Linguistics A complete introduction 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM For Matthew 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM Linguistics A complete introduction David Hornsby 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM First published in Great Britain in 2014 by John Murray Learning An Hachette UK company First published in US in 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Copyright © David Hornsby 2014 The right of David Hornsby to be identified as the Author of the Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Database right Hodder & Stoughton (makers) The Teach Yourself name is a registered trademark of Hachette UK All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographic rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, John Murray Learning, at the address below You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: a catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Paperback ISBN 978 444 18032 eBook ISBN 978 444 18034 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: on file 10 The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that any website addresses referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press However, the publisher and the author have no responsibility for the Websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content will remain relevant, decent or appropriate The publisher has made every effort to mark as such all words which it believes to be trademarks The publisher should also like to make it clear that the presence of a word in the book, whether marked or unmarked, in no way affects its legal status as a trademark Every reasonable effort has been made by the publisher to trace the copyright holders of material in this book Any errors or omissions should be notified in writing to the publisher, who will endeavour to rectify the situation for any reprints and future editions Cover photograph © lil_22 / Fotolia Typeset by Cenveo® Publisher Services Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY Hodder & Stoughton policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin Hodder & Stoughton Ltd 338 Euston Road London NW1 3BH www.hodder.co.uk 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM Contents About the author Acknowledgements Preface Thinking like a linguist The science of language Principle 1: The spoken language comes first Principle 2: Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive ‘Advanced’, ‘beautiful’ and ‘primitive’ languages Linguistic purism vii viii ix A brief history of linguistic thought 21 Structural linguistics 44 The building blocks of language: describing speech sounds 64 Laying the foundations: sound systems in language 82 Why study language? Early linguistic scholarship Classical and medieval linguistics The prescriptive tradition Nineteenth-century philology Saussure and the Course in General Linguistics The nature of the linguistic sign The North American Descriptivists The vocal tract The consonants of English Describing vowels Suprasegmentals Phonemes and allophones The phoneme: problems and solutions Comparing accents Underlying representations Syllable structure 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM Building words: morphology 106 A grammar of sentences: syntax 133 The Chomskyan revolution: generative grammar 155 Semantics: the meaning of ‘meaning’ 178 10 Pragmatics: saying what you mean 198 11 Exploring variation in language 222 Words and morphemes Derivational morphology Inflectional morphology Grammatical categories Syntax and grammar Subjects and predicates Parts of speech Anatomy of a sentence Government and agreement Composite sentences The influence of Chomsky Chomsky and the North American Descriptivists Behaviourism Innateness The evolution of generative grammar Controversies The ‘weak point’ in linguistics? Semantic relativity Sense relations Semantic features Other types of meaning Meaning in context Grice’s theory of implicature Flouting the maxims Speech acts Politeness theory Dialectology Urban sociolinguistics: methodology and problems Urban surveys: New York and Norwich Variation by class and style Language and gender vi 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM 12 Choosing your language: multilingualism and language planning 245 Bilingualism and diglossia Language shift and language death Language standardization Language planning 13 Mechanisms of language change 268 291 295 304 Internally motivated change Systemic changes Externally motivated change Rethinking internal and external factors Fact-check answers Taking it further Index About the author David Hornsby studied Modern Languages at Oriel College, Oxford, and worked briefly as a freelance translator for the United Nations in Geneva, before embarking on a PhD in Linguistics at Cambridge, which he completed in 1996 He is currently Senior Lecturer in French at the University of Kent, where he has taught since 1990, becoming in 2009 the first head of the English Language and Linguistics department, which he co-founded Having been curious about language variation since early childhood, he chose to specialize in sociolinguistics and has worked primarily on dialect contact and change in France and the UK His monograph Redefining Regional French: Koinéization and Regional Dialect Levelling in Northern France (Legenda, 2006) explores the emergence of new French varieties in urban areas, a theme developed further in Language and Social Structure in Urban France (Legenda, 2013), which he co-edited with Mari Jones Contents 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb vii 02/06/14 4:56 PM Acknowledgements I should like warmly to thank the many people who have offered help and guidance at various stages in the writing of this book Laura Bailey, John Partridge, Ian Watson and Jason Merchant all took time out to offer comments and guidance on early chapter drafts; later drafts were proofread by Jayne Hornsby, Pete Hayes, Jon Kasstan, Geoff Luckman and especially Martin Kane, all of whom made perceptive and extremely helpful observations Silvia Dobre, Özcan and Cemal Ezel, Sandra Burk, Arthur Keaveney, and Eda and Darren Bennett-Voci kindly helped me with examples from languages with which I am less familiar I am indebted to Sam Richardson and the editorial team at Hodder for transforming my manuscript into something clearer, more accessible and (I hope) more enjoyable to read than I could ever have produced unaided, and especially to my eagleeyed project manager, Anna Stevenson, who proofread the final draft and offered invaluable support in the final stages before publication It goes without saying that any remaining errors, misunderstandings or infelicities are entirely my own Finally, I am grateful to the late Ian George Sully, who kindly helped me find examples for Chapter 11, but tragically died before the book was published Rest in peace, old friend: we miss you viii 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 02/06/14 4:56 PM Preface If you’ve ever purchased a new software package or a computer game, you’ll have probably found a file labelled ‘READ ME FIRST’, containing basic information on how to get started, and use the product effectively Having briefly perused its contents, you feel ready to explore the software for yourself in whatever order you choose The chapters of this book can likewise be read in any order and assume no prior knowledge of linguistics But if you’re new to the subject, it makes sense to start with Chapter 1: ‘Thinking like a linguist’ Many people find linguistics disorientating at first, for two reasons Firstly, linguistic terminology can seem confusing or opaque to the uninitiated To guide you through the subject’s metalanguage, new terms will appear in bold type throughout the chapters of this book But a second, perhaps more fundamental, reason why the subject can appear daunting is that linguists approach their subject matter in ways which can at first seem strange, or even counter-intuitive To look at their subject matter objectively, linguists have to strip away the value judgements we are used to making about language and perhaps no longer even notice Having explored linguists’ approach to the subject in Chapter 1, we consider, in Chapters and 3, how and for what reasons human beings have reflected on the nature of language in the past, and how their thinking has shaped our present-day understanding Readers may find these chapters helpful in illuminating concepts introduced in Chapters 4–10, which are designed to cover similar ground to introductory linguistics courses offered at undergraduate level Attention turns in Chapters 11–13 to language variation and change at the micro level (within a single language) and at the macro level (selection of language varieties by individuals and societies) There are many ways of ‘doing linguistics’, only some of which can be described here It is hoped that, as well as supporting students who are following linguistics courses as part of a degree programme, this book will inspire readers to find new ways of looking at language for themselves David Hornsby Contents 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb ix 02/06/14 4:56 PM Taking it further Aitchison, J (1978) Teach Yourself Linguistics London: Hodder & Stoughton Austin, J L (1962) How to Do Things with Words Oxford: Oxford University Press Bach, K (2005) ‘The top 10 misconceptions about implicature’ In B Birner & G A Vard Drawing the Boundaries of Meaning: Neo-Gricean Studies in Pragmatics and Semantics in Honor of Laurence R Horn Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp 21–30 Ball, R (1997) The French-Speaking World: A Practical Introduction to Sociolinguistic Issues London: Routledge Bauer, L & P Trudgill (eds) (1998) Language Myths London: Penguin Bell, A (1984) ‘Language style as audience design’ Language in Society 13: 145–204 Berlin, B & P Kay (1969) Basic Color Terms Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Blake, B J (2006) ‘Australian Languages’ In K Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (2nd edition) Oxford: Elsevier, pp 585–93 Blake, B J (2008) All About Language Oxford: Oxford University Press Blom, J.-P & J J Gumperz (1972) ‘Social meaning in linguistic structures: code-switching in Norway’ In J J Gumperz & D Hymes (eds) Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, pp 407–34 Bloomfield, L (1933) Language New York: Holt Brown, R & A Gilman (1960) ‘The pronouns of power and solidarity’ In T A Sebeok (ed.) Style in Language Cambridge, MA: M.I.T Press Taking it further 295 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 295 02/06/14 4:58 PM Brown, P & S C Levinson (1987) Politeness Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bullokar, W (1586) Bref Grammar for English London: n.p Bynon, T (1990) Historical Linguistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Campbell, L (2001) ‘The history of linguistics’ In M Aronoff & J Rees-Miller (eds) The Handbook of Linguistics Oxford: Blackwell, pp 81–104 Cameron, D (1995) Verbal Hygiene (The Politics of Language) London & New York: Routledge Carnie, A (2011) Modern Syntax – A Coursebook Oxford: Oxford University Press Chambers, J (2009) Sociolinguistic Theory (revised edition) Oxford: Blackwell Chambers, J & P Trudgill (1998) Dialectology (2nd edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Chomsky, N (1957) Syntactic Structures The Hague: Mouton Chomsky, N (1959) ‘A review of B F Skinner’s Verbal Behavior’ Language 35: 26–58 Chomsky, N (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax Cambridge, MA: M.I.T Press Chomsky, N & M Halle (1968) The Sound Pattern of English New York: Harper & Row Clark, J & C Yallop (1995) An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology (2nd edition) Oxford: Blackwell Clarke, S (2006) Talk to the Snail: Ten Commandments for Understanding the French London: Bantam Press Coates, J (2013) Women, Men and Language: A Sociolinguistic Account of Gender Differences in Language (3rd edition) London & New York: Routledge Cook, V & M Newson (2007) Chomsky’s Universal Grammar (3rd edition) Oxford: Blackwell 296 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 296 02/06/14 4:58 PM Corbett, G (1991) Gender Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Corbett, G (2000) Number Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cruttenden, A (2013) Gimson’s Pronunciation of English (7th edition) London: Routledge (Earlier editions as A C Gimson An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English London: Edward Arnold.) 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Gal, S (1978) ‘Peasant men can’t get wives: Language change and sex roles in a bilingual community’ Language in Society 7: 1–16 Gal, S (1979) Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria New York & London: Academic Press Taking it further 297 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 297 02/06/14 4:58 PM Gimson, A C (1980) An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English London: Edward Arnold Grevisse, M (1986) Le Bon Usage (12th edition) Gembloux: Duculot Gumperz, J J & R Wilson (1971) ‘Convergence and creolisation: A case from the Indo-Aryan/Dravidian border’ In D Hymes (ed.) 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A Reader in Nineteenth-Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics Bloomington, IN & London: Indiana University Press, pp 197–209 Palmer, F (1971) Grammar Harmondsworth: Penguin Palmer, F (1981) Semantics (2nd edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Pinker, S (1994) The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind New York: HarperCollins Pinker, S (2002) The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature London & New York: Penguin Plaster, K & M Polinksy (2007) ‘Women are not dangerous things: Gender and categorization’ Harvard Working Papers in Linguistics 12 Available online: http://dash.harvard.edu/ Taking it further 301 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 301 02/06/14 4:58 PM bitstream/handle/1/3209556/Women%20are%20not%20 dangerous%20things%20-%20Pol,%20M.pdf?sequence=2 Radford, A (1997) Syntax: A Minimalist Introduction Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Radford, A., M Atkinson, D Britain, H Clahsen & A Spenser (2009) Linguistics: An Introduction (2nd edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Robins, R H (1997) A Short History of Linguistics (4th edition) London: Longman Roca, I & W Johnson (1999) Course in Phonology Oxford: Blackwell Saeed, J (2009) Semantics (3rd edition) Oxford: Blackwell Sampson, G (1980) Schools of Linguistics: Competition and Evolution London: Hutchinson Sapir, E (1929) ‘The status of linguistics as a acience’ Language 5: 207–14 Saussure, F de (1966 [1915]) Course in General Linguistics Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye In collaboration with Albert Reidlinger Translated, with an introduction and notes by Wade Baskin New York, Toronto & London: McGraw-Hill Schlegel, F von (1808) Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Inder Heidelberg: Mohr & Zimmer Smith, N., I M Tsimpli & J Ouhalla (1993) ‘Learning the impossible: The acquisition of possible and impossible languages by a polyglot savant’ Lingua 91: 279–347 Smith, N & D Wilson (1979) Modern Linguistics: The Results of Chomsky’s Revolution Harmondsworth: Pelican Tallerman, M (2013) Understanding Syntax (3rd edition) London & New York: Routledge Thelander, M (1976) ‘Code-switching or code-mixing?’ Linguistics 183: 103–23 302 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 302 02/06/14 4:58 PM Thelander, M (1982) ‘A qualitative approach to the quantitative data of speech variation’ In S Romaine (ed.) Sociolinguistic Variation in Speech Communities London: Edward Arnold, pp 65–83 Trask, L (1995) Language: The Basics London & New York: Routledge Trudgill, P (1974) The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Trudgill, P (1986) Dialects in Contact Oxford: Blackwell Trudgill, P (1989) ‘Contact and isolation in linguistic change’ In L E Breivik & E H Jahr (eds) Language Change: Contributions to the Study of its Causes Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp 227–37 Trudgill, P (2000) Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society (4th edition) London: Penguin Trudgill, P (2011) Sociolinguistic Typology: The Social Determinants of Linguistic Complexity Oxford: Oxford University Press Vaugelas, C Favre de (1970 [1647]) Remarques sur la langue française, ed J Streicher Geneva: Slatkine Reprints Wardhaugh, R (2010) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (6th edition) Oxford: Blackwell Wells, J (1982) Accents of English 2: The British Isles Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Whorf, B L (1956) Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, ed J B Carroll Cambridge, MA: M.I.T Press Wierzbicka, A (2003) Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: The Semantics of Human Interaction Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter Yule, G (1996) Pragmatics Oxford: Oxford University Press Yule, G (2010) The Study of Language (4th edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Taking it further 303 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 303 02/06/14 4:58 PM Index accents 11–12, 93–5 see also dialects accidental gaps 84 accommodation 229, 277–8 adjunct clauses 150–1 adjuncts 143, 149 ‘advanced’ languages 12–13 affective meaning 194 affixation 111–12 affricatives 68 agglutinating languages 119, 120, 123 agreement (concord) 146–8 Aherne, Caroline 208 allomorphy 120–3 allophones 84–9 alphabetic writing systems 5, 25 alveolar-palatal sounds 67, 68 analogy 270–1 animacy 124 antonymy 184, 187–8 approximants 68–9 arbitrariness 26, 31, 48, 49 archiphonemes 93 arguments 135–7 Aristotle 26 articulatory phonetics consonants 67–71 definition 64 suprasegmentals 77–9 vocal tract 65–6 vowel sounds 71–7 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax 157 aspirate stops 89 assimilation 269–70 Atlas Linguistique de la France 39, 223 audio-monitoring hypothesis 230–1 Austin, J L 212–14 Bacon, Roger 30 ‘beautiful’ languages 12–13 Becanus, Goropius 22–3 behaviourism 158–60 Belfast study 240–1 bilabial sounds 67, 68 bilingualism 246–7 biuniqueness condition 91–3 Blake, Barry 208 Bloomfield, Leonard 34, 54, 107, 158, 172, 179, 180 Bristol l 97 cardinal vowels 71–3 case marking 145 chain shifts 275–6 Charlemagne 27–8 Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Classes 181–2 chess analogies (Saussure) 50 Chomsky, Noam behaviourism 158–60 competence 164, 171 controversies 168–74 generative grammar 162–8 influence of 156 innateness 160–2 and North American Descriptivists 156–8 class stratification 231–6 clefting 144 clicks 66 co-operative principle 199–210 co-ordinators 149 code-switching 249–50 codification 255, 256, 261–2 competence 164, 171 complement clauses 150 complementary distribution 86–8 304 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 304 02/06/14 4:58 PM complements 137 complex sentences 149, 151 componential analysis 191–4 composite sentences 148–51 compound sentences 149, 151 compounding 111, 114 concord (agreement) 146–8 consonants 25–6, 67–71, 270 conventionalism 26 convergent evolution 173–4 conversational code switching 250 copulas 137 corpus planning 262 The Course in General Linguistics 45–53 cranberry morphines 115 Cratylus 26 dental-alveolar sounds 67, 68 dental sound 68 department stores experiment 226–9 dependent clauses 148 derivational morphology 107, 110, 111–17 descriptive statements, and prescriptive 14–17 determiners 144 diachronic approaches 48–9 dialectology 223–5 dialects 3–4 see also accents diglossia 247–50 Dionysius Thrax 27 diphthongs 75–7 discontinuous morphemes 121–3 distinctive features 98–100 distributional differences 94–5 The Diversions of Purley 31 do-support 145 double negatives 15 dummy subjects 136 elaboration of function 255–6 Elbourne, Paul 180 elimination of redundancy 273–5 empiricism 23–4, 31, 160 English Grammar 33 entailments 185, 186, 205–8 equi-complexity hypothesis 286–7 etymology 189 exponents 117 expressive meaning 194 externally motivated change 276–81, 284 face 216–18 felicity conditions 214–15 Ferguson, Charles 247–8 The First Grammarian 29–30 The First Grammatical Treatise 29 force 212–14 Foundations of Language 39 France, prescriptive tradition 32 free variation 88–9 French spelling fricatives 68 Frisian 38 Fromkin, V 65 GB (government and binding) theory 168 gender 126–9, 236–41 gender neutral language 59 gender paradox 240–1 generative grammar 162–8 Gilliéron, Jules 39, 223 glottal fricative 90–1 glottal sounds 67, 68 glottal stops 70, 83, 88 government 147–8 government and binding (GB) theory 168 gradable antonyms 187–8 Index 305 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 305 02/06/14 4:58 PM grammar and morality 33–4 and syntax 134 grammatical categories gender 126–9 number 124–6 grammatical rules 14–17, 29–31 grammaticalization 271–3 Great Vowel Shift (GVS) 275–6 Greek 23, 25, 26–7 Grice, Paul 200–1 Grimm’s Law 36 GVS (Great Vowel Shift) 275–6 Harris, Zellig 54, 56, 156, 157 head parameters 167, 172 Heffer, Simon 33 Hermogenes 26 Herodotus 22 Hockett, Charles 54, 55, 168 Homer 26 homographs 188–9 homonyms 188–9 homonymy 190 humour 190, 208–9 hypercorrection 235–6, 237 hypernomy 184 hyponymy 184 Icelandic 29 ideographic writing systems idioms (phrasal lexemes) 179 Iliad 26 implicational relationship 186 implicatures 199–210, 205–8 indirect speech acts 216–18 Indo-European family 34–8 infixes 112–13 inflecting languages 118–19, 120 inflectional morphology 107, 117–29 innateness 160–2, 169–70 internally motivated change 269–70, 281 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) see IPA intonation 79 inventory differences 94 IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) 6, 9, 66 isolating languages 120 and inflectional morphology 117–18 Jabberwocky 84 Jones, Owen 181–2 Jones, William 35 Joos, Martin 54, 55, 56 koinés 254, 278–80 labial-volar sounds 68 labio-dental sounds 67, 68 Labov, William 89, 226–35 Lakoff, George 129 Language 54, 172 language death 252 language planning 261–4 language revitalization 253–5 language shift 250–2, 257–60 language varieties langue 53 Latin 16, 23, 27–8, 32–3, 145–6 lenition 123 levelling 278–9, 280 levels of adequacy 161–2 lexemes 108, 179 lexical borrowing 111 lexicons 179 Liddle, Rod 181–2 ‘linguistic complaint tradition’ 33–4 linguistic naturalism 26 linguistic purism 14–17 linguistic scholarship classical 25–7 early 23–4 medieval 27–31 306 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 306 02/06/14 4:58 PM nineteenth-century philology 34–40 prescriptive tradition 32–4 linguistic signs 47–53 linguistics, definition McMahon, April 102 macrovariation 245 Martha’s Vineyard study 233–5 maxim flouts 209–11 Maximum Onset Principle 102 meronyms 190 metonyms 190 microvariation 222 Milroy, Lesley 240–1 Mitterrand, Danielle 33–4 modals 145 monolingualism 246–7 morphemes 110 morphology concept of 107–10 derivational 111–17 inflectional morphology 117–29 morphosyntax 134 Mrs Merton Show 208 Murray, Lindley 33 mute ‘e’ 97–8 N-bars 144 nasals 68 natural classes 98–100 negative face 216, 218 Neogrammarians 39–40 New York survey 229–31, 235 Newmeyer, F.J 172 Nineteen Eighty-Four 114 nominal inflection 118 North American Descriptivists 23, 53–60, 156–8 Norwich survey 229–33, 238 noun classification 126 noun phrases (NPs) 140–1, 142–5 nouns 138–40 NPs (noun phrases) 140–1, 142–5 number 124–6 Odyssey 26 onomatopoeic words 47 Orwell, George 114 palatal approximant 70 palatal sounds 68 Pā ņini’s grammar of Sanskrit 34 paradigmatic relations 52–3 parole 53 partial semantic feature matrix 191 passivization 144 performative verbs 212, 214 Personality Principle 262–4 phatic communion 194 Philosophical Investigations 181 phonemes 53–4, 82, 84–93 phonetic reduction 272 phonetics 53 phonologists 82 phonology 53 phonotactics 83–4 phrasal lexemes (idioms) 179 phrase structure marker 143 PIE (Proto-Indo-European) 36–8 Pinker, Stephen 159, 171 place of articulation 67 Plato 26 plosives 68 plurals 50 politeness theory 215–18 polynomia 254 polysemy 189, 190 polysynthetic languages 120 Port-Royal Grammars 23, 30–1 positive face 216–18 pragmatics 24 Prague School Linguists 53 pre-requests 217–18 predicates 134–7 predicators 137 Index 307 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 307 02/06/14 4:58 PM prefixes 111, 113 prepositional phrases (PPs) 142–3 prescriptive rules 14–17, 32–3 ‘primitive’ languages 13–14 principle 3–20 principle 10–12 principles and parameters theory 167–8 pro-drop 136 pronouns 138–40 Proto-Indo-European (PIE) see PIE prototypicality 185–6 puns 190 purism, linguistic 14–17 r-sound 69–70, 95, 96–7 rapid anonymous observation 227–8 rationalism 23–4, 31 realizational/phonetic differences 94–5 Received Pronunciation (RP) see RP recursion 163–4 reduction 278–9 relative clauses 148–9 Remarks on the French Language 32 Rhetoric 26 rhoticity 95, 96–7 Robins, R.H 22, 53 Rodman, R 65 Romance languages 28 RP (Received Pronunciation) 9, 11, 73–5 Sanskrit scholarship 34–7 Sapir, Edward 56 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 44, 56–9 Saussure, Ferdinand de 45–53 Schlegel, Friedrich 35 Schleider, August 36–7 selection of norms 255–6 semantic bleaching 272–3 semantics features 191–4 relativity 182–4 sense relations 184–90 weakness of 179–82 sentence elements 142 sentence ordering 144–6 sentences, definition 134–7 SGP (sociolinguistic gender pattern) 236–41 signifier/signified 47–8 simplification 279–80 situational code switching 249–50 Skinner, B.F 158–9 social networks 240, 283–6 social stratification 231–6 sociolinguistic gender pattern (SGP) 236–41 sociolinguistics 24 Socrates 26 sonority hierarchy 65, 101 speech acts 212–15 speech community 226–7 spelling 6–8 split infinitives 15–16 spoken language 3–20 standard English 257–60 standardization 254–61 status planning 261, 262 stereotypes 97 stops 68 stratification 231–6 structural linguistics North American Descriptivists 53–60 Saussure 45–53 subjects 134–7 subordinate clauses 148, 149, 150 suffixes 111–13 suprasegmentals 77–9 syllable structure 100–2 synchronic approaches 48–9 synonymy 184, 186–7 308 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 308 02/06/14 4:58 PM Syntactic Structures 23, 155, 157, 172 syntagmatic relations 52 syntax agreement 146–8 composite sentences 148–51 government 147–8 and grammar 134 and morphology 107 parts of speech 138–40 subjects and predicates 134–7 systemic changes 270–6 T/V distinction 60 tabula rasa 160 tag questions 272 Tebbit, Norman 33 Techne grammatike 27 Territory Principle 262–4 text-speak 25–6 tones 79 Tooke, Horne 31 Tower of Babel 22 transformations 165–6 Trubetzkoy, Nikolai 53, 92 Trudgill, Peter 229–30, 236–9, 277, 287–8 UG (universal grammar) 160–1 underlying representations 95–100 universal grammar (UG) 160–1 unstressed vowels 269 urban sociolinguistics 226–36 valency 136, 137 value judgements of accents 10–12 of languages 12–14 varieties, of language Vaugelas, C Favre de 32 velar fricative 70 velar sounds 67, 68 verb phrases (VPs) 141, 142–5 verbal hygiene 59 vocal tract 65–6 voiced/voiceless sounds 67, 270 vowel sounds 9, 71–7 vowels 25–6, 269 VPs (verb phrases) 141, 142–5 Whorf, Benjamin Lee 56, 57 Wierzbicka, A 58 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 181 Women, Fire and Dangerous Things 129 words, definitions 8, 107–10 writing 3–8 written languages 3–4 zero morphines 118 Index 309 180329_Lingu_Comp_Intr_Book.indb 309 02/06/14 4:58 PM ... planning 245 Bilingualism and diglossia Language shift and language death Language standardization Language planning 13 Mechanisms of language change 268 291 295 304 Internally motivated change... written tradition, many others, particularly those with small numbers of speakers, not Many African languages (e.g Ewe, Wawa, Lugbara), Australian aboriginal languages (e.g Dyirbal, Warlbiri,... existing and extinct natural languages have had native speakers, but only a minority of them have ever had a written form While languages such as English, Mandarin, Hindi or Russian all have a long