Fundamentals of English Grammar

fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page i FUNDAMENTALS OF NGLISH EGRAMMAR Third Edition TEACHER’S GUIDE Betty Schrampfer Azar Barbara F Matthies Shelley Hartle fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page ii Fundamentals of English Grammar, Third Edition Teacher’s Guide Copyright © 2003, 1992, 1985 by Betty Schrampfer Azar All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher Azar Associates Shelley Hartle, Editor Susan Van Etten, Manager Pearson Education, 10 Bank Street, White Plains, NY 10606 Vice president of instructional design: Allen Ascher Editorial manager: Pam Fishman Project manager: Margo Grant Development editor: Janet Johnston Vice president, director of design and production: Rhea Banker Director of electronic production: Aliza Greenblatt Executive managing editor: Linda Moser Production manager: Ray Keating Production editor: Robert Ruvo Director of manufacturing: Patrice Fraccio Senior manufacturing buyer: Edie Pullman Cover design: Monika Popowitz Text composition: Carlisle Communications, Ltd Text font: 10.5/12 Plantin ISBN: 0-13-013634-4 Printed in the United States of America 10–CRK–06 05 04 03 02 fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page iii Contents PREFACE vii INTRODUCTION ix General Aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar ix Classroom Techniques ix Suggestions for Presenting the Grammar Charts ix Degrees of Teacher and Student Involvement xi Interactive Group and Pair Work xi Monitoring Errors in Interactive Work xii Techniques for Exercise Types xii Fill-in-the-Blanks and Controlled Completion Exercises xii Open Completion Exercises xiii Transformation and Combination Exercises xiv Oral Exercises xiv Writing Exercises xv Error-Analysis Exercises xv Preview Exercises xvi Discussion-of-Meaning Exercises xvi Games and Activities xvi Pronunciation Exercises xvi Seatwork xvii Homework xvii Using the Workbook xvii Supplementary Resource Texts xviii Notes on American vs British English xviii Differences in Grammar xviii Differences in Spelling xix Differences in Vocabulary xix Key to Pronunciation Symbols xx The Phonetic Alphabet (Symbols for American English) xx Consonants xx Vowels xx NOTES AND ANSWERS Chapter PRESENT TIME 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 The simple present and the present progressive Forms of the simple present and the present progressive Frequency adverbs Final -s Spelling of final -s/-es Non-action verbs 12 Present verbs: short answers to yes/no questions 12 iii fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 Chapter 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-11 Chapter 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page iv PAST TIME 14 Expressing past time: the simple past 15 Forms of the simple past: regular verbs 15 Forms of the simple past: be 15 Regular verbs: pronunciation of -ed endings 17 Spelling of -ing and -ed forms 18 The principal parts of a verb 19 Irregular verbs: a reference list 20 The simple past and the past progressive 22 Forms of the past progressive 22 Expressing past time: using time clauses 25 Expressing past habit: used to 26 FUTURE TIME 28 Expressing future time: be going to and will 29 Forms with be going to 29 Forms with will 31 Sureness about the future 32 Be going to vs will 33 Expressing the future in time clauses and if-clauses 34 Using the present progressive to express future time 36 Using the simple present to express future time 37 Immediate future: using be about to 38 Parallel verbs 38 Chapter THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PAST PERFECT 41 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 Past participle 42 Forms of the present perfect 42 Meanings of the present perfect 43 Simple past vs present perfect 44 Using since and for 47 Present perfect progressive 48 Present perfect progressive vs present perfect 49 Using already, yet, still, and anymore 50 Past perfect 53 Chapter ASKING QUESTIONS 56 Yes/no questions and short answers 57 Yes/no questions and information questions 58 Where, why, when, and what time 59 Questions with who, who(m), and what 60 Spoken and written contractions with question words 61 Using what ϩ a form of 63 Using what kind of 63 Using which 64 Using whose 64 Using how 65 Using how often 66 Using how far 66 Length of time: it ϩ take and how long 66 More questions with how 67 Using how about and what about 70 Tag questions 71 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-16 Chapter NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 72 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 Pronunciation of final -s/-es 74 Plural forms of nouns 75 Subjects, verbs, and objects 75 Objects of prepositions 77 Prepositions of time 78 Word order: place and time 79 Subject–verb agreement 79 iv CONTENTS fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 6-8 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-14 6-15 6-16 9:44 AM Page v Using adjectives to describe nouns 79 Using nouns as adjectives 80 Personal pronouns: subjects and objects 82 Possessive nouns 83 Possessive pronouns and adjectives 84 Reflexive pronouns 84 Singular forms of other: another vs the other 85 Plural forms of other: other(s) vs the other(s) 85 Summary of forms of other 86 Chapter MODAL AUXILIARIES 88 7-1 7-2 7-3 The form of modal auxiliaries 89 Expressing ability: can and could 90 Expressing possibility: may and might Expressing permission: may and can 91 Using could to express possibility 91 Polite questions: may I, could I, can I 93 Polite questions: would you, could you, will you, can you 94 Expressing advice: should and ought to 94 Expressing advice: had better 95 Expressing necessity: have to, have got to, must 96 Expressing lack of necessity: not have to Expressing prohibition: must not 96 Making logical conclusions: must 97 Giving instructions: imperative sentences 98 Making suggestions: let’s and why don’t 99 Stating preferences: prefer, like better, would rather 100 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 Chapter CONNECTING IDEAS 102 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6 8-7 Connecting ideas with and 104 Connecting ideas with but and or 105 Connecting ideas with so 106 Using auxiliary verbs after but and and 107 Using and ϩ too, so, either, neither 108 Connecting ideas with because 109 Connecting ideas with even though/although 111 Chapter COMPARISONS 114 9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-9 9-10 9-11 9-12 Chapter 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 Making comparisons with as as 116 Comparative and superlative 117 Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs 118 Completing a comparative 120 Modifying comparatives 121 Comparisons with less than and not as as 122 Unclear comparisons 122 Using more with nouns 123 Repeating a comparative 123 Using double comparatives 124 Using superlatives 124 Using the same, similar, different, like, alike 127 THE PASSIVE 130 Active sentences and passive sentences 131 Form of the passive 131 Transitive and intransitive verbs 133 Using the by-phrase 134 The passive forms of the present and past progressive 136 Passive modal auxiliaries 136 Using past participles as adjectives (stative passive) 137 Participial adjectives: -ed vs -ing 139 Get ϩ adjective; get ϩ past participle 140 Using be used/accustomed to and get used/accustomed to 140 Contents v fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 10-11 10-12 Chapter 11 11-1 11-2 11-3 11-4 11-5 11-6 11-7 11-8 11-9 11-10 Chapter 12 12-1 12-2 12-3 12-4 12-5 12-6 12-7 Chapter 13 13-1 13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5 13-6 13-7 13-8 13-9 13-10 Chapter 14 14-1 14-2 14-3 14-4 14-5 14-6 14-7 14-8 14-9 14-10 14-11 Appendix A1-1 A1-2 A1-3 A1-4 Appendix A2-1 A2-2 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page vi Used to vs be used to 141 Using be supposed to 142 COUNT/NONCOUNT NOUNS AND ARTICLES 143 A vs an 144 Count and noncount nouns 145 Noncount nouns 146 More noncount nouns 146 Using several, a lot of, many/much, and a few/a little 147 Nouns that can be count or noncount 148 Using units of measure with noncount nouns 149 Guidelines for article usage 150 Using the or Ø with names 152 Capitalization 152 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 154 Adjective clauses: introduction 155 Using who and whom in adjective clauses 156 Using who, who(m), and that in adjective clauses 157 Using which and that in adjective clauses 158 Singular and plural verbs in adjective clauses 160 Using prepositions in adjective clauses 160 Using whose in adjective clauses 162 GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES 165 Verb ϩ gerund 166 Go ϩ -ing 167 Verb ϩ infinitive 168 Verb ϩ gerund or infinitive 168 Preposition ϩ gerund 171 Using by and with to express how something is done 172 Using gerunds as subjects; using it ϩ infinitive 173 It ϩ infinitive: using for (someone) 174 Expressing purpose with in order to and for 176 Using infinitives with too and enough 177 NOUN CLAUSES 181 Noun clauses: introduction 182 Noun clauses that begin with a question word 182 Noun clauses with who, what, whose ϩ be 183 Noun clauses that begin with if or whether 185 Noun clauses that begin with that 186 Other uses of that-clauses 186 Substituting so for a that-clause in conversational responses 188 Quoted speech 188 Quoted speech vs reported speech 189 Verb forms in reported speech 190 Common reporting verbs: tell, ask, answer/reply 191 PHRASAL VERBS 193 Phrasal verbs: introduction 194 Phrasal verbs: intransitive 196 Three-word phrasal verbs 197 Phrasal verbs: a reference list 197 PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS 198 Preposition combinations: introduction 198 Preposition combinations: a reference list 201 INDEX 202 vi CONTENTS fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page vii Preface This Teacher’s Guide is intended as a practical aid to teachers You can turn to it for notes on the content of a unit and how to approach the exercises, for suggestions for classroom activities, and for answers to the exercises General teaching information can be found in the Introduction It includes: • the rationale and general aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar • the classroom techniques for presenting charts and using exercises • suggestions on the use of the Workbook in connection with the main text • supplementary resource texts • comments on differences between American and British English • a key to the pronunciation symbols used in this Guide The rest of the Guide contains notes on charts and exercises The notes about the charts may include: • suggestions for presenting the information to students • points to emphasize • common problems to anticipate • assumptions underlying the contents • additional background notes on grammar and usage The notes that accompany the exercises may include: • the focus of the exercise • suggested techniques as outlined in the introduction • possible specialized techniques for particular exercises • points to emphasize • problems to anticipate • assumptions • answers • expansion activities • item notes on cultural content, vocabulary, and idiomatic usage (Some of these item notes are specifically intended to aid any teachers who are non-native speakers of English.) vii fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page viii fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page ix Introduction General Aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar The principal aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar are to present clear, cogent information about English grammar and usage, to provide extensive and varied practice that encourages growth in all areas of language use, and to be interesting, useful, and fun for student and teacher alike The approach is eclectic, seeking to balance form-focused language-learning activities with abundant opportunities for engaged and purposeful communicative interaction Most students find it helpful to have special time set aside in their English curriculum to focus on grammar Students generally have many questions about English grammar and appreciate the opportunity to work with a text and teacher to make some sense out of the bewildering array of forms and usages in this strange language This understanding provides the basis for advances in usage ability in a relaxed, accepting classroom that encourages risk-taking as the students experiment, both in speaking and writing, with ways to communicate their ideas in a new language Teaching grammar does not mean lecturing on grammatical patterns and terminology It does not mean bestowing knowledge and being an arbiter of correctness Teaching grammar is the art of helping students make sense, little by little, of a huge, puzzling construct, and engaging them in various activities that enhance usage abilities in all skill areas and promote easy, confident communication The text depends upon a partnership with a teacher; it is the teacher who animates and directs the students’ language-learning experiences In practical terms, the aim of the text is to support you, the teacher, by providing a wealth and variety of material for you to adapt to your individual teaching situation Using grammar as a base to promote overall English usage ability, teacher and text can engage the students in interesting discourse, challenge their minds and skills, and intrigue them with the power of language as well as the need for accuracy to create understanding among people Classroom Techniques Following are some techniques that have proven useful • Suggestions for Presenting the Grammar Charts are discussed first • Next are some notes on interactivity: Degrees of Teacher and Student Involvement • Then Techniques for Exercise Types are outlined • Suggestions for Presenting the Grammar Charts A chart is a concise visual presentation of the structures to be learned in one section of a chapter Some charts may require particular methods of presentation, but generally any of the following techniques are viable ix fm_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:44 AM Page x Presentation techniques often depend upon the content of the chart, the level of the class, and the students’ learning styles Not all students react to the charts in the same way Some students need the security of thoroughly understanding a chart before trying to use the structure Others like to experiment more freely with using new structures; they refer to the charts only incidentally, if at all Given these different learning strategies, you should vary your presentation techniques and not expect students to “learn” or memorize the charts The charts are just a starting point for class activities and a point of reference Technique #1: Use the examples in the chart, add your own examples to explain the grammar in your own words, and answer any questions about the chart Elicit other examples of the target structure from the learners Then go to the accompanying exercise immediately following the chart Technique #2: Elicit oral examples from the students before they look at the chart in the textbook To elicit examples, ask leading questions whose answers will include the target structure (For example, for the present progressive, ask: “What are you doing right now?”) You may want to write the elicited answers on the board and relate them to the examples in the chart Then proceed to the exercises Technique #3: Assign the chart and accompanying exercise(s) for out-of-class study In class the next day, ask for and answer any questions about the chart, and then immediately proceed to the exercises (With advanced students, you might not need to deal thoroughly with every chart and exercise in class With intermediate students, it is generally advisable to clarify charts and most of the exercises.) Technique #4: Lead the students through the first accompanying exercise PRIOR to discussing the chart Use the material in the exercise to discuss the focus of the chart as you go along At the end of the exercise, call attention to the examples in the chart and summarize what was discussed during the exercise Technique #5: Before presenting the chart in class, give the students a short written quiz on its content Have the students correct their own papers as you review the answers The quiz should not be given a score; it is a learning tool, not an examination Use the items from the quiz as examples for discussing the grammar in the chart The here-and-now classroom context: For every chart, try to relate the target structure to an immediate classroom or “real-life” context Make up or elicit examples that use the students’ names, activities, and interests The here-and-now classroom context is, of course, one of the grammar teacher’s best aids Demonstration techniques: Demonstration can be very helpful to explain the meaning of structures You and the students can act out situations that demonstrate the target structure Of course, not all grammar lends itself to this technique For example, the present progressive can easily be demonstrated (e.g., “I am writing on the board right now”) However, using gerunds as the objects of prepositions (e.g., “instead of writing” or “thank you for writing”) is not especially well suited to demonstration techniques Using the chalkboard: In discussing the target structure of a chart, use the chalkboard whenever possible Not all students have adequate listening skills for “teacher talk,” and not all students can visualize and understand the various relationships within, between, and among structures Draw boxes and circles and arrows to illustrate connections between the elements of a structure A visual presentation helps many students x INTRODUCTION 14_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:27 AM Page 190 □ EXERCISE 27, p 423 Reported speech: pronoun usage (Chart 14-9) ANSWERS: she her he his his they their he me he me my CHART 14-10: VERB FORMS IN REPORTED SPEECH • Students will not control these patterns immediately, but the following exercises give lots of opportunity for practice • Some students might benefit from a quick reminder of names and meanings of the verb forms in Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, and Perhaps focus on the fact that auxiliaries carry most of the information about tense and number Following are the sequences of verb forms in the examples in the text: simple present → simple past present progressive → past progressive present perfect → past perfect simple past → past perfect am, is, are going to → was, were going to will → would can → could Other changes not introduced in this text (but covered in Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 12-7): may → might; have to → had to; must (meaning “necessity”) → had to; should → should (no change); ought to → ought to (no change) • In actual usage, there is no consistent rule for changing verb forms in noun clauses The chart provides guidelines, but that’s all they are • After discussing the verb changes shown in the chart, use a different verb and ask the class to change it appropriately For example, conduct an oral exercise using the verb watch: TEACHER: I watch TV a lot STUDENT: You said you watched TV a lot TEACHER: I am not watching TV right now STUDENT: You said you weren’t watching TV right now Etc □ EXERCISE 28, p 424 Reported speech: formal verb forms (Chart 14 -10) ANSWERS: was meeting had studied had forgotten was going to fly would carry could teach □ EXERCISE 29, p 424 Quoted vs reported speech (Charts 14 -9 and 14 -10) The focus is on tenses used to report a statement that was made in the past Anticipate the exercise to proceed slowly and require a lot of discussion ANSWERS: Sally said (that) she didn’t like chocolate Mary said (that) she was planning her family Tom said (that) he had already eaten lunch Kate said (that) she had called her doctor Mr Rice said (that) he was going to go to Chicago Eric said (that) he would come to my house at ten Jane said (that) 190 CHAPTER 14, Noun Clauses 14_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:27 AM Page 191 she couldn’t afford to buy a new car Ann said (that) she can’t afford to buy a new car 10 Ms Topp said (that) she wanted to see me in her office after my meeting with my supervisor CHART 14-11: COMMON REPORTING VERBS: TELL, ASK, ANSWER / REPLY • The main point the students need to understand from this chart is simply that tell is always followed by a (pro)noun object when used to report speech • Another pattern with say that is not mentioned in the chart is the use of to ϩ a (pro)noun object: Ann said to me that she was hungry Native speakers generally prefer told me to said to me, but both are correct • As a side note, the pattern said to me is used idiomatically to report greetings and good-byes: Tom said good morning to me I said hello to him We said good-bye to each other INCORRECT: Tom told me good morning I told him hello We told each other good-bye □ EXERCISE 30, p 425 SAY vs TELL vs ASK (Chart 14 -11) ANSWERS: said told asked told said asked told said said asked told asked said □ EXERCISE 31, p 426 SAY vs TELL vs ASK (Chart 14 -11) This is intended as a fun exercise Student A is to whisper a sentence in the ear of Student B, who then reports aloud what Student A said Students don’t need to use only the sentences in the text Explain the meaning of “at random” in the directions, i.e., without a pattern or a plan □ EXERCISE 32, p 426 Noun clauses and questions (Charts 5-2, 14 -2 → 14 - 4, and 14 -11) Encourage interesting questions by coming up with some yourself as examples of what you want the students to □ EXERCISE 33, p 427 Reported vs quoted speech (Charts 14 -9 → 14 -11) ANSWERS: In the middle of class yesterday, my friend tapped me on the shoulder “What time is it?” she asked me “Two-thirty,” I answered I met Mr Redford at the reception for international students “Where are you from?” he asked “I’m from Argentina,” I told him When I was putting on my hat and coat, Robert asked me, “Where are you going?” “I have a date with Anna,” I told him “What are you going to do?” he wanted to know “We’re going to a movie,” I answered/replied Notes and Answers 191 14_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 9:27 AM Page 192 □ EXERCISE 34, p 427 Reported speech (Charts 14 - → 14 -11) Students can use reporting verbs other than those in the quoted speech sentences, but the answers below use the same ones used in the text ANSWERS: Conversation One: Susan asked me where Bill was I told her (that) he was in the lunch room She wanted to know when he would be back in his office I said (that) he would be back around two Conversation Two: Mrs Ball asked her husband if he could help her clean the hall closet Mr Ball told his wife (that) he was really busy She wanted to know what he was doing He replied (that) he was fixing the zipper on his winter jacket Then she asked him if/whether he would have some time to help her after he fixed the zipper He said (that) he couldn’t because he had to watch a really important ball game on TV With a note of exasperation in her voice, Mrs Ball finally said (that) she would clean the closet herself □ EXERCISE 35, p 428 Reported speech (Charts 14 -9 → 14 -11) Make sure all the students understand the format of the cartoon, i.e., that the story should be read from top left to top right to bottom left to bottom right ANSWERS: (that) he wasn’t going to have wasn’t hungry had (already) eaten he had come he needed to talk to her about a problem he was having at work □ EXERCISE 36, p 428 Reported speech (Charts 14-9 → 14 -11) Put the focus on the activity, not the grammar This exercise requires fairly sophisticated use of a second language Praise highly whatever target structures are used in the reports and let other errors go □ EXERCISE 37, p 429 Error analysis: noun clauses (Chapter 14) As in other error-analysis exercises, these sentences are adapted from actual student writing Students often like to know that ANSWERS: I don’t know what is your e-mail address is I think so that Mr Lee is out of town Can you tell me that where Victor what kind of movies does he likes I think (no comma) that my English It is true that people are I didn’t know who he was I want to know if Pedro has a laptop computer 10 what they say 11 He told me / said that he didn’t like (also possible: doesn’t like) 12 and asked me, “Where is your brother?” 13 doctor said, “You will be fine It’s nothing serious.” 14 what I read what he is saying 15 asked me that , “When will you be home?” [Sometimes learners write quotation marks on the line rather than above the line.] □ EXERCISE 38, p 430 Noun clauses and questions (Charts 5-2 and 14-1 → 14 - 4) Depending upon your students’ purposes in studying English, this final exercise could be developed into a full-fledged composition that includes thoughtful argument for or against the views stated by John Newsom (a fictional person invented for the textbook) His views should appear in quotations in the students’ compositions—much as is done in research papers You could ask your students to agree or disagree with each of Mr Newsom’s statements, one at a time, in order to encourage ample opportunity to practice the mechanics of quoting from a source 192 CHAPTER 14, Noun Clauses app1_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:53 AM Page 193 Appendix 1: PHRASAL VERBS ORDER OF CHAPTER CHARTS Preview EXERCISES WORKBOOK Ex Introduction A1-1 Phrasal verbs: separable and nonseparable (Groups A → E) Ex → Ex → 15 Pr → 10 Phrasal verbs: intransitive (Group F) A1-2 Ex 16 → 17 Pr 11 → 12 Three-word phrasal verbs (Groups G and H) A1-3 Ex 18 → 19 Pr 13 → 16 Reference list of phrasal verbs A1-4 Cumulative review Pr 17 General Notes on Appendix • Phrasal verbs are presented in an appendix so that the teacher may dip into its units when it best fits into her or his lesson plans The Appendix presents the phrasal verbs in groups so that students can concentrate on learning only a limited number at a time In the previous edition, the phrasal verbs came at the ends of various chapters in order to intersperse them through the term Now they are gathered in an appendix to allow the teacher flexibility in their use • TERMINOLOGY: A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a particle (or two particles) that in fixed combination have a single meaning Phrasal verbs are also called “two-word / threeword verbs” or sometimes “prepositional verbs.” A particle (simply defined as a “small word” in the text) is either a preposition (e.g., off, on) or an adverb of direction or position (e.g., away, back) □ EXERCISE 1, p 431 Preview: phrasal verbs (Chart A1-1) This preview introduces the concept of what a phrasal verb is: two words with one meaning ANSWERS: on back (also possible: away) off up on off back on off Notes and Answers 193 app1_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:53 AM Page 194 CHART A1-1: PHRASAL VERBS: INTRODUCTION • The text introduces the concept of phrasal verbs and explains the difference between separable and nonseparable It is beyond the scope of this text to present more than just a few of the hundreds of phrasal verbs in English Chart A1-4 contains an alphabetical list of the 109 phrasal verbs introduced in the text • To give students an overview of the many meanings phrasal verbs can express in English, you might present the example put ϩ particle All of the following have different meanings, and some of them (such as put on) have a variety of meanings: put about, put across, put aside, put at, put away, put back, put down, put forth, put in, put off, put on, put out, put through, put to, put together, put under Students will understand this is an area of English that will take some time to master The text offers them a starting point Experience is the best teacher Dictionaries written for second language students are good sources of information about the meanings of phrasal verbs • Phrasal verbs are typical of informal usage They are especially common in speech, but also find their way into many kinds of writing In formal reporting or academic writing, phrasal verbs are used minimally □ EXERCISE 2, p 432 Phrasal verbs: separable vs nonseparable (Charts A1-1 and A1-4) ANSWERS: SEPARABLE NONSEPARABLE SEPARABLE NONSEPARABLE SEPARABLE SEPARABLE □ EXERCISE 3, p 433 Identifying phrasal verbs (Chart A1-1) ANSWERS: up over in up up on up 10 up 11 down off □ EXERCISE 4, p 433 Phrasal verbs: separable vs nonseparable (Chart A1-1) ANSWERS: it off SEP them down SEP into him NONSEP it out SEP 10 them off SEP over it NONSEP them off SEP it away SEP □ EXERCISE 5, p 434 Phrasal verbs (Group A) ANSWERS: off in up off up 10 11 194 APPENDIX 1, Phrasal Verbs down up out up off 12 13 14 15 on out down away/out app1_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:53 AM Page 195 □ EXERCISE 6, p 435 Phrasal verbs (Group A) ANSWERS: it up her up them away/out it off it up them in it down 10 11 12 13 14 it out you down it up it on it off them out it on □ EXERCISE 7, p 436 Phrasal verbs (Group B) ANSWERS: into over on off in out of on off into from □ EXERCISE 8, p 436 Review: phrasal verbs (Groups A and B) ANSWERS: them off it up it down it out it on into him it away/out on me it up into it □ EXERCISE 9, p 437 Review: phrasal verbs (Groups A and B) ANSWERS: it down on me it down it up it off them on it off it up into him/her 10 it off 11 it in 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 him/her up it out it away/out over it it up a bus, a train, a plane a car, a taxi a bus, a train, a plane a car, a taxi a light, a radio, a computer a light, a radio, a computer □ EXERCISE 10, p 438 Phrasal verbs (Group C) ANSWERS: it down it up him up you back it up 10 11 it off it back it out me out it back 12 them away (also possible: back) 13 it off 14 it on 15 it back Notes and Answers 195 app1_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:53 AM Page 196 □ EXERCISE 11, p 439 Review: phrasal verbs (Groups A, B, and C) ANSWERS: it up it up it out them on it in her out it off it up it off 10 it off 11 it down (also possible: off ) 12 them out 13 it off 14 it up 15 it up 16 it on 17 him/her up 18 them away (also possible: back) 19 them away / out 20 it on □ EXERCISE 12, p 440 Phrasal verbs (Group D) ANSWERS: out over out out out out up in out up 10 down 11 on 12 out 13 around/back □ EXERCISE 13, p 441 Phrasal verbs (Group D) ANSWERS: out over out out out down up over 10 11 12 around/back up out in 13 on 14 out □ EXERCISE 14, p 442 Phrasal verbs (Group E) ANSWERS: off out out over on out up up 10 11 12 13 back back on up 14 over 15 away 16 out □ EXERCISE 15, p 443 Phrasal verbs (Group E) ANSWERS: back off out over on away out back 10 11 12 up on over out 13 14 15 16 up up back out CHART A1-2: PHRASAL VERBS: INTRANSITIVE • Some phrasal verbs that are commonly intransitive also have transitive uses and meanings: for example, Digestive juices break down food particles The celebrants broke out a bottle of bubbly The police broke up the fight To simplify the students’ learning task, the text limits the information presented about possible uses and meanings of phrasal verbs, in this instance presenting only the intransitive uses of this selected list 196 APPENDIX 1, Phrasal Verbs app1_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:53 AM Page 197 □ EXERCISE 16, p 444 Phrasal verbs (Group F) ANSWERS: on out up up in in down 10 11 down up up out out 12 13 14 15 16 down up up up out in 17 18 19 20 up up over off □ EXERCISE 17, p 446 Phrasal verbs (Group F) ANSWERS: up out up up down 10 down down back up up 11 12 13 14 15 on out in out up 16 up 17 up 18 off CHART A1-3: THREE-WORD PHRASAL VERBS • Some phrasal verbs expand into three words The basic meaning doesn’t change with the addition of the second particle, but an intransitive verb becomes transitive □ EXERCISE 18, p 447 Phrasal verbs (Group G) ANSWERS: up up in out of around 10 back from out of out for done with 11 in on 12 along with 13 up for up □ EXERCISE 19, p 448 Phrasal verbs (Group H) ANSWERS: together around/out with over to out about out 10 11 away from over out back to around CHART A1-4: PHRASAL VERBS: A REFERENCE LIST • This chart provides a list of the phrasal verbs used throughout Appendix It’s designed as a quick and easy reference for students The principal criterion used in selecting which phrasal verbs to present in the text was their frequency of use Notes and Answers 197 app2_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:54 AM Page 198 Appendix 2: PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS ORDER OF CHAPTER CHARTS Introduction A2-1 EXERCISES Preview Ex Preposition combinations Groups A → G Ex → 12 Reference list of preposition combinations WORKBOOK Pr → 14 A2-2 Cumulative review Pr 15 → 16 General Notes on Appendix • Prepositions can be humorously defined as “small words that cause second language learners a lot of trouble.” Most students will smile at that definition Students often ask how they can learn prepositions Lots of practice and long-term experience with the language are the essentials General definitions of individual prepositions can be attempted, but overall there is usually no easy, logical explanation for why one preposition and not another is used in combination with a particular verb or adjective To give students some sense of how varied and complex prepositions are, have them look up at or in in a dictionary: the listings are voluminous • The purpose of this Appendix is to give the students small chunks of preposition combinations to deal with at a time, manageable units to memorize (if that’s their strategy), to practice, to review, and to practice again The Workbook offers additional self-study practice • TERMINOLOGY: The text does not define preposition because it is very difficult to define, especially for the purposes of second language learners Perhaps teachers who have found a definition of a preposition that works for their students could share it with the rest of us on the Azar Web site: http://www.longman.com/azar CHART A2-1: PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS: INTRODUCTION • This chart introduces the content of this appendix: combinations of prepositions with adjectives and verbs Sometimes preposition combinations correspond to those in a students’ native language, but often they not Sometimes correct prepositions can be guessed, but often not Sometimes English uses a preposition where another language does not, and vice versa The approach in this textbook is for the students to learn only a few at a time, then move on to another group and learn those 198 APPENDIX 2, Preposition Combinations app2_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:54 AM Page 199 □ EXERCISE 1, p 453 Preview: preposition combinations (Chart A2-2) Ask the students to complete this exercise in their seats, then discuss the correct answers The main purpose of this exercise is to make sure the students know what the term “preposition” refers to ANSWERS: with of about with about 10 11 with to of of to 12 13 14 15 for with from with □ SELF-STUDY PRACTICE, p 454 Group A Demonstrate what the student is supposed to do: cover the answers and complete the sentences first, then cover the answers and the sentences and complete the reference list Rather than simply giving a list, the text seeks to maximize student exposure and practice by involving them in the creation of the reference list This approach allows quick self-testing and immediate reinforcement Some students probably won’t follow the directions to cover the answers and will “cheat,” thus depriving themselves of an opportunity to gain learning experience with preposition combinations It’s up to the student to take the responsibility The directions given in this practice are to be followed in all the self-study practices in this appendix □ EXERCISE 2, p 454 Preposition combinations (Group A) Follow class discussion of the correct answers with a quick oral drill in which you give the first part of the sentence and the students call out the preposition: TEACHER: Mr Porter is nice STUDENTS: to TEACHER: to everyone ANSWERS: from for at/with of to to for to 10 with 11 about 12 for 13 about 14 of □ EXERCISE 3, p 455 Review: preposition combinations (Group A) This technique of having students create quizzes (as yet another way of giving them practice) can be used for every group of preposition combinations This exercise is an example of what you can have students routinely □ EXERCISE 4, p 455 Review: preposition combinations (Group B) Again, as in Exercise 2, follow class discussion of the correct answers with a quick oral drill in which you give the first part of the sentence and the students call out the preposition Use this oral drill technique for each group and for frequent oral reviews TEACHER: I borrowed this dictionary STUDENTS: from TEACHER: from Pedro Notes and Answers 199 app2_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:54 AM ANSWERS: from with to at Page 200 in at for with about/over 10 11 12 with for for at □ EXERCISE 5, p 456 Preposition combinations (Group C) ANSWERS: to for for of for for for to from to about in 10 of/about 11 of □ EXERCISE 6, p 457 Preposition combinations (Group D) ANSWERS: for from for on with 10 in at to of to 11 to about 12 with 13 to about □ EXERCISE 7, p 458 Review: preposition combinations (Groups A and B) ANSWERS: to A: from B: for A: to B: at to of from for A: in B: with A: for with B: to □ EXERCISE 8, p 458 Review: preposition combinations (Groups A, B, C, and D) ANSWERS: about from of to with to for 10 11 12 from with with to in at 13 for at 14 at 15 A: with about/over C: to A: to about with □ EXERCISE 9, p 460 Preposition combinations (Group E) ANSWERS: with to from about to 10 about/of at for for for 200 APPENDIX 2, Preposition Combinations 11 about 12 to 13 about app2_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 8:54 AM Page 201 □ EXERCISE 10, p 461 Preposition combinations (Group F) ANSWERS: to for for of for on 10 for on to/with from on 11 12 13 14 of to from of/from □ EXERCISE 11, p 462 Preposition combinations (Group G) ANSWERS: on from about for about 10 from to about to into from 11 12 13 14 by to about from □ EXERCISE 12, p 462 Review: preposition combinations (Groups E, F, and G) ANSWERS: on about with from from 10 to for of to from to 11 12 13 14 15 for of/from from on on 16 17 18 19 20 of about for to to CHART A2-2: PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS: A REFERENCE LIST • This chart provides a list of the preposition combinations used throughout Appendix It’s designed as a quick and easy reference for students Notes and Answers 201 index_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 1:34 PM Page 202 Index A A/an, 144–145, 150 A vs an, 144 Accustomed to, 140 Active verbs, 131 Adjective clauses (a man who lives), 154–164 Adjectives (good, beautiful), defined, 73, 79 following be, 79, 137 comparative (more/-er) and superlative (most/-est), 117–118 with much, a lot, far, 121 following get (get hungry), 140 nouns used as (a flower garden), 80 participial (interesting, interested), 139 possessive (my, our), 84 Adverb clauses, 109 with because, 109 with even though/although, 111 if-clauses, 34 since-clauses, 47 time clauses (before he came), 25, 34, 47 Adverbs (quickly): comparative (more/-er) and superlative (most/-est), 117–118, 120, 124 frequency (always, sometimes), midsentence (still, already), 50 negative, (seldom, never), A few/a little, 147 After, 25, 34 A little/a few, 147 A little (bit), 121 A lot, much, far, 121 A lot (of), 147 Alike, 127 Almost, 116 Already, 44, 50 Although, 111 Always, etc (frequency adverbs), Am, is, are ϩ -ing (am eating), And, 104–105 auxiliary verbs following, 107 with parallel verbs, 38 with so, too, either, neither, 108 with subject–verb agreement, 79 Another, 85–86 Anymore, 50 Apostrophe (Tom’s), 83 Articles (the, a, an), 150 As as comparisons, 116 not as as vs less, 122 Ask if, 191 As soon as, 25, 34 At, as preposition of time, 78 Auxiliary verbs: after and and but, 38, 107–108 modal, 89 in questions, 58 in short answers to yes/no questions, 57 in tag questions, 71 202 INDEX B Be: in questions, 12 simple past (was, were), 15 simple present (am, is, are), Be about to, 38 Be ϩ adjective, 73, 137 followed by that-clause (am sorry that), 186 Because, 109 Before, 25, 34 Be going to, 29 vs will, 33 Be ϩ -ing (is/was eating), 4, 22 Be ϩ past participle (be interested in), 131, 137 (SEE ALSO Passive) followed by noun clauses (be worried that), 186 Be supposed to, 142 Better: and best, 118 had better, 89, 95 like better, 100 Be used to/accustomed to, 140 But, 105–106 By: followed by -ing (by doing), 172 with passive (by-phrase), 131, 134 with reflexive pronoun (by myself), 84 vs with, 172 C Can, 90 ability, 90 permission, 91 polite question, 93, 94 Capitalization, 152 Clauses, defined, 25 (SEE ALSO Adjective clauses; Adverb clauses; If-clauses; Noun clauses; Time clauses) Commas: with adverb clauses, 25, 109 in connecting ideas: with and, 104 with but and or, 105 vs periods, 104 in quoted speech, 188 in a series, 105 Comparatives (more/-er), 117–118, 120 with adjectives and adverbs, 118 double (the more the more), 124 with modifiers, 121 with nouns, 123 repeated (more and more), 123 Comparisons, 114–129 as as, 116 comparatives (more/-er), 117–118, 124 same, similar, different, like, alike, 127 superlatives (most/-est), 117–118, 124 Conjunctions (and, but, or, so), 105–106 Continuous verbs (SEE Progressive verbs) Contractions of verbs: with not: hasn’t, haven’t, 42 isn’t, aren’t, mustn’t, 96 shouldn’t, 94 wasn’t, weren’t, 15 won’t, 31 with nouns: have, has, 44 will, 31 with pronouns: am, is, are, had, 53, 95 have, has, 42, 44 will, 31 would, 100 with question words, 61 who’s vs whose, 64, 162 use of, 61 Could, 90 past ability, 90 in polite questions, 93–94 possibility, present/future, 91 Count/noncount nouns, 143–153 noncount nouns, 145–146, 148 D Dependent clause, 155 (SEE ALSO Adjective clauses; Adverb clauses; Noun clauses) Different from, 127 Direct speech (SEE Quoted speech) Distance (to from, how far), 66 Do as main verb in what-questions, 63 Does, do, did: in negative (I don’t ), 4, 15 with have to, 96 in questions (Did you ?), 4, 15, 57–58 with what, 63 in short answers (Yes, I do), 12, 15, 57 Double comparatives (the sooner, the better), 124 E -Ed (asked, played), 15, 19 past participle, 19, 42 as adjective (a confused person), 139 pronunciation, 17 spelling, 18 Either, 108 Enough, 177 -Er/more and -est/most, 117–118, 120 Even though, 111 Ever, Every, 79 Expressions of quantity (some, many), 147, 150 index_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 1:34 PM Page 203 F Far, much, a lot, 121 A few/a little, 147 For (purpose) (I went home for lunch), 176 For and since (time) (I stayed for two days), 43–44, 47–48 For (someone) to (something), with it (It is important for you to study), 174 Frequency: adverbs (always, sometimes), expressions (a lot, every day), 66 questions about, with how often, 66 From to, to express distance, 66 Future time, 28–40 be going to and will, 29, 31, 33 in if-clauses, 34 immediate (be about to), 38 using present verbs to express (It begins tomorrow), 36–37 in time clauses (Before he comes, we will ), 34 G Gerunds (riding, working), 166 following prepositions, 171 as subjects (Riding horses is fun), 173 verbs followed by (enjoy working), 166, 168 Get ϩ adjective/past participle (get hungry, get tired), 140 Get used to/accustomed to, 140 Go ϩ -ing (go shopping), 167 H Habitual past (used to something), 26 Had: contracted with pronouns, 95 in past perfect (She had already eaten), 53 Had better (You’d better study), 89, 95 Have, auxiliary in present perfect (They have eaten), 42, 47 progressive vs non-action, 12 Have got to, 89, 96 Have to, 89, 96 not have to, 96 Helping verbs (SEE Auxiliary verbs; Negatives; Questions; individual items) How, 65, 67 how about, 70 how far, 66 how long, 66 how often, 66 I If-clauses, 34 expressing future time in, 34 as noun clauses, 185, 191 If/whether in noun clauses, 185, 191 Immediate future (be about to), 38 Imperative sentences (Stop!), 98 In, as preposition of time, 78 Independent clause, 155 Indirect speech (SEE Reported speech) Infinitives (to eat), 168 with it (It is easy to cook eggs), 173–174 with modals (have to study), 89 purpose (in order to), 176 with too and enough, 177 verbs followed by, 168 Information questions, 58 -Ing: gerund (Swimming is fun), 166 present participle (They are swimming), 19 as adjective (an interesting book), 139 in tenses (SEE Progressive verbs) spelling, 18–19 In order to, 176 Interested vs interesting, 139 Intransitive and transitive verbs, 133 Irregular noun plurals (tomatoes, fish), 75, 83 Irregular verbs (eat, ate, eaten), 20 It, to express distance (It is two miles ), 66 It ϩ infinitive (It is easy to do), 173–174 It ϩ take (length of time), 66 Its vs it’s, 84 J Just (as as), 116 L The least, 124 Less than, 122 Let’s, 99 Like, alike, 127 Like better, 100 A little/a few, 147 A little bit, 121 Logical conclusion, 97 M Main clause, 25, 109, 155 Many/much, 147 May, 89, 91 permission, 91, 93 polite question, 93 possibility, 32, 91 Maybe, 32, 94 vs may be, 91 Measure, units of (a cup of, a piece of), 149 Midsentence adverbs (usually, seldom), 7, 50 Might, 89, 91 Modal auxiliaries, 88–101 (SEE ALSO individual items) in passive, 136 More/-er than, 117–118, 120 The most/-est, 117–118, 124 Much, a lot, far, 121 Must, 89 logical conclusion, 97 necessity, 96 Must not, 96 N Nearly, 116 Negatives: adverbs (seldom, never), be ϩ not, be ϩ not ϩ going to, 29 past progressive (was/were not), 22 present perfect (has/have not), 42 present progressive (am/is/are not), should ϩ not (shouldn’t), 94 simple past (did not), 15 simple present (does/do not), 4, 12 will ϩ not (won’t), 31 (SEE ALSO Contractions of verbs) Neither, 108 Non-action (nonprogressive) verbs (know, want, belong), 12 Noncount nouns (furniture, mail), 145–146, 148–149 used as count nouns (paper vs a paper), 148 units of measure with (two cups of tea), 149 Not (SEE Negatives) Not as as, 122 Noun clauses, 181–192 with if/whether, 185, 191 with question words (what he said), 182 reported speech, sequence of tenses, 190 with that (I think that ), 186 Nouns, defined, 73 used as adjectives (a flower garden), 80 count/noncount (chairs/furniture), 143–153 plural forms, 8, 75, 79 possessive (Tom’s), 83 as subjects and objects, 77 O Object pronouns, personal (him, them), 82 in adjective clauses (whom I met), 156–157 Objects: of a preposition (on the desk), 77 of a verb (is reading a book), 75 On, as preposition of time (on Monday), 78 One of ϩ plural noun, 124 Or, 105 Other, 85–86 Ought to, 88, 94 P Parallel structure with and, but, or, 104–105 with verbs (walks and talks, is walking and talking), 38 Particles, in phrasal verbs (put away), 194 Participial adjectives (interested vs interesting), 139 Partitives (SEE Units of measure) Passive (It was mailed by Bob), 131 by-phrase, use of, 131, 134 modal auxiliaries (should be mailed), 136 stative (is married), 137 summary of forms, 131, 136 Past habit (I used to live in ), 26 Past participles, 19, 42 as adjectives (be tired, be surprised), 137 following get (get tired), 140 vs -ing (interested vs interesting), 139 of irregular verbs, 20 in passive, 131 Past perfect (had left), 53 Past progressive (was eating), 22 Past time, 14–27 (SEE ALSO Tenses) Period, 104 Personal pronouns (she, him, they), 82 Phrasal verbs, 194 intransitive, 196 list, 197 nonseparable, 194 separable, 194 three-word, 197 Plural nouns, 8, 75 (SEE ALSO Singular and plural) Polite questions, using modals (May I? Would you?), 93–94 Possessive: in adjective clauses (whose), 162 nouns (Tom’s), 83 pronouns and adjectives (mine, my), 84 Prefer, 100 Prepositional phrases (on the desk), 77 Prepositions (at, from, under), defined, 73 combinations with verbs and adjectives, 198, 201 followed by gerunds, 171 objects of, 77 of place, 77 vs time, word order, place, 79 as particle in phrasal verbs (put off), 194 placement in adjective clauses, 160 in stative passive (be married to), 137 of time (in, on, at), 78 Present participle (eating), 19 as adjective (interesting), 139 vs gerund, 166 INDEX 203 index_ph/prs_AZAR_39601 11/6/02 1:34 PM Present perfect (have eaten), 41–55 Present time, 1–13 (SEE ALSO Tenses) Principal parts of a verb (eat, ate, eaten, eating), 19 Probably, 32 Progressive verbs (be ϩ -ing), 19 vs non-action (I am thinking vs I think), 12 in passive (is being done), 136 past (was doing), 22, 136 present (is doing), 4, 36, 48, 136 present perfect (has been doing), 48–49 Pronouns, defined, 73 in adjective clauses (who, which), 156–158 contractions with (SEE Contractions) used as expressions of quantity (many, some), 147, 150 personal (I, them), 82 possessive (mine, theirs), 84 reflexive (myself, themselves), 84 Pronunciation: -ed, 17 -s/-es, 74 Punctuation: apostrophe (Tom’s), 83 (SEE ALSO Contractions) comma: in adverb clauses, 25, 109 vs a period, 104 in quoted speech, 188 in a series with and, 104 period, 104 quotation marks, 188 Purpose (in order to, for), 176 Q Quantity, expressions of (a lot, several), 147 Question forms, 58 past progressive (were you doing?), 22 present perfect (have you done?), 42 present perfect progressive (have they been driving?), 48 present progressive (are you doing?), simple past (did you do?), 15 simple present (do you do?), with will (will you do?), 31 Questions, 56–71 information (why, when), 58 polite (would you please?), 93–94 tag (You know Bob, don’t you?), 71 yes/no, 12, 57–58 Question words, 58, 61 (SEE ALSO Noun clauses; individual items) Quite, 116 Quotation marks, 188 Quoted speech, 188–189 R Reflexive pronouns (myself), 84 Relative clauses (SEE Adjective clauses) Reported speech, 189–190 S -S/-es: with plural nouns (birds), 8, 75, 145 pronunciation, 74 with simple present verbs (eat), spelling, Same, similar, different, like, alike, 127 Say vs tell, 191 Sequence of tenses, in noun clauses, 190 Several, 147 Shall, 29 Short answers to questions, 12, 15, 42, 57 Should, 88, 94 Simple form of a verb, 19 204 INDEX Page 204 Simple past, 15 vs past progressive, 22 vs present perfect, 44 Simple present, 4, 12 to express future time, 37 in future time clauses, 34 Since and for, 43–44, 47–48 Singular and plural: nouns (a bird, birds), 75, 145 nouns used as adjectives (flower garden), 80 personal pronouns (I, we), 82 possessive nouns (student’s, students’), 84 present tense verbs (eat), 4, verbs in adjective clauses (man who is, men who are), 160 So: with and (and so I), 108 conjunction (It was late, so we left), 106 substitute for that-clause (I think so), 188 Some, 143, 150 So/too/either/neither, 108 Spelling: -ed, 18 -er/-est, 117 -ing, 18 -s/-es, 9, 75 Stative (non-action) verbs, 12 Stative passive (is married), 137 Still, 50 Subject pronouns, personal (I, she, they), 82 in adjective clauses (a man who is, a book which was), 156 Subjects, verbs, objects, 75 transitive vs intransitive verbs, 133 Subject–verb agreement, 79 in adjective clauses, 160 Superlatives, 117–118, 124 Supposed to, 142 S-V-O-P-T (word order), 79 T Tag questions (You know Bob, don’t you?), 71 Take, with it to express length of time, 66 Tell vs say, ask, 191 Tenses: past perfect (had worked), 53 past progressive (were working), 22 present perfect (have worked), 42–44, 47 present perfect progressive (have been working), 48–49 present progressive (is working), future meaning, 36 simple future (will work), 29 simple past (worked), 15, 19, 22, 44 simple present (works), future meaning, 34, 37 Than: in comparatives (more/-er), 117, 120, 122 following like better, would rather, 100 That: in adjective clauses (a book that I read), 157–158, 160 in noun clauses (He said that ), 186 The, 117, 150 with names, 152 Their, they’re, there, 84 There ϩ be, 79 Think, progressive vs non-action, 12 Three-word verbs, 197 (SEE ALSO Phrasal verbs) Time clauses: form, 25 future, 34 past, 25 with since, 47 To from, to express distance, 66 To ϩ simple form (infinitive), 167–168 (in order) to, 176 Too (excess amount), 177 with and (and I too), 108 Transitive and intransitive verbs, 133 Two-word verbs, 194 (SEE ALSO Phrasal verbs) U Units of measure (a cup of, a piece of), 149 Until, 25, 34 Used to (past habit), 26 vs be used to, 141 V Verbs: ϩ gerunds, 166, 168 ϩ infinitives, 168 non-action vs progressive, 12 reporting, 190–191 vs subjects and objects, 75, 133 transitive/intransitive, 133 (SEE ALSO Auxiliaries; Modal auxiliaries; Passive; Phrasal verbs; Tenses; individual items) Very, 121 W Was, were, 15, 22 ϩ -ing (was eating), 22 What, 60 in noun clauses, 182–183 what about, 70 what ϩ a form of do, 63 what kind of, 63 what time vs when, 59 When: in questions, 59 in time clauses, 22, 25, 34 Where, 59 Whether, 185, 191 Which: in adjective clauses, 158 in noun clauses, 182 in questions, 64 While, 22, 25, 34 Who/who(m): in adjective clauses, 156–158, 160 in noun clauses, 183 in questions, 58, 60 who’s vs whose, 64, 162 Whose: in adjective clauses, 162 in noun clauses, 183 in questions, 64 Why, 59 Why don’t, 99 Will, 89 vs be going to, 33 forms, 31 future, 29 in polite questions, 94 with probably, 32 With vs by, 172 Word order (S-V-O-P-T), 79 Would, 100 contractions with pronouns, 100 in polite questions, 94 in reported speech, 190 Would rather, 100 Y Yes/no questions, 12, 57–58 Yet, 50 ... Introduction General Aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar The principal aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar are to present clear, cogent information about English grammar and usage, to provide... the rationale and general aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar • the classroom techniques for presenting charts and using exercises • suggestions on the use of the Workbook in connection with... General Aims of Fundamentals of English Grammar ix Classroom Techniques ix Suggestions for Presenting the Grammar Charts