Advancing women leaders in academecreating a culture of inclusion

256 Chapter 12 Advancing Women Leaders in Academe: Creating a Culture of Inclusion Cynthia Roberts Indiana University Northwest, USA ABSTRACT Much has been written about the dearth of women in leadership positions within the academy both in the United States as well as abroad, however, the percentage of women in key roles continues to remain stagnant This chapter reviews the forces at play that promote and/or hinder the advancement of women into leadership roles Several barriers to progression have been identified in the literature ranging from implicit bias, individual preference, and struggles with work life balance to organizational issues such lack of adequate role models and a culture structured around masculine archetypes Although much is written about programming aimed at the individual or micro level, the larger context of organizational culture must be addressed in order to effect real change The author suggests that creating a culture of inclusion can facilitate advancement and equity and reviews aspects of the organization that can be utilized as levers for change INTRODUCTION There are numerous accounts in the literature which have spoken to the dearth of women in leadership positions in institutions of higher education A recent study of the American Council of Education (2012), notes that although women earn a majority of post- secondary degrees in the states, they occupy just 26 percent of all college presidencies Morley’s (2013) compilation of data shows similar findings for senior leadership of educational institutions in the United Kingdom and European Union Although women outnumber men at the undergraduate level, the percentage of women declines as one progresses up the academic ranks and organizational hierarchy Other statistics corroborate this phenomenon (Grove, 2013) and indicate that females outnumber males at the undergraduate level, comprising 60% of that population, and make up 50% of early career academics By the professorial level, the percentage of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0672-0.ch012 Copyright © 2017, IGI Global Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe women has dwindled to 19% In the UK, female vice-chancellors hold 14% of the positions The rate of advancement to date has also appeared to stall as well (Madsen, 2012; Harris & Leberman, 2012), although recent news indicates that is may be increasing incrementally (Elms, 2015) Morley and Crossouard (2015) in their extensive review of practices in South Asia which encompassed Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, suggest that the percentages of women in leadership are even lower In most cases, with the exception of Sri Lanka, disaggregated data related to gender was not available Similar findings from Ghana, Kenya, and Nigeria have also been noted This chapter examines the forces at play that help or hinder women’s advancement through the higher education hierarchy, reviews current initiatives designed to assist this process and makes the case for developing a culture of inclusion BACKGROUND Contemporary Leadership and the Feminine Advantage Within higher education, the need for effective leadership has never been greater It is even more important than other entities, when one considers the significant role that these institutions play in society and the economy (Jarboe, 2013) Although historically run according to a masculine hierarchal archetype, there are multiple challenges facing higher education today that will necessitate a different kind of leadership in order for an organization to remain viable (Hanna, 2003) such as: technological advances which require less of the physical “ivory tower” and more of an easily accessible network; interdisciplinary collaboration between faculty in order to help learners resolve the complexity of real world issues; promotion of entrepreneurial ventures; connection to lifelong learning; technologically competent faculty; student centric operations; strategic thinking and the development of developing strategic alliances with others; measuring program quality; and transforming institutional bureaucracy Hanna (2003) also notes, “the industrial modern system of education will move to a post-modern perspective in which taking advantage of context, collaborating, and constructing knowledge will be valued skills” (p 32) In addition, there is a growing awareness that the governance of higher education should reflect the diversity present in the staff, faculty, students and public that invests in them (Jarboe, 2013) Leadership has been studied for centuries, and historically, it has been construed as primarily a masculine enterprise Effectiveness has been defined in terms of masculine traits such as drive, achievement, self-confidence, influence, and authority (Eagly & Carli, 2003; Madsen & Hammond, 2005) The professoriate in particular, is still a highly gendered, hierarchal occupation (Maranto & Griffin, 2011) Bryman (2007) suggests that competencies needed for leadership effectiveness in the contemporary higher education enterprise include strategic visioning, setting direction, and facilitating movement in that direction It is accomplished by being considerate, treating others fairly, being trustworthy and having integrity, encouraging open communication and participation in decision making, acting as a role model, communicating status of the unit, creating positive and collegial work environments, advancing the department’s cause and reputation, promoting faculty development, and providing feedback on performance More recent literature, has suggested that a more feminine enactment of leadership, characterized as inclusive, egalitarian, participative, and flexible may be just what is needed for the academic organization of today (Hanna, 2003; Isaac, Griffin, & Carnes, 2010; Madsen & Hammond, 2005; Eagly, 2007) 257  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe Rosener (1990) suggests that women practice “interactive leadership,” a process which facilitates inclusion and participation, shares power and knowledge, enhances the self-worth of others, and energizes and motivates Women leaders tend to focus on the ecology of leadership rather than the position itself and share information in a more networked rather than hierarchal pattern In contrast to masculine views of leadership at the top, female leaders actually see themselves in the center (Adler, 1999; Helgeson, 1995) Women leaders appear to have more transformational characteristics than their male counterparts, which can result in higher levels of group, individual and organizational effectiveness (Bass & Avolio, 1994) The feminine advantage was recently corroborated by an extensive study by the McKinsey Company (Desvaux, Devillard-Hoellinger, & Baumgarten, 2007) which included 231 public, private and non-profit organizations with 115,000 employees The data demonstrated a positive correlation between the percentage of women on boards and in upper management positions with greater operational and financial performance In a second study, researchers specifically examined the differences in styles between male and female leaders and correlated the results with organizational performance (Desvaux & Devillard, 2008) The women, on average, exhibited five of nine leadership behaviors more frequently than men These included: people development, outlining and clarifying expectations and rewards, role modeling, inspiration, and participative decision making Men on the other hand were shown to exhibit more often than women, two of the nine behaviors that correlated with organizational performance: individualistic decision making and control and corrective action Women and men were rated equally in intellectual stimulation and efficient communication Diverse leadership has also been shown improve innovative problem solving (Jarboe, 2013) If the future of higher education calls for a more collaborative approach, and it appears that women leaders may be a positive force for improved organizational performance, why then, the underrepresentation? The following section discusses some of the factors that contribute to the issue Barriers to Advancement Although the research findings point to the need for more female representation among the ranks of leadership, percentages of women in the upper level leadership positions remain disappointingly low Several barriers to progression have been identified in the literature ranging from implicit bias, individual preference, and struggles with work life balance to organizational issues such lack of adequate role models and culture which is structured around masculine archetypes Each of the barriers are discussed below • 258 Stereotyping and Role Congruity: Stereotyping is still very present in contemporary organizational contexts A large body of research confirms the bias in assumption that men are more competent leaders than women Historically, masculine or “agentic” characteristics such as individualism, control, assertiveness and domination have been associated with effective leadership, while women were considered to embody “communal” traits such as nurturing, sympathetic, kindness (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Schein, 1973) Women are perceived as nice, supportive, consultative “caretakers” while men typically are perceived as influencing, delegating “problem solvers” (Eagly, 2007; Prime & Carter, 2005) Women may have even more difficulty gaining credibility when very feminine approaches are used in cultures in which traditions and expectations of leadership are associated with very masculine archetypes such as found within the academy In more male dominated and patriarchal societies, the challenge that women have in assuming positions of power are even greater (Morley & Crossouard, 2015)  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe Collaborative styles as well as the absence of a marked ambition for power can be perceived as weak and therefore, not suitable (Tomàs, Lavie, Duran, & Guillamon, 2010) At the same time, more masculine approaches that may be enacted by woman leaders are perceived as being too “harsh” (Tomàs et al., 2010; Eagly, 2005; Ridgeway, 2001; Morley, 2013; Rhode, 2003) This creates a bit of a dilemma - the stereotype firmly embedded as feminine appears to be in conflict with the construction of leadership as masculine Even though one cognitively understands the advantage for more collaborative approaches, it is still interpreted through a subconscious filter constructed along traditional gender associations (Roberts, 2008) The most effective enactment of leadership, however, is a combination of both agentic and communal behavior (Christman & McClellan, 2008; Isaac, Griffin, & Carnes, 2010) • Career Progression and Life Choices: The lack of participation of women at the uppermost levels of academia has its roots in the promotion and tenure system As one reviews the gender makeup at each rank, it becomes apparent that the representation of women decreases The most recent statistics (Grove, 2013) indicate that females outnumber males at the undergraduate level, comprising 60% of that population They make up 50% of early career academics At the professorial level, the percentage of women has dwindled to 19% In the UK, female vice-chancellors hold 14% of the positions In the South Asia study (Morley & Crossouard, 2015), the percentage of female executives in countries where data was available, failed to reach even 10% Some of the reason for the discrepancy may lie in the career choices of men and women In many cases, the career paths differ significantly Men’s careers tend to be more linear with less disruption (Quinlan, 1999) Women’s career paths are typically non-linear and have been described by various authors as labyrinthic (Eagly & Carli, 2007), snakelike (Hertneky, 2012), or kaleidoscopic (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005) Many times, a woman may have had a non-traditional career path or may have been involved within the community, but this has not been recognized by the academy (Murray, Tremaine, & Fountaine, 2012; Chesterman, Ross-Smith, & Peters, 2003) Although she may have achieved national or international status in her field, or developed a program or center within in her own organization even without support, if she does not have a formal title, she is not recognized for the achievement (Dominici, Fried, & Zeger, 2009) Men also tend to be more mobile (women less so) which allows them to relocate more freely to an advanced position Women also tend to start their academic career later, sometimes after childbearing (Chesterman et al., 2003) Women are also less likely to apply for promotion, many choosing to take opportunities for the purpose of learning rather than a strategy for advancement (Hertneky, 2012), or choosing shorter career paths with less opportunity for progression (Kanter, 1993) In addition to issues related to balancing the competing demands of the academy and one’s family which have been welldocumented, Wasburn (2007) suggests that women within the academy may be spending a disproportionate amount of time in “care-giving” activities and being “good citizens” on campus - performing duties such as service on committees, advising and teaching All of these activities, while necessary for carrying out the mission and business of the institution, are less valued in the promotion process and compete for time necessary to establish and maintain a research agenda In addition, women professors may deal with higher expectations from students on evaluations (Bachen, et al., 1999; Basow, 2000, 1995; Bennett, 1982), ultimately impacting promotability and career advancement 259  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe • Organizational Culture: The culture within the academy continues to be androcentric and patriarchal in which the predominant leadership style is heroic, transactional and paternalistic (Stalker, 1994; Grove, 2013) Organizational climate has been shown to be a significant factor in the satisfaction and ultimate retention of female faculty (August & Waltman, 2004) The professoriate is still a highly gendered occupation and noted to foster a “chilly climate” as evidenced by the overlap of the tenure clock with child-bearing years, practices of informal exclusion of women and women’s issues from decision-making bodies, devaluation, and marginalization (Chesterman et al., 2003; Maranto & Griffin, 2011) Tomas and colleagues (2010) assert that the entire academy has been structured along gendered lines which implicitly value male oriented traits such as efficiency, competitiveness, elitism, self-reliance, and independence This can inhibit a woman’s desire to advance because of the difference in her perception of effectiveness when filtered through those standards Researchers at Johns Hopkins University, while investigating a problem with high turnover of female faculty, found that women left the organization because of the culture which promoted leadership as male-dominated, competitive, and hierarchal The prevailing competitive culture was seen as antithetical to an altruistic academic mission Women tend to have more concern for developing a positive atmosphere, promoting the well-being of people, and fostering a commitment to teamwork rather than moving up the hierarchy to gain a title, position, or power The authors suggest that women can reconcile the dissonance through rationalization that it is necessary for developing capacity or potential, rather than using it for personal gain or advancement Language shifts from “power over” to “power for” or “power with” (p 497) Ideally, leadership should be enacted in a manner that is transformational, fosters collaboration and mutual support, and engages in collective visioning and shared leadership (Dominici et al., 2009) An additional element of organizational culture which can be considered a barrier to career progression is the lack of encouragement or support for advancement (Murray et al., 2012) Because individuals have a natural affinity to work with those with similar backgrounds or interests, it is easy for women to become excluded from predominantly male groups resulting in less access to supportive networks and ultimately, marginalization (Dominici et al., 2009) In some cases, women themselves in leadership positions or “queen bees” have made it difficult for others to progress to their ranks (Staines, Tavris, & Jayaratne, 1974) This phenomenon has been attributed to the degree of gender bias they may have suffered during their own career advancement (Derks, Ellemers, van Laar, & De Groot, 2011) As financial constraints increase, many administrative offices are understaffed and underfunded, resulting in the requirement for one to be available 24/7 as well as assume a wide variety of duties In this “greedy culture,” movement upward becomes less attractive and can only be supported when women have few other competing demands or have adequate domestic support (Murray et al., 2012; Dominici et al., 2009; Morley, 2013) Other organizational practices have been found to impede a woman’s advancement such as short tenure clocks, gender-biased performance evaluations, gender-biased evaluations from students, retention offers that reward mobility, hidden workloads, and hostility towards pregnancies and families (Marschke, Laursen, Nielsen, & Rankin, 2007) Efforts to Support Advancement The underrepresentation of women in the upper echelons of leadership has not been ignored Several initiatives have been developed to help ameliorate the problem such as mentoring and developmental programming Each are reviewed below 260  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe • Mentoring: In her review of the literature, Tolar (2012) notes that mentoring is extremely important in a woman’s advancement in higher education and its absence can be considered detrimental In her study of the experiences of high-achieving women, mentoring helped to provide opportunities, remove obstacles, explore and clarify career options, and serve as a sounding board Gibson (2004) suggests that an organizational culture which supports mentoring is an important factor in a woman’s advancement In Brown’s study of 91 female college presidents (2005), most indicated that they had been mentored either directly or indirectly by one of more individuals Only 21% indicated that they did not have a mentor It was rare for a woman to pursue a mentor herself In most cases, they were sought out by someone within the organization and encouraged to pursue a leadership position or pursue professional development towards that end Although there are a variety of definitions of mentoring, there are many common attributes Most include the development of a unique relationship or learning partnership between two individuals for the purpose of knowledge acquisition, a process that provides support that is either psychosocial or careerrelated, and a level of reciprocity which is not necessarily symmetrical (Eby, Rhodes, & Allen, 2010) The relationship may be either lateral or hierarchal (Stalker, 1994), or include a network of relationships designed to share knowledge, provide support and build confidence (Wasburn, 2007) Other varieties of mentoring range from formally-arranged partnerships, to collegial support groups, writing groups and/or journal clubs, and relationships can extend from one’s immediate department to the campus community or beyond In many cases professional colleagues within a national or international context can be of assistance (Quinlan, 1999; Maack & Passet, 1993) In examining the literature from industry, mentoring has been shown to be generally positive for both the mentee and mentor (Ehrich, Hansford, & Tennent, 2004) For the mentee, the process resulted in higher earnings, greater satisfaction with work, psychosocial support, and improved productivity The mentor also benefited by gaining personal fulfillment as well as assistance with key projects From an organizational perspective, mentoring positively affects retention, diversity and talent development (Eby et al., 2010) In an academic setting, mentoring has been shown to be beneficial by contributing to the knowledge of the mentee as well as being instrumental in helping her navigate organizational politics, culture, norms, values, history, pathways for advancement, and potential barriers It can also assist in the establishment of a successful career in academe through the development of the necessary skills in writing, logical thinking, and research skills (Stalker, 1994; Gibson, 2004) The process provides psychosocial support and encouragement; helps one build self-confidence, adapt to university culture and develop self-awareness; clarifies professional identity; and raises one’s visibility with the organization (Quinlan, 1999; August & Waltman, 2004; Tolar, 2012) Benefits for the mentor include additional learning, development of self-knowledge, raised visibility, revitalization of professional commitment, personal regeneration and satisfaction with sharing knowledge and advice (Gibson, 2004; Hertneky, 2012; Quinlan, 1999; Stalker, 1994) A recurring theme within the mentoring literature is the notion that in many cases, a woman will not pursue advancement on her own It is the recognition of one’s potential from another through mentoring or other connection that plants the seed of possibility (Murray et al., 2012; Hertneky, 2012) This may suggest that without a mentoring relationship to open doors, a woman may have limited access and visibility within the system to advance (Brown, 2005) 261  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe Mentoring is not without its challenges, however Issues can arise based on availability and time constraints, dysfunctional relationships, personality mismatches, conflicting messages, or a lack of clarity about the purpose On occasion, the mentoring relationship can cause resentment in the mentor if the mentee outpaces her (Ehrich et al., 2004; Tolar, 2012) Because the proportion of women leaders is low to begin with, there may be a lack of enough female mentors Since mentors are more likely to work with those most like themselves, it may be difficult for women in male-dominated organizations to find a suitable mentor Cross-gender mentoring can encounter problems with sexual politics or a misunderstanding of career-life-balance issues In addition, a man may have more difficulty advocating for a woman inside the organization (Quinlan, 1999) • Leadership Development Programs: Additional strategies for supporting the advancement of women involve the provision of programming specifically designed to develop leadership capacity Several accounts in the literature highlight programs of local, national and international scope all developed to assist women in this process Benefits reported by the participants include gaining knowledge about leadership, developing specific skills, increasing self-confidence and self-efficacy, and developing a network of support (Harris & Leberman, 2012; Hornsby, MorrowJones, & Ballam, 2012) One such program is offered by the American Council on Education, through its Office of Women in Higher Education Its aim is to support the development of networking groups as a mechanism to provide professional development Workshops as part of this process have been shown to increase skills and knowledge related to leadership and career advancement Outcomes include increased knowledge about effective leadership, realities of executive positions in higher education, realization of one’s potential, development and clarification of career goals, connection with a mentor and preparation for the search process (Baltodano, Carlson, Jackson, & Mitchell, 2012) The Higher Education Resource Services, (HERS program), was another program that began in 1972 as a way to advance women in higher education administration Over time, it has undergone significant changes in programming related to format, content and methodology and many women have found that the experience has led to an advanced position Unfortunately, the overall percentage of women in administrative positions has not increased commensurate with the effort Research performed as recently as 2006 uncovered issues that have persisted in the literature as described earlier in this paper: gender-based biases which have appeared to grow rather than diminish as well as struggles with juggling competing demands from work and family (White, 2012) Although programs such as these are necessary and beneficial for the individual, the long term impact of increasing the proportion of women in advanced positions remains unclear (Madsen, Longman, & Daniels, 2012) It is clear however, that it is not sufficient (Morley, 2013) Other institutions have opted to create internally developed programs for women and outcomes again include skill development, development of self-confidence, clarification of career goals (including making the decision to opt out of an administrative career track) as well as the development of a support network (Hornsby et al., 2012) If the process is grounded within the organizational context, and participants are able to immerse themselves in a collaborative learning process, the development of a critical mass of alumni may be able to effect culture change over time within that organization (Harris & Leberman, 2012) 262  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe RECOMMENDATIONS Creating a Culture or Inclusion: An Organizational Change Perspective Although mentoring and professional development programs are useful, as standalone initiatives, they will little to resolve the disparity in any significant manner (Harris & Leberman, 2012) If a significant change in the percentage of women in leadership positions is desired, more far reaching organizational measures must be implemented, including changing the culture of the academy The most important predictors of women’s progression are organizational practices, policies, and procedures that support gender equity Cultural elements such as low power distance, high humane orientation and high performance orientation will also promote equity (Bajdo & Dickson, 2001) One of the primary factors resulting in a “chilly climate” for women is the perception of exclusion from informal networks (Maranto & Griffin, 2011) This is particularly significant in a profession in which informal collaboration and mentoring is directly instrumental to the primary measure of success: publication If exclusion lowers research productivity, fewer women will advance A second factor important in the perception of inclusiveness is the perception of procedural fairness and voice in departmental procedures and decision-making (Dominici et al., 2009) Other organizational factors that can hinder advancement include a lack of clarity regarding expectations for those wishing to advance as well as negative attitude towards family and childbearing (Airini, Connor, McPherson, Midson, & Wilson, 2011) Women and other minorities are more or less expected to conform to the dominant culture which can become problematic In addition to the stress of establishing a career in academics, members of these groups also carry the stress of trying to fit in, dealing with interpersonal conflicts, and having unique experiences that are not valued by the dominant culture It just becomes too great to continue (Pless & Maak, 2004) Creation of a culture of inclusion or mainstreaming diversity, rather than merely establishing a program or two will prove to be a more effective way to retain and advance women (Tickle, 2013) It means that the focus transcends providing leadership programs and/or mentors designed to “fix” a certain demographic, to fostering an environment that allows people from multiple backgrounds, worldviews and perspectives to work effectively together Principles include recognition and reciprocal understanding, trust, integrity (moral reliability and coherence), and acceptance of differing viewpoints From an interpersonal perspective, the promotion of collegial relationships can be accomplished via collaboration on research, mentoring, provision of encouragement to advance, and the extension of positive gestures of support upon advancement (Airini et al., 2011; Gibson, 2004) The benefits of creating an inclusive culture extend beyond merely changing the demographic balance It has been suggested that creating a culture of inclusiveness impacts the organization as whole through outcomes such as increased high quality relationships, job satisfaction, intention to stay, organizational citizenship and commitment, well-being, and creativity (Shore et al., 2011) The need to address the problem from a larger organizational perspective has also been recognized by the American Council on Education A new initiative called “Moving the Needle,” launched in early 2016, aims to not only raise awareness but offer strategies for improving organizational processes as well as recognizing effective programming in various organizations (2016) Organizational culture change, however, is a slow and complex process if it is to be sustained Efforts need to be comprehensive in order to encourage reflection around current ways of thinking and behaving, raise awareness, create understanding, elucidate a vision of inclusion, rethink key management concepts and principles, and adapt and align human resource systems and processes (Pless & Maack, 2004; Bajdo 263  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe & Dickson, 2001) Change agents must dig to the “roots” of the culture to understand the prevailing philosophy and values before attempts to modify it are effective Leadership, vision, structure, culture, management practices, policies and procedures all serve as levers for successful organizational change (Waclawski, 2002; Burke, 2013) Clearly if there is a lack of alignment between these elements, it will be difficult to effect and sustain change over time In order to create a culture of inclusion, initiatives and actions must start at the top and disseminate throughout all levels of the organization Merely waiting to change percentages by replacement through attrition will take too long (Marschke et al., 2007) It is estimated that at the current trajectory using attrition alone, it will take at least 70 years to obtain equitable representation (Grove, 2013) Academic leadership must develop an intentional process that systematically addresses each element over time Leaders can begin to foster a culture of inclusion by using the levers of change starting with mission, vision and values of the institution, then moving to culture, leadership, and structure as discussed below • • 264 Vision and Values: A clearly defined vision can provide the starting point for developing a culture of inclusion It will serve as the framework for common understanding as well as point to the direction in which the organization is moving All stakeholders should take part in the development of the vision to ensure all voices are heard and relevant concerns addressed An inclusive process will engender trust, credibility and legitimacy within the academy while it reduces resistance Elements of the vision and values statements should include a creating a work environment free of harassment that respects all individuals regardless of gender, race, class, social or cultural origin, sexual orientation, religion, disability, lifestyle, rank or level; a culture of communication which integrates differing perspectives in decision making, appreciates different ideas and viewpoints, and values contrary opinions; and an opportunity for each employee to achieve her fullest potential Once the vision has been disseminated, it is imperative the leaders share, model and support the new ways of being (Pless & Maak, 2004) Culture: According to Schein (1992), organizational cultures operate at three levels: the artifacts readily observed within an organization, the values espoused by its members, and the underlying assumptions which motivate behavior The most tangible expression of the culture and values of an organization, are the visual artifacts which include symbols (art, sculptures, etc.), rituals, public exchanges and the physical infrastructure that it creates for itself Typically, one can uncover the espoused values, principles, and standards of operation if one looks very carefully at vision and values statements as well as existing policies and procedures At the deepest level, underlying assumptions, beliefs and values are more difficult to determine and may go largely unnoticed by an organization’s members because they are operating from habits and beliefs that are taken for granted They underpin behavior that emanates from the phrase “this is the way things are done here.” In order to effect cultural change, one must assess the current state of the culture typically accomplished via regular surveys of all types and levels of faculty It is important to identify underlying assumptions and to make those assumptions explicit so that all stakeholders can collaboratively develop strategies for improvement (Sturm, 2006) Utilizing vision and value statements which make explicit the elements of inclusion can provide the framework needed to move the organization forward A process such as action learning which involves an experiential collaborative learning and inquiry process can be effective in facilitating dialogue and collective problem solving as well as fostering a willingness to adopt needed changes (Pedler, 2011; Roberts, 2013)  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe • Leadership: Top leadership must support and demonstrate commitment to the process verbally, symbolically and behaviorally Policies must be established that foster inclusiveness and recognize and reward inclusive behavior Top leadership should be held accountable for turnover and advancement rates for women (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005) Diversity efforts should be reviewed annually by the governing board and senior leadership team for effectiveness and revised as necessary (Lennon, 2013) Jarboe’s study (2013) revealed that the number of women on governing boards positively impacted the number of women in leadership positions, and in United Kingdom, several guidelines have been put into place that require governing boards to report their diversity composition as a mechanism to improve accountability In addition, disseminated leadership in the form of task forces and/or steering committees can be charged with developing policies and procedures that are supportive of inclusion Such groups can serve as advocates of inclusion, monitor processes to ensure all are included, and keep gender inclusion issues on relevant agenda and in conversations Informal leaders can also serve as role models, potential researchers and collaborators on inclusion issues (Sturm, 2006) • Organizational Structure and Processes: Although vision, values, leadership and culture are all important levers for change, one must also consider revising or setting policies and procedures in place to recognize and reinforce new behaviors and processes Several key areas in the human resource arena such as recruitment, selection, development, advancement, and compensation, need to be aligned to promote inclusion Recruitment and selection In order to expand the pool of female candidates for positions within the academy, current policies, qualifications and job descriptions should be examined and amended to consider a wider variety of criteria that may include non-traditional experiences or a history of inclusive practices In addition, it is essential to educate members of search committees on implicit bias prior to engagement in the search process in order to create awareness of their own biases Training can be augmented with handbooks, brochures, and other guidelines to ensure the process is fair and legal (Laurson & Austin, 2014b) Hiring targets should be established and if women continue to remain in the minority in the applicant pool it may be necessary to extend outreach to specific women’s professional organizations If search firms are utilized, they should have a reputation for providing diverse pools of candidates (Lennon, 2013) In some instances, incentives were developed to encourage the recruitment and selection of women candidates At Kansas State, the REAP program, Recruiting to Expand the Applicant Pool, funded recruiting trips for senior faculty to travel to meetings likely to have large numbers of potential women candidates A ‘2-for-1’ hiring practice was developed by the University of Montana Missoula whereby a committee could request to hire two candidates rather than one if both candidates would enhance the department’s diversity At the University of California Irvine, an equity officer with approval authority was assigned to each search to ensure best practices were followed in the recruitment and selection process (Laurson & Austin, 2014b) Career development Although recruitment and selection practices normally come to mind when thinking about inclusive practice, one must also consider practices associated with ensuring equity in compensation and startup packages in order to minimize differences that may occur in gendered negotiation tactics It is also advisable to alert candidates to developmental opportunities such as grants and 265  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe mentoring programs (Laurson & Austin, 2014b) Since many women not follow a contiguous linear career trajectory, it may be necessary to build “on ramps” as well as “off-ramps” to academia so that career interruptions may be possible and individuals are able to return after opting out for a time (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005; Marschke et al., 2007) It may also be advisable to expand family friendly options such as flexible time, part time options, and accessibility of day care (Marschke et al., 2007) The use of technology can facilitate flexibility in where and when work gets done (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005) Promotion and tenure In order to ensure promotion policies are equitable, the requirements should be clear and processes transparent (Murray et al., 2012) Leadership may want to consider expanding the scope of acceptable productivity beyond publication to include significant service or other ways of contribution (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005) In addition, extension and/or suspension of tenure clocks for child care or elder care should be considered (Marschke et al., 2007) Training and development Not only is it important to provide education related to career progression and leadership development to junior faculty, but all members of the academy should be educated on the value of teamwork, collegiality, diversity and inclusion Interactive training for all members of the academy that uncovers hidden bias and the effects it can have on hiring decisions as well as recommendation letters and promotion and tenure decisions has been shown to have a positive effect Having some mechanism such as climate surveys to track program impact can also help make the argument for including such interventions (Laursen & Austin, 2014b) In addition, since mentoring programs have been shown to be an effective mechanism for development, providing formal structure as well as training to potential mentors to support the process is desirable In many cases, it is unlikely for faculty themselves to develop such an endeavor Organizational leaders should consider developing a process that would fit within their own context (Johnson, 2006) Leadership development programs Traditionally, women’s leadership programs have been designed to include women only Madsen, Longman, and Daniels (2012) offer an extensive list of programming available internationally, nationally, regionally or locally as embedded within a particular institution It may be more effective however, to include both men and women in the process and promote contemporary notions of leadership that include collaboration and mutual support Current leadership development practice suggests that future leaders develop individual competency in addition to collective leadership capacity (Day & Harrison, 2007; Van Velsor & McCauley, 2004) Programs utilizing collaborative processes such as action learning can not only build personal capabilities but a network and social capital needed to sustain change over time (Roberts, 2013) Human resource policies Although many organizations have a comprehensive performance management system, it is unclear how many have standards for professional relationships that include collegiality Those individuals who are willing to collaborate, serve as mentors, and advocate for inclusion should be formally recognized (Marschke et al., 2007) Policies regarding tenure, discrimination, leave, harassment, and violence should be readily available and reviewed periodically for currency Sanctions for those who breach policies should also be employed (Marschke et al., 2007) Compensation systems should be reviewed periodically the ensure equity at the outset as well as over time (Pless & Maak, 2004; Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005) In the event that a faculty member does leave, he or she should be afforded the opportunity to provide reasons for doing so through a confidential exit interview Over time, results should be monitored for trends and patterns, so that concerns can be addressed when indicated (Marschke et al., 2007) Funding As with most initiatives, resources will need to be allocated to support various activities and initiatives This may include the provision of release time for faculty with the express purpose of 266  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe addressing gender inclusion issues or funding for initiatives such as research, communication, and various types of developmental programming Several institutions have established grant programs with the express purpose of helping faculty deal with personal issues such as child or elder care (University of Wisconsin), funding travel to establish intercampus mentoring relationships (University of Montana), or supporting research (Laursen & Austin, 2014a) A Global Challenge Although much of what is discussed above is aimed at the organizational level, it may also be beneficial to consider the larger global context Tickle (2013) suggests that gender equality in higher education should be made a global priority, since the lack of representation of women is not limited to any one country As an outcome of a global British Council conference consisting of senior women in academic administration, manifesto for change was developed as a way to transform the system as a whole Elements of the manifesto include changing the university ranking system to consider gender equality as a measure of quality; requiring greater transparency and equality on the part of journal editorial processes; developing a system that gathers data on the number of women in academic leadership positions across the world; monitoring the number and types of research grants awarded; and reiterating the need outlined previously to support additional programming for women as well as to mainstream diversity by developing organizational cultures of inclusion One such report that begins to address an element of the manifesto is Women Count, an index developed to track the representation of women in leadership positions in the United Kingdom (Jarboe, 2013) Since higher education institutions are accustomed to publishing performance data and rankings for the purposes of marketing, this data could serve as an indicator of quality as well as a powerful lever for change over time Women as Change Agents Once in positions of power, women are uniquely positioned to empower others and work within the structure to change it This can be accomplished by serving as a role models and advocates for inclusion, promoting a sense of connectedness, displaying a willingness to collaborate, effectively managing conflict, and promoting trust within the organization (Stalker, 1994; Maddock, 1999) They are uniquely positioned to serve as “tempered radicals” who quietly change the status quo for the betterment of others, without putting themselves in jeopardy (Meyerson, 2001) In an extensive survey of leadership development programming, Madsen and colleagues (2012) found that in many cases, the program was initiated by a provost, president or other female leader on campus As the critical mass of women in positions of significant power grows, a shift in culture towards collegiality, inclusion, tolerance of differences, equity and professional development is more likely to happen (Bell, McLaughlin, & Sequeria, 2002) In this environment, women are more likely to pursue advanced positions (Chesterman et al., 2003) In addition, when the mix is more balanced, the relationships between men and women are better overall, and women are less likely to feel excluded (Maranto & Griffin, 2011) Women in positions of power may even be seen as an indication of positive change, progressiveness, and source of pride which in turn can attract and retain top talent (Bell et al., 2002; Grove, 2013; Isaac, Griffin, & Carnes, 2010) 267  Advancing Women Leaders in Academe CONCLUSION Higher education is in the throes of significant change, and the need for more collaborative forms of leadership will be necessary for sustaining effectiveness and relevance going forward Women have been shown to be particularly effective at promoting collegial environments that foster high performance, however, the number of women in positions of upper administration throughout the world remains disappointingly low There are several explanations for why this is the case, but continuing to accept the status quo may exclude many very capable women from engaging in the transformative leadership needed for the survival of the contemporary institution Mainstreaming diversity by creating a culture of inclusion, 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