Comparison of Approaches, Academy of Management Review, 1(4): 801-814 Vernon, R., (1966), International Investment and International Trade in the Product Life Cycle, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 80 (2): 190-207 Walker, O C., and R W Ruekert, (1987), Marketing’s Role in the Implementation of Business Strategies, Journal of Marketing, 51 (July): 15-33 Walters, P G P., and S Samiee, (1990), A Model for Assessing Performance in Small US Exporting Firms, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Winter: 33-50 Walters, P G P., (1993), Pattern of Formal Planning and Performance in US Exporting Firms, Management International Review, 33(1): 43-63 Wang, G., and J E Olsen, (2002), Knowledge, Performance, and Exporter Satisfaction: An Exploratory Study, Journal of Global Marketing, 15(3/4): 39-64 Weaver, K M., D Berkowitz, and L Davies, (1998), Increasing the Efficiency of National Export Promotion Programs: The Case of Norwegian Exporters, Journal of Small Business Management, October: 1-11 Weinrauch, J D., and C P Rao, (1974), The Export Marketing Mix: An Examination of Company Experiences and Perceptions, Journal of Business Research, 2(4): 447452 Wells, L T., (1968), A Product Life Cycle for International Trade, Journal of Marketing, 32(July): 1-6 Werner, O., and D T Campbell, (1970), Translating, Working Through Interpreters and the Problem of Decentering, in Cohen, R.N (ed.), A Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology, America Wernerfelt, B., (1984), A Resourced-Based View of the Firm, Strategic Management Journal, 5(2): 171-180 White, D S., D A Griffith, and J K Ryans, Jr, (1998), Measuring Export Performance in Service Industries, International Marketing Review, 15(3): 188-204 Bibliography 228 Wiedersheim-Paul, F., H C Olson, and L S Welch, (1978), Pre-export: The First Step in Internationalization, Journal of International Business Studies, 9(Spring/Summer): 47-58 Wilkinson, T J., and L E Brouthers, (2000), An Evaluation of State Sponsored Promotion Programs, Journal of Business Research, 47(3): 229-236 Wortzel, L H., and H V Wortzel, (1981), Export Marketing Strategies for NIC and LDC-Based Firms, Columbia Journal of World Business, Spring: 51-60 Yang, Y S., R P Leone, and D L Alden, (1992), A Market Expansion Ability Approach to Identify Potential Exporters, Journal of Marketing, 56(January): 84-96 Yaprak, A., C Sorek, and R Parameswaran, (1984), Competitive Strategy in Multinational Oligopolies, in Kaynak, E (ed.), International Marketing Management, New York: Praeger, 232-255 Yarbough, B V., and R M Yarbough, (1994), The World Economy: Trade and Finance, Harcourt Brace, New York Zikmund, W G., (2003), Business Research Methods, 7th edn., Cincinnati, OH: Thomson/South – Western Zou, S., and S Stan, (1998), The Determinants of Export Performance: A Review of the Empirical Literature Between 1987 and 1997, International Marketing Review, 15(5): 333-356 Zou, S., D M Andrus, and D W Norvell, (1997), Standardization of International Marketing Strategy by Firms from a Developing Country, International Marketing Review, 14(2): 107-123 Zwick, W R., and W F Velicer, (1986), Comparison of Five Rules for Determining the Number of Components to Retain, Psychological Bulletin, 99(3): 432-42 Bibliography 229 ... understanding of the impact of export promotion programs on firm export performance 1.2 The Research Problem, the Question and the Objective 1.2.1 The Research Problem The complexity of international... indirect effects of export promotion programs (EPPs) on firm export performance Government export promotion programs normally define the premise for successful exporting activities of the corporate... and other determinants of export performance Therefore, export promotion programs may also influence firm export performance indirectly through other determinants of export performance 1.2.2 Research