THEORY academic writing

Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 *****************************************************************************  Definition & Features of Academic writing Introduction Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions Its objective is to inform rather than entertain As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language There are six main features of academic writing that are often discussed Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible It uses language precisely and accurately I, Complexity Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989) Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language The following features are common in academic written texts: Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical complexity, Nominalization, Attributive adjectives Noun-based phrases Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Like all other forms of life, we human beings are the product of evolution Like all other forms of life, we human beings are the product of how we have evolved  The noun "evolution" is preferred to the verb "evolve" and the "wh" clause Another example is: Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach a chimpanzee named Sarah the meaning of a set of symbols Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach a chimpanzee named Sarah what a set of symbols mean  "The meaning of the symbols" is preferred to "what the symbols mean" Modification of noun-phrases Written English is lexically dense - there is a higher proportion of content words per clause This can be done by modification of noun-phrases pre-modifier + noun adjective the constitutional aspects ed-participle a balanced budget, from the confused events of 19-24 August, the emitted light ing-participle growing problem, one striking feature of the years 1929-31, existing structures noun - market forces, noun - market forces, cabinet appointments cabinet appointments noun + post modifier relative clause students who have no previous experience to-clauses the solution to the problem of inflation, the question to be debated ing-clauses a brake consisting of a drum divided into twelve compartments ed-clauses canoes preserved by a hard plaster, a brake consisting of a drum divided into twelve compartments, the curve shown prepositional phrase we need to bring to the box a special tool with a ready-compressed spring Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** adverb (phrase) the road back, the people outside adjective (phrase) varieties common in India, the festival proper, something different Subordinate clauses/embedding There are several factors which help to prolong this period to perhaps three or four times that in the male The other way in which the economic aspects of military expenditure were presented was in the form of the public expenditure costs The family establishes a variety of bases for refuges which seem to be used at different times of the year Complement clauses that-clauses This conforms conveniently with Maslow's (1970) claim that human motivation is related to a hieracrchy of human needs It follows that if the Labour Government is to secure acceptance of its economic package, it has to secure the support of MPs from either the Liberal or the Conservative party to-clauses Britain's apparent ability to rally Commonwealth support at Chicago seemed to the Americans to be evidence of Britain's continued world power of+ ing-clauses: The possibility of increasing dollar receipts was coupled with a belief that Africa could be a strategic centre for British power Sequences of prepositional phrases Sequences of prepositional phrases are common in academic English This article analyses the constitutional aspects behind the formation of the first and second National Governments, examining in particular the role of the king in the formation of the two governments Participles Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Formal written English uses verbs less than spoken English -ed and -ing participles allow verbs to be used nominally or adjectively Similar temptations overcame philosophers concerned with establishing a secure base for individual responsibility The Egyptians regarded time as a succession of recurring phases Doubts as to the proper division of property at death, as well as rights between partners living together, were resolved by having legal rules prescribing a formula It was only to be tolerated in a controlled and formalized context A frequent change found in proper names is syllable loss Passive verbs In spoken English we often use a subject such as "people", "somebody", "they", "we", or "you" even when we not know who the agent is In formal English, particularly writing, we often prefer to use a passive Compare: They're installing the new computer system next month The new computer system is being installed next month (more formal) Lexical density Written English generally has a much denser pattern of words, it is more lexically dense If we define lexical density as the number of content words in a clause, then written English has a higher lexical density than spoken English (Halliday, 1996, p 347) For example, the written text: Obviously, the government is frightened of union reaction to its move to impose proper behavior on unions is more lexically dense than the spoken version: Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Obviously, the government is frightened how the unions will react if it tries to make them behave properly Lexical complexity Adding affixes to existing words (the base) to form new words is common in academic English Prefixes are added to the front of the base (like of the base (active dislike), whereas suffixes are added to the end activate) Prefixes usually not change the class of the base word, but suffixes usually change the class of the word The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-, out- The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy By far the most common affix in academic English is -ise EXAMPLES: a, VERBS  verbs + prefix verb Prefix Meaning Examples re- again or back restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance dis- reverses the meaning of the verb disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue over- too much un- reverses the meaning of the verb unbend, uncouple, unfasten mis- badly or wrongly mislead, misinform, misidentify out- more or better than others outperform, outbid be- make or cause befriend, belittle co- together co-exist, co-operate, co-own de- the opposite of devalue, deselect fore- earlier, before foreclose, foresee overbook, oversleep, overwork Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** inter- between interact, intermix, interface pre- before pre-expose, prejudge, pretest sub- under/below subcontract, subdivide trans- across, over transform, transcribe, transplant under- not enough underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop  Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be" Suffix Example -ise stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise -ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate -fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify -en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten b, NOUNS: The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are: co- and sub- The most common suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery By far the most common noun affix in academic English is -tion  noun+ prefix noun Prefix Meaning Examples anti- against anticlimax, antidote, antithesis auto- self autobiography, automobile bi- two bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism co- joint co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant counter- against counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** dis- the converse of discomfort, dislike ex- former ex-chairman, ex-hunter hyper- extreme hyperinflation, hypersurface in- the converse of inattention, incoherence, incompatibility in- inside inpatient, inter- between interaction, inter-change, interference kilo- thousand kilobyte mal- bad malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition mega- million megabyte mis- wrong misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement mini- small mini-publication, mini-theory mono- one monosyllable, monograph, monogamy neo- new neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism out- separate outbuilding, poly- many polysyllable pseudo- false pseudo-expert re- again re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination semi- half semicircle, semi-darkness sub- below subset, subdivision super- more than, above superset, superimposition, superpowers sur- over and above surtax tele- distant telecommunications, tri- three tripartism ultra- beyond ultrasound Writing portfolio ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** under- below, too little underpayment, under-development, undergraduate vice- deputy vice-president  Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A) noun Suffix Meaning Examples -tion action/instance of V-ing alteration, demonstration -ity state or quality of being A ability, similarity, responsibility person -er who V-s advertiser, driver something used for V-ing computer, silencer person concerned with N astronomer, geographer -ness state or quality of being A darkness, preparedness, consciousness -ism doctrine of N Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism -ment action/instance of V-ing development, punishment, unemployment -ant/-ent person who V-s assistant, consultant, student -ship friendship, citizenship, leadership -age -ery/-ry state of being N collection of N baggage, action/result of V breakage, wastage, package action/instance of V-ing bribery, place of V-ing plumage robbery, misery refinery, bakery c, ADJECTIVES: Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g -less, -ous) Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives, especially by the negative prefixes (un-, inand non-) The most common suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less  Suffix added to verbs or nouns adjective Writing portfolio 10 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Suffix Examples -al central, political, national, optional, professional -ent different, dependent, excellent -ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive -ous continuous, dangerous, famous -ful beautiful, peaceful, careful -less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless -able drinkable, countable, avoidable,  adjective + negative adjective Prefix Examples un- unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal non- non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral dis- disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest  base with both prefix and suffix -able -tion -tive -ment -ar uncomfortable un- unavoidable unimaginative unforgettable mis- re- misjudgement misinformation recoverable recyclable reformulation mismanagement reproductive realignment repayment Writing portfolio 11 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** in- irreplaceable dis- incoordination inactive inattention inoperative disconnection semi- disappointment semiconductive semi-circular Nominalization Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs For example, "judgment" rather than "judge", "development" rather than "develop", "admiration" rather than "admire" Examples Instead of: This information enables us to formulate precise questions we would write: This information enables the formulation of precise questions More examples are: There appeared to be evidence of differential treatment of children This is reflected in our admiration for people who have made something of their lives, sometimes against great odds, and in our somewhat disappointed judgment of those who merely drift through life All airfields in the country would be nationalized, and the government would continue with the development of new aircraft as recommended by the Brabazon Committee Read the following text: Reproduction with variation is a major characteristic of life Without reproduction, life would quickly come to an end The earliest single-celled organisms reproduced by duplicating their genetic material and then dividing in two The two resulting daughter cells were identical to each Writing portfolio 12 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 *****************************************************************************  Academic paragraph A STRUCTURE OF PARAGRAPH I, Definition A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss one (and usually only one) main idea A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly A paragraph may stand by itself In academic writing, you often write a paragraph to answer a test question such as the following: "Define management by objective, and give one example of it from the reading you have done for this class." A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of writing such as an essay or a book We mark a paragraph by indenting the first word about a half-inch (five spaces on a typewriter or computer) from the left margin The following model contains all the elements of a good paragraph Read it carefully two or three times Then answer the Writing Technique questions that follow, which will help you analyze its structure II, The Three Parts of a Paragraph All paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting sentences, and some paragraphs also have a concluding sentence 1, The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one specific area that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph The part of the topic sentence that announces the specific area to be discussed is called the controlling idea Notice how the topic sentence of the model states both the topic and the controlling idea Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics Every good paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph Writing portfolio 20 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph It briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss For this reason, the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader The writer can see what information to include (and what information to exclude) The reader can see what the paragraph is going to be about and is therefore better prepared to understand it For example, in the model paragraph on gold, the topic sentence alerts the reader to look for two characteristics  Here are three important points to remember about a topic sentence A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains at least one subject and one verb The following are not complete sentences because they not have verbs: Driving on freeways How to register for college classes The rise of indie films.! A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea It names the topic and then limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph Driving on freeways requires skill and alertness Registering for college classes an be a frustrating experience for new students A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the main idea It does not give any specific details A topic sentence is like the name of a particular course on a restaurant menu When you order food in a restaurant, you want to know more about a particular course than just "meat" or "soup" or "salad." You want to know generally, what kind of salad it is Potato salad? Mixed green salad? Fruit salad? However, you not necessarily want to know all the ingredients Similarly, a reader wants to know generally what to expect in a paragraph, but he or she does not want to learn all the details in the first sentence The topic sentence is usually (but not always) the first sentence in a paragraph Writing portfolio 21 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Experienced writers sometimes put topic sentences in other locations, but the best spot is usually right at the beginning Readers who are used to the English way of writing want to know what they will read about as soon as they begin reading Synonyms Words that have the same basic meaning not always have the same emotional meaning For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean "careful with money." However, calling someone stingy is an insult, but calling someone frugal is a compliment Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, aggressive but not pushy Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not synonymous at all Sometimes a topic sentence comes at the end In this case, the paragraph often begins with a series of examples Other paragraphs may begin with a series of facts, and the topic sentence at the end is the conclusion from these facts As noted earlier a topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlling idea  The topic names the subject of the paragraph  The controlling idea limits or controls the topic to a specific area that you can discuss in the space of a single paragraph Topic controlling idea The reader immediately knows that this paragraph will discuss how easy it is to prepare convenience foods and perhaps give some examples (canned soup, frozen dinners, and so on) A topic sentence should not have controlling ideas that are unrelated The three parts of the following controlling idea are too unrelated for a single paragraph They require three separate paragraphs (and perhaps more) to explain fully Independent films are characterized by experimental techniques When writing a topic sentence, remember this point:  A topic sentence must be a complete sentence with a subject and a verb Writing portfolio 22 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 *****************************************************************************  A topic sentence should be neither too general or too specific If it is too general, the reader cannot tell exactly what the paragraph is going to discuss If it is too specific, the writer will not have anything to write about the rest of the paragraph  A topic sentence should not have unrelated to the controlling ideas 2, Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence That is, they explain or prove the topic sentence by giving more information about it Following are some of the supporting sentences that explain the topic sentence about gold Students need to use specific details to be thorough and convincing There are several kinds of specific supporting details: examples, statistics, and quotations Step Read Paragraphs A and B about red-light running Notice the different specific supporting details that have been added to Paragraph B Step Locate the topic sentence in Paragraph B Circle the topic and underline the controlling idea Step Which supporting sentences in Paragraph B contain the kinds of details listed below? Give the sentence numbers of each kind An example: _ A statistic: _ A quotation: _ 3, The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to remember: Concluding sentences are customary for stand-alone paragraphs However, paragraphs that are parts of a longer piece of writing usually not need concluding sentences A concluding sentence serves two purposes: It signals the end of the paragraph Writing portfolio 23 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** It leaves the reader with the most important ideas to remember It can this in two ways: • By summarizing the main points of the paragraph OR • By repeating the topic sentence in different words A paragraph does not always need a concluding sentence For single paragraphs, especially long ones, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader because it is a reminder of the important points However, a concluding sentence is not needed for every paragraph in a multi-paragraph essay You may want to begin your concluding sentence with one of the signals in the list on page You may also end a paragraph without a formal signal or perhaps by using an expression like those in the column on the right End-of-Paragraph Signals Followed by a End-of-Paragraph Signals Not Followed by Comma a Comma Therefore, The evidence suggests that Thus, There can be no doubt that To sum up, These examples show that Finally, We can see that In brief, Lastly, In conclusion, Indeed, In short, The models that follow demonstrate the two ways of writing a concluding sentence As you read them, determine which concluding sentence summarizes the main points and which concluding sentence repeats the topic sentence in different words Writing portfolio 24 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Writing concluding sentence: Step Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph Step Add a good concluding sentence to each paragraph You may either paraphrase the topic sentence or summarize the main points Step Practice using end-of-paragraph signals by starting each concluding sentence with one  A good topic sentence • is a complete sentence with a subject, a verb, and a controlling idea • is neither too general nor too specific It clearly states the main idea of the paragraph but does not include specific details • is usually the first sentence in the paragraph Good supporting sentences • explain or prove the topic sentence • are specific and factual • can be examples, statistics, or quotations A good concluding sentence • signals the end of the paragraph • summarizes the important points briefly or restates the topic sentence in different words B UNITY AND COHERENCE I, Unity: Writing portfolio 25 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** An important element of a good paragraph is unity Unity means that a paragraph discusses one and only one main idea from beginning to end For example, if your paragraph is about the advantages of owning a compact car, discuss only that Do not discuss the disadvantages Furthermore, discuss only one advantage, such as gas economy, in each paragraph If you begin to discuss another advantage, start a new paragraph Sometimes it is possible to discuss more than one aspect of the same idea in one paragraph if they are closely related to each other For example, you could discuss gas economy and low maintenance costs in the same paragraph because they are closely related, but you should not discuss both gas economy and easier parking in the same paragraph because they are not closely related The second part of unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea For example, in a paragraph about the high cost of prescription drugs in the United States, you could mention buying drugs from pharmacies outside the United States as an alternative, but if you write several sentences about buying drugs outside the United States, you are getting off the topic, and your paragraph will not have unity II, Coherence Another element of a good paragraph is coherence The Latin verb cohere means "hold together." For coherence in writing, the sentences must hold together; that is, the movement from one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth There must be no sudden jumps Each sentence should flow smoothly into the next one There are four ways to achieve coherence: Repeat key nouns Use consistent pronouns Use transition signals to link ideas Arrange your ideas in logical order III, Key noun substitutes If you not wish to repeat a key noun again and again, you can use synonyms or expressions with the same meaning For example, in sentence of the first paragraph about gold, the writer Writing portfolio 26 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** substituted the noun use as a synonym for application in sentence 7, thereby smoothing the flow of thought from one sentence to the next Step In the topic sentence of the following paragraph, underline the key noun that names the topic Step Then circle (a) repetitions of the key nouns, (b) pronouns that refer to them, and (c) synonyms that are substitutes for them You should have a total of 10 circles: circles around key nouns, around pronouns, and around synonyms IV, Consistent pronouns: When you use pronouns, make sure that you use the same person and number throughout your paragraph Don't change from you to he or she (change of person) or from he to they (change of number) Notice the changes the writer made for consistency in the following example V, Transition signals Transition signals are expressions such as first, finally, and however, or phrases such as in conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result Other kinds of words such as subordinators (when, although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives (another, additional), and prepositions (because of, in spite of) can serve as transition signals Transition signals are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward, tum around, slow down, and stop In other words, they tell your reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly, and, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in contrast), an example (for example), a result (therefore, as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion) Transition signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your reader from one idea to the next Transition Words and Phrases and Conjunctive Adverbs Most words and phrases in the first two columns of the chart can appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of one independent clauses and are usually separated by commas For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the Writing portfolio 27 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Middle East The runoff created by melting snow, furthermore, adds a considerable amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater The Mediterranean Sea is more saline than the Red Sea, however EXCEPTIONS The words and phrases in the last four groups in the chart (for listing ideas and time sequences, for emphasizing, for giving reasons, and for conclusions) usually appear only at the beginning of a sentence, not in the middle or at the end Too usually appears only at the end of a sentence, sometimes preceded by a comma The short time words then, now, and soon usually not need commas Meaning/ Transition Conjunctive Coordinating Subordinating Function phrases adverbs Conjunctions Conjunctions furthermore To introduce an additional in addition idea besides also another (+ noun) and opposite idea or contrast on the other hand in contrast (+ noun) however nevertheless instead an additional too To introduce an moreover others still although though but yet even though whereas while nonetheless in spite of (+ noun) despite (÷ noun) To introduce a choice or otherwise or if unless alternative To introduce a restatement in fact indeed that is — or explanation To list in first, second, the first, Writing portfolio 28 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** third second, order next, last, third, finally etc the next, last, final an To introduce for an example example of example (+ for instance noun) such as (+ noun) clearly in brief To introduce in conclusion a conclusion indeed in or summary in short summary To introduce a result accordingly as therefore a result as a consequently consequence so hence thus VII, Logical Order In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on your topic and your purpose You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing Some common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of ideas, and comparison/contrast  Chronological order is order by time-a sequence of events or steps in a process The model paragraph on how to grow an avocado tree (page 33) uses time order to organize the steps  In logical division of ideas, a topic is divided into parts, and each part is discussed separately The model paragraph about gold on page uses logical division First, it discusses gold's beauty, and second its utility Writing portfolio 29 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 *****************************************************************************  In a comparison/contrast paragraph, the similarities and/or differences between two or more items are discussed The paragraph about synonyms on page compares and contrasts word meanings Every good paragraph has both unity and coherence You achieve unity by • discussing only one idea in a paragraph • always staying on the topic in your supporting sentences You achieve coherence by • repeating key nouns • using consistent pronouns • using transition signals • arranging your ideas in some kind of logical order There are different types of transition signals Each type is punctuated differently C SUPPORTING DETAILS AND FACTS Academic writing normally requires that you support your ideas and opinions with facts, statistics, quotations, and similar kinds of information You get these kinds of supporting details from outside sources such as books, magazines, newspapers, Web sites, personal interviews, and so on I, Facts versus Opinion First, it is important to distinguish between facts and opinions Opinions are subjective statements based on a person's beliefs or attitudes Smoking is a bad habit English is an easy language to learn Writing portfolio 30 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Opinions are not acceptable as support It is certainly acceptable to express opinions in academic writing In fact, most professors want you to express your own ideas However, you may not use an opinion as support, and if you express an opinion, you must support it with facts Facts are objective statements of truths At sea level, water boils at 100 degrees Celsius Women live longer than men Sometimes even facts need proof While all three statements above are facts, the last two need proof Your readers may not believe that women live longer than men, or they may not agree that cigarettes are addictive You have to use specific supporting details to prove that these statements are true facts Kinds of specific supporting details include examples, statistics, and quotations Photographs of ultrathin fashion models send the wrong message to girls and young women Fashion models are unnaturally thin The average model weighs 25 percent less than the average woman of the same height II, Using Outside Sources Where can you find specific supporting details to support your ideas? For some assignments, you may be able to use examples from your own personal experience, or you may be able to gather quotations and statistics by performing an experiment, taking a survey, or interviewing people For other assignments, you may have to look for outside sources by researching your topic in a library or on the Internet III, Plagiarism It is important to learn how to use information from outside sources without committing plagiarism Plagiarism is using someone else's words or ideas as ifthey were your own, and it is a serious offense Students who plagiarize may fail a class or even be expelled from school When you use information from an outside source without acknowledging that source, you are guilty of plagiarism Writing portfolio 31 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** One way to avoid plagiarism is to always put quotation marks around words that you copy exactly (You not need to use quotation marks if you change the words.) You are also guilty of plagiarism if you fail to cite the source of outside information-words or ideas-that you use To cite a source means to tell where you got the information IV, Citing sources Citing a source is a two-step process Insert a short reference in parentheses at the end of each piece of borrowed information This short reference is called an in-text citation Prepare a list describing all your sources completely This list is titled "Works Cited" and appears as the last page of your paper V, Quotation Quotations from reliable and knowledgeable sources are good supporting details There are two kinds of quotations: direct and indirect In a direct quotation, you copy another person's exact words (spoken or written) and enclose them in quotation marks In an indirect quotation, you report the person's words without quotation marks, but with a reporting expression such as according to XYZ or XYZ believes that VI, Reporting verbs and phrases To introduce borrowed information-direct quotations, indirect quotations, or statistics-use the phrase according to or a reporting verb such as the following: assert insist report suggest claim maintain say write declare mention state Here are some rules for their uses Reporting verbs can appear before, in the middle of, or after borrowed information The reporting phrase according to usually appears before or after but not in the middle Reporting verbs can be used either with or without the subordinator as Writing portfolio 32 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** Reporting verbs can be in any tense However, be aware that a past tense reporting verb may cause changes in verbs, pronouns, and time expressions in an indirect quotation Including the source of the borrowed information with the reporting expression gives authority to your writing because it lets your reader know immediately that your information is from a credible source VII, Punctuating Direct quotations Follow these general rules for punctuating direct quotations Put quotation marks around information that you copy word for word from a source Do not use quotation marks with paraphrases, summaries, or indirect quotations Normally, place commas (and periods) before the first mark and also before the second mark in a pair of quotation marks There are two important exceptions:  If you insert only a few quoted words into your own sentence, don't use commas  When you add an in-text citation after a quotation, put the period after the closing parenthesis mark Capitalize the first word of the quotation as well as the first word of the sentence If you break a quoted sentence into two parts, enclose both parts in quotation marks and separate the parts with commas Capitalize only the first word of the sentence If you omit words, use an ellipsis (three spaced periods) If you add words, put square brackets around the words you have added Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation If your quotation is four lines or longer, not use quotation marks Introduce this type of quotation with a colon and indent it one inch from the left-hand margin VIII, Indirect quotation Writing portfolio 33 ************************************************************************** Nguyen Thuy Mi_07.1.e3_k41 ***************************************************************************** In indirect quotations, the speaker's or writer's words are reported indirectly, without quotation marks For this reason, indirect quotations are sometimes called reported speech Indirect quotations are introduced by the same reporting verbs used for direct quotations, and the word that is often added for clarity The tense of verbs in indirect quotations is affected by the tense of the reporting verb Compare the following model with the second paragraph of the model for direct quotations on page Notice the changes that occur when you rewrite direct quotations as indirect quotations Note: The same sentence numbers are used to help you compare the two paragraphs IX, Statistics Like quotations, statistics are good supporting details Study the graph and then read the paragraph that uses data from it Notice the reporting verb that gives the source of information As you with quotations, you must also cite the source of statistical data Writing portfolio 34 ************************************************************************** ... technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a ‘hedge’ It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey... of academic study and academic writing, in particular Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe" They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to Writing. .. but use them in reports  asking questions III, Precision In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely In academic writing, you need to be precise when you use information, dates