1 definition and background

1 definition and background - Pragmatic is the study of speaker meaning - Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning - Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said - Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance Syntax Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which sequences are well-formed Semantics Semantics is the study of the realationships between linguistics forms and entities in the world, that is, how words literally connect to thing Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistics forms and the users of the those forms Presupposition and entailment A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance Speaker , not sentences, have presuppositions Types of presupposition - Potential presuppositions: we shall consider these languistic forms here as indicator of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers - Existential presuppositions is not only assumed to be present in possessive constructions, but more generally in any definite noun phrase Ex: I have a dog - Factive presupposition: the presupposed information following a verb like know can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive presupposition - Lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conversationally interpreted with the supposition that another meaning is understood - Structural presuppositions In this case, certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conversationally and regularly presupposing that part of the structure is already assumed to be true Ex: where did you buy the bike? - Non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true Ex: I dreamed that I was rich - Counter- factual presuppositions meaning that what is presuppose is not only not true, but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to fact’s Type example Presupposition Existential The X X exists Factive I regret leaving I left Non- factive He presentended to be He was not happy happy Lexical He managed to escape He tried to escape Structure When did she die? She died counterfactual If I weren’t ill I am ill Entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the uterrence Sentence , not speaker, have entailments 2 The cooperative principle Make your conversational contribution such as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged The maxims Quantity Make your contribution as information one that is required ( for the current purpose of the exchange) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required Quantity try make your contribution one that is true Do not say what you believe to be false Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence Relation be relevant Manner be perspicuous Avoid obscurity of expression Avoid ambiguity Be brief( avoid unnecessary prolixity) Be orderly Speech acts Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts and, in english, are commonly given more specific lab such as apology, complaint, complement, invitation, promise, request These descriptive terms for different kinds of speech acts approach to the speaker’s communicative intention in producing an utterance The speaker normally expects that his or her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance These circumstances, including on utterances are called the speech events Fecility conditions There are certain expected or appropriate circumstance, technically known as feliciy conditions, for the performance of a speech act to be recognized as intended There are also precoditions on speech acts There are general conditions on the participants Ex: that they can understand the language being used and that they are not play acting or being nonsensical There are content conditions For example, for both a promise and a warning, the content of the uterance must be about a future event A further content condition for a promise requires that the future event will be a future act of the speaker The preparatory conditions for a promise a significantly different from those for a warning When people promise to something there are two preparatory conditions: first The event will not have pen by itself, and second, the event will have a beneficial effective When I utter a warning There are the following preparatory conditions: it is not clear that the hearer knows the event will occur, the speaker dose think the event will occur, and then event will not have beneficial effect Related to these conditions is the sincerity condition that, for a promise, the speaker genuinely intends to carry on the future action, and, for warning, the speaker genuinely believes that the future event will not have a beneficial effect Finally, there is the essential condition, which covers the fact that by the act of uttering a promise, I there by intend to create a obligation to carry out the action as promised Politeness is the mean imployed to show awereness of another person’s face Speech acts types The first is locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression The second is the illocutionary act is the performed via the communocative force of an utterance The force of the word Ex: I not have any money - Girlfriend - Boyfriend - Classmates The third is the perlocutionary act is the effect produced in the listener or reader when they listen or read a locutionary act Ex: I not have any money - Accepting the request - Denying(phu nhan) the request Speech act classification One general classification system lists five types of general functions performed by speech acts: declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissive - Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that changethe world via their utterance - Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not Ex: the earth is flat - Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feel They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow Ex: I’m really sorry - Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to something They express what the speaker wants Ex: could you lend me a pen, please? - Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action They express what the speaker intends They are promise, threats, refusals… ex: I am going ato get it right next time 7 FTA if speaker says something that represents a threat to another individual’s expactations regarding self- image, it is described as a face threatening act FSA: the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat This is called a face saving act Direct and indirect speech acts - Whenever there is adirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act - Whemever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have an indirect 10.Nagative and positive face( the dien am va the dien duong) A person’s Nagative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others A person’s positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others In simple terms, negative face is the need to be independent and positive face is the need to be connected So, a face saving act which is oriented to the person’s negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the other’s time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interruption This is called nagative politeness a face saving act which is concerned with the person’s positive face will ten to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want to the same thing and that have a common goal This is called positive politeness 11.Conversational style: particular way of participating in conversation High involvement style: it differs substantially from another style in which speakers use a slower rate, expect longer pauses between turns, not overlap,and avoid interruption or completion of the other’s turn This non-interrupting, non- imposing style has been called a high considerateness style 12 Implicature Implicature is a technical term, which refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied Ex: john is meeting a woman this evening +> the woman john is meeting this evening is not his mother, his sister or his wife Ex: some of boys were at the party +> not at all the boy were at the party 13 Illocutionary force indicating device (IFID) indication in thed speaker’s utterance of the communicative force of that utterance  ... structure and a function, we have an indirect 10 .Nagative and positive face( the dien am va the dien duong) A person’s Nagative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not... Ex: that they can understand the language being used and that they are not play acting or being nonsensical There are content conditions For example, for both a promise and a warning, the content... solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want to the same thing and that have a common goal This is called positive politeness 11 .Conversational style: particular way of participating in conversation